475uk GNUT Manual

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C-MAD is a Kenyan based Non-Government Organisation. C-MAD envisages a

world where men and women live dignified and prosperous lives with a mission ofenabling communities in Kenya to improve their livelihoods, live dignified, healthy

and prosperous lives through capacity building, collaboration and service delivery.

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E-mail:[email protected] website: www.cmadkenya.org

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development and an active agent of democracy and peace.

CEFA Comitato Europeo per la Formazione e lAgricoltura Onlus(European Committee for Training and Agriculture)

Via Lame, 118 - 40122 Bologna ItalyTel. 039 051 520285/520068 - Fax:0039 051 520712E-mail:[email protected]:www.cefaonlus.it

Funded by

European Union

Partner

C-MAD

Leading Agency and co-funder

CEFA

Good agronomic practices for

Groundnut in Western Kenya

Good agronomic practices for

Groundnut in Western KenyaTraining manual for Trainers

Design, Layout & Printm e d i a l t d

PROL OGUEPROLOGUE


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Training manual for Trainers

2011

Good agronomic practices or


Good agronomic practices or



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Editor: Daniel Nyambok

Co-editor: John Robins Oyia

Coordination and co-editor: Flavio Braidotti

This work is licensed under a

Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives 2.5 Italy License.To view a copy o this license, visit: http://www.ceaonlus.it/biblioteca/biblioteca.asp


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Table o Contents

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................... 1

1. Introductions ................................. .................................... ................................... ................................... 2

1.1 The groundnut crop .................................. .................................... ................................... .............. 22. Ecological requirements ................................ ................................... .................................... ............... 5

2.1 Climate ............................................................................................................................................... 5

2.2 Soils ..................................................................................................................................................... 5

3. Field establishment ................................ ................................... ................................... ......................... 5

3.1 Land preparation .................................. ................................... .................................... .................. 5

3.2 Line planting/ridges establishment .............................. ................................... ....................... 5

4. Planting ...................................................................................................................................................... 6

4.1 Seed selection ................................................................................................................................. 6

4.2 Seed dressing .................................................................................................................................. 6

4.3 Dormancy ......................................................................................................................................... 6

4.4 Time o planting ................................. .................................... ................................... ..................... 64.5 Sowing ............................................................................................................................................... 7

4.6 Spacing .............................................................................................................................................. 7

4.7 Fertilizer ............................................................................................................................................. 8

4.8 Rotation ............................................................................................................................................. 8

5. Weeding ..................................................................................................................................................... 9

5.1 Timing .............................. ................................... ................................... .................................... ........ 9

5.2 Weeding by hand ........................................................................................................................... 9

5.3 Using chemicals ............................... ................................... .................................... ........................ 9

6. Main Groundnut Diseases ................................................................................................................... 10

6.1 Groundnut rosette disease ........................................................................................................ 10

6.2 Lea spot ................................ ................................... ................................... .................................... .. 10

6.3 Rust .................................. ................................... ................................... ................................... ........... 11

6.4 Groundnut Blight ........................................................................................................................... 12

6.5 Peanut Clump Virus (PCV) ................................................ ................................... ........................ 12

6.6 Peanut Mottle Virus (PMV) ....................................................... ................................... ..................... 12

7. Main Groundnut Pests .......................................................................................................................... 13

7.1 Aphids ................................................................................................................................................ 13

7.2 Groundnut lea miner ................................. .................................... ................................... ........... 13

7.3 Termites ............................................................................................................................................. 14

7.4 Groundnut Hopper .............................. ................................... ................................... ................... 14

7.5 Millipedes ......................................................................................................................................... 147.6 White Grubs ................................. ................................... ................................... .............................. 14

7.7 Nematodes ....................................................................................................................................... 15

7.8 Thrips .................................................................................................................................................. 15

7.9 Caterpillars ........................................................................................................................................ 16

8. Harvesting ................................................................................................................................................. 16

8.1 Timing .............................. ................................... ................................... .................................... ........ 16

8.2 Indicators or harvesting time ................................. ................................... ............................... 17

8.3 Hand liting ................................. ................................... ................................... ............................... 17

8.4 Hand liting with a hoe or ork ................................. ................................... .............................. 17

8.5 Cleaning ............................................................................................................................................ 17

8.6 Drying .............................. ................................... ................................... .................................... ........ 178.6.1 The importance o drying .................................. ................................... ............................... 17

8.6.2 Drying in windrows ................................. ................................... ................................... .......... 18


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8.6.3 Drying on mats ................................. ................................... ................................... ................... 18

8.6.4 Strippingwinnowing ............................................................................................................. 189. Storage ....................................................................................................................................................... 19

9.1 Storage Requirements .............................. ................................... .................................... ............ 19

9.2 How to test moisture content in grain ............................................................ ....................... 199.3 Temperature ..................................................................................................................................... 19

9.4 Storage hygiene ................................ ................................... ................................... ....................... 20

9.5 Quality guard ................................. ................................... ................................... ........................... 20

9.6 Storage methods .................................. ................................... ................................... ................... 20

9.6.1 In bags .......................................................................................................................................... 20

9.6.2 Other methods ............................... ................................... ................................... ..................... 20

9.7 Ways o protecting stored grains ............................... ................................... ........................... 20

9.7.1 Contact treatments or unshelled groundnuts .................................. ........................... 20

9.7.2 Fumigation .................................................................................................................................. 21

9.7.3 Physical and mechanical methods ................................ ................................... .................. 21

10. Shelling .................................................................................................................................................... 2110.1 Hand Shelling .................................. ................................... ................................... ..................... 21

10.2 Mechanical shelling ................................... .................................... ................................... ........ 22

11. Common storage pests ............................... ................................... ................................... ................ 22

11.1 Mites ................................................................................................................................................. 22

11.2 Insects .............................................................................................................................................. 22

11.3 Rodents ........................................................................................................................................... 23

12. Critical microbiological problems in groundnuts ................................... ................................. 23

12.1 Fungi ................................................................................................................................................ 23

12.2 Aatoxins ........................................................................................................................................ 23

12.3 Salmonella ..................................................................................................................................... 24

13. Quality and marketing .................................. ................................... .................................... .............. 2413.1 General characteristics o good quality groundnuts ................................. ..................... 24

14. Utilization o groundnut .............................. .................................... ................................... .............. 25

15. Gross margin analysis........................................... .................................... ................................... ........ 27

Summary .................................. ................................... ................................... ................................... ............ 28

Bibliography ................................... ................................... ................................... ................................... ..... 30

List o Tables

Table 1 Groundnut Varieties ound in South Nyanza (Western Kenya) ................................... 3

Table 2 Gross margin per acre o groundnuts in South Nyanza (Western Kenya) ............... 27

Table 3 General stages o development o groundnut and recommended practices

(or long duration varieties)...................................... ................................... ............................. 28

Table 4 General stages o development o groundnut and recommended practices

(or short duration varieties) .................................................................................................... 29


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List o Figures

Fig 1 Recommended spacing groundnut Runner and Bunch varieties .................................. 7

Fig 2 Application o Fertilizer .................................................................................................................. 8

Fig 3 Groundnut plants inected by rosette disease ....................................................... ............... 10Fig 4 a Early lea spot ......................................................... ................................... ................................... .. 11

Fig 4b Late lea spot ................................ ................................... ................................... ............................ 11

Fig 5 Groundnut plant aected by rusts disease ............................................................ ................ 11

Fig 6 Groundnut plant aected by Blight disease ........................................................ .................. 12

Fig 7 Groundnut plant inested with aphids ................................. ................................... ................ 13

Fig 8 Groundnut lea inested with lea minor .................................. .................................... .......... 13

Fig 9 Termite damaging groundnut eld ................................. ................................... ...................... 14

Fig 10a Enlarged picture o a thrip .............................. .................................... ................................... .. 15

Fig 10b Damage caused by thrips on groundnut leaves ........................................................ ..... 15

Fig 11 Caterpillar and its damage on groundnut leaves .................................. ............................ 16

Fig 12 Symptoms o Aspergillus avus which produces aatoxin contamination ............ 24


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1

Good Agronomic Practices or Groundnut in Western Kenya

Acknowledgement

This manual was prepared during the implementation o the EU-unded project

called Strengthening Product Value Chain o Agro Business Enterprises in South

Nyanza (2009-2012) implemented and co-unded by CEFA in partnership withC-MAD.

The generous nancial support provided by the European Union to implement

this project and to enable this manual to be produced is highly appreciated and

acknowledged.

Particular thanks to the Field Ofcers who contributed to the preparation o this

manual: Ms Nohla Achieng Onyuna, Ms Ednah Anyango Okello, Mr Kennedy

Ogoma.

Thanks to Marco Dalla Costa or his tireless work in processing and editing the

pictures o dierent varieties o groundnut taken in the eld during the period

that he worked voluntarily as intern in the above mentioned project.

Special thanks to the Agricultural Training Centre (ATC) in Homabay and

particularly to its Principal, Erick Odhiambo Adel, or his eedback and or

signicant help in the preparation o the gross margin analysis.

A

cknowledgement


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2


1. Introduction

Groundnut is a sel-pollinated, tropical annual legume which is airly drought

resistant and mainly cultivated in dry tropical areas. It has the advantage o

generating residual nitrogen in the soil which benets subsequent crops,especially when groundnut residues are incorporated into the soil during

ploughing. Despite the high local demands or groundnuts, armers yields in

South Nyanza continue to be low, averaging 250kg/acre o dry shelled seeds.

In western Kenya, the crop is not only the principal source o protein but also a

major source o small-holder cash income. However, groundnut production has

continued to decline with armers realizing less than 50% o the yield potential.

This manual provides inormation on good management practices or groundnut

production such as proper timing o activities, proper spacing, use o quality seed,

weeding, control o diseases and pests, harvesting, drying and storage. Adopting

such practices would help increase groundnut crop production considerably.

Opportunities or developing and adopting better technologies provide a

possible solution or raising productivity and improving efciency.

Introduction


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3


1.1 The groundnut crop

There are two main types o groundnut crop. The bunch and the runner and this

describe their growth habits. Bunch varieties mature in 60 - 75 days and runner

varieties mature in 90 100 days. The runner varieties thereore require a longergrowing season.

Introduction

Source(orpictures):MarcoDallaCosta(2010)

Table 1 - Groundnut Varieties found in South Nyanza (Western Kenya)

Colour: Red

Size: Big

Maturity period:

Medium (3/3.5

months)

Usage: good or

roasted peanuts

Colour: Red

Size: small

Maturity period:

Early (2/2.5

months)

Usage: good or

roasted peanuts

Colour: Brown

Size: very big

Maturity period:

Medium (3/3.5

months)

Other: very

tasty

Usage: roasted

peanuts and

boiled peanuts

ICGV-

07

ICGV-

12988

ICGV

12991

Virginia

Virginia

Runner

Name CharacteristicsFamilyname Photo


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4


Introduction

Colour: Brown

Size: Big

Maturity period:

Late (3.5/4

months)

Usage: good

or both peanut

butter and

roasted peanuts

Colour: Brown

Size: very big

Maturity period:

Medium (3/3.5

months)

Other: very

tasty

Usage: roasted

peanuts and

boiled peanuts

Colour: Brown

Size: medium

Maturity period:

Medium (3/3.5

months)

Other: skin is

wrinkled

Usage: good

or both peanut

butter and

roasted peanuts

Homa

bay

local

Hybrid

variety

(Gianda)

SM

99568

Runner

Runner

Virginia

Name CharacteristicsFamilyname Photo

Source(orpictures):MarcoDallaCosta(2010)


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5


2. Ecological requirements

2.1 Climate

The optimum temperatures or growing groundnuts range rom 25C to 35C.

Cooler temperatures, especially at night, prolong the growing cycle. Groundnuts

are slightly sensitive to photoperiod. Although groundnut is drought tolerant,

good perormance is strongly linked to adequate soil water content at sowing

time, ollowed by well-distributed rainall. Early maturing small-seeded varieties

require 300-500 mm while the medium to late maturing large-seeded varieties

need 1000-1200 mm rainall.

2.2 SoilsAll soils, other than very heavy, are suitable or growing groundnut, but the best

are deep, well drained sandy, sandy loam soils. The latter acilitate the orcing

o the developing ruit into the soil (pegging). Groundnut will not grow well or

x nitrogen in acidic or inertile soils. The soils should have a pH between 5.3 and

7.3. Groundnut plants are sensitive to salinity, and high soil acidity (pH


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6


Planting

water logging. I groundnut is to be grown on ridges, the ridges should be made

at or just beore sowing, and should be at-topped. I the soil is dry when the

ridges are being made, a light rolling ater ridging will help make the seedbed

rm and they should be at-topped.

4. Planting

4.1 Seed selection

Pods should be shelled 12 weeks beore sowing and only good quality seed

should be selected or sowing. Groundnut pods intended or sowing should

be shelled rst (hand or though Sheller) and then sorted in order to eliminateskinned, immature, mouldy, and small seeds. Seeds are then treated with an

insecticide/ungicide mixture to control seedling blights caused by soil bacteria

and ungi. The ungicide will control soil pests that damage seedlings.

4.2 Seed dressing

To control seedling blights caused by soil bacteria and ungi, and also other

ungal diseases, a ungicide treatment is recommended. Thiram gives good

protection and can be applied as a dust at 120 g o thiram/100 kg o seed. The

dust must be uniormly mixed with the seed.

4.3 Dormancy

It is important to be aware that some varieties o groundnut seed require a period

o dormancy between harvesting and sowing generally long maturing varieties

require at least 1-2months dormancy period e.g. Homabay local.

4.4 Time o planting

The planting date is difcult to standardize. However, armers should plant as

soon as there is adequate moisture in the ground to ensure good germination.

In general, groundnuts are planted between February and April during the rst

season and in early August or the second season. Planting in the frst two weeks

ater the onset o rains is considered suitable. Planting early in the season helps to

improve yields and seed quality, and reduce the incidence o rosette disease.

Long duration varieties should only be planted with the rst rains in the rst

season. Short duration varieties can be planted in either season.


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4.5 Sowing

Planting date is linked to rainall distribution in the area and length o the crop

season. Soil moisture must be sufcient to guarantee good germination. Seeds

must not be sown immediately ater heavy rains since they imbibe too muchwater, which causes rotting. This also results in excessive soil compaction, which

may hinder germination. In general early sowing improves yields (signicant

delay in sowing can reduce yield by 50%) and seed quality.

Seeds should be sown at a depth o 56 cm. To ensure uniorm sowing depth,

germination and crop stand, it is suggested that a groove 56 cm in depth is

made along the rows or planting and, once the seed has been planted at the

right depth and spacing, the soil is pressed down to ensure good contact with

the seeds, enabling them to extract moisture more eectively. It is important tosow groundnut seed in rows and at the right spacing as this helps to reduce the

incidence o rosette disease, ensures a more uniorm pod maturity, better quality

seed and maximizes yield. Planting groundnut plants closer together results in

individual plants setting ewer pods, but over a short period o time. Overall, this

will ensure that the pods will be o a similar age and stage o development and,

thereore, make it easier to decide when to harvest. Wider spacing will produce

ewer yields per hectare.

4.6 Spacing

Spacing depends on the growth habit and the variety. Small seeded Spanish

types (bunch) are spaced at 30-45 cm between rows and 7.5-10 cm between

plants. This gives an optimum plant population o 167,000 per hectare. The

large-seeded Virginia types (runner) are spaced at 60 cm between rows and

10-15 cm between stations, giving an optimum plant population o 89,000 per

hectare. Under irrigation, plant population can be as high as 250,000 plants/ha.

This depends on variety characteristics, seed quality and planting density. With

manual sowing, individual seeds are sown 3-5 cm deep.

Source:modifcationromMwaririM.e

tall(2005)

Fig. 1 Recommended spacing groundnut Runner and Bunch varieties

Planting


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4.7 Fertilizer

A reasonable level o organic matter must be maintained in the light, weakly

structured, tropical soils where groundnuts are grown. Groundnut requires

adequate levels o phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and particularly calcium,which are required or maximizing yield and good quality seed. For armers who

can aord articial ertilizers, application o Single Super Phosphate (SSP) at the

rate o 100125 kg/ha or Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) at 8090 kg/ha will boost

yield. SSP or TSP should be worked into the soil beore planting. In areas where

there is a high incidence o empty pods (pops), there could well be a shortage

o calcium in the soil. To rectiy this, depending on the soil type and seed variety

a treatment o Gypsum at the rate o 200400 kg/ha (up to 5001000 kg/ha i

the soil is particularly poor) at early owering will reduce the incidence o empty

pods. This requires soil analysis.

4.8 Rotation

The groundnut ts into a wide range o arming systems. It can ollow both

cereals (maize, pearl millet and sorghum) and root crops (cassava and sweet

potatoes). Groundnut does well on virgin land or immediately ollowing a grass

allow or a well ertilized crop such as maize.

To avoid the build-up o pests and diseases, groundnut should not be grown

continuously on the same land. A rotation o 3 years or longer can usually reduce

disease, pest and weed problems. Because o the incidence o pests and soil-

borne diseases, groundnut should not be grown ater cotton, although cotton

can be used in rotation ater groundnut. Other legumes, tobacco, tomatoes and

certain other vegetables may cause a build-up o nematodes and soil-bornediseases and, thereore, should be avoided in rotation with groundnuts. Cereals,

such as maize, sorghum and millet are good rotational crops, and other clean-

Planting

Fig. 2 Application o FertilizerSource:MwaririM.e

tall(2005)


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9


weeded crops such as cassava, sweet potato and sunower can also be used.

Avoid groundnut-groundnut rotation to discourage the build-up o pest and

diseases

Although a number o crops are used as intercrops with groundnut, resultsrom intercropping research have been inconsistent, so any advantages or

disadvantages are not known.

5. Weeding

5.1 Timing

Groundnut cannot compete eectively with weeds, particularly 36 weeks ater

sowing; thereore, early removal o weeds is important. Generally, 2 weedings are

recommended, the rst beore owering and at least another during pegging.

I early weeding is done well, and crop spacing recommendations ollowed,

then the weeds that come up later are smothered with the vigorous growth

o the crop. I necessary pay extra attention when walking through a owering

groundnut eld in order not to disturb the owering plants.

5.2 Weeding by hand

When weeding, it is very important to avoid covering the developed plant with

earth (including earthing up) as this can increase diseases (e.g. white mould),

reduce owering and pod development and, thereore, reduce pod yield. Once

owering and pegging begins it is advisable to weed by hand pulling, rather

than by using a hoe, as this is less likely to disturb any developing pods.

5.3 Using chemicals

Pre- and post-emergence herbicides may be used to eradicate weeds but they

are very expensive or most small-scale armers. Follow the manuacturers

instructions with regard to dosage.

Weeding


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6. Main Groundnut diseases

6.1 Groundnut rosette disease

Groundnut rosette disease is caused by a complex o viruses that are transmitted

by aphids and white y. It can occur at very high levels and can oten produce

100% loss in yield. There are two orms o symptoms seen in the crops: 1)

chlorotic (yellow and stunted) and 2) green (green and stunted). Late planted

crops and wide spacing can increase the incidence o rosette disease so these

should be avoided. Rosette resistant varieties o groundnut are available (e.g.

bunch varieties) and these eliminate the need or spraying insecticides to control

the aphids.

Insecticides against Rosette diseases are continuously evolving and new products

are coming out in the market on regular basis. It is thereore advisable to check

the proper treatment and dosage rom the nearest trusted agro-vet shop.

6.2 Lea spot

There are two main orms o the lea spot ungal disease early and late. Early lea

spot may occur as early as 2 weeks ater crop emergence. Lesions produced by

this ungus are roughly circular, dark brown on the upper surace with chlorotic

(yellow) halos surrounding the darker lesions and a lighter shade o brown on

the lower surace o the leaets. Severe attacks can cause heavy deoliation and

result in a large yield loss.

Late lea spot occurs later in the season and has nearly circular lesions which are

darker than those o early lea spot. Late lea spot does not normally aect yieldreduction as severely as early lea spot. On the lower lea surace where most

o the sporulation occurs, the lesions are black. Since the lea spot pathogens

MainGroundnut

diseases

Fig. 3 - Groundnut plants inected by rosette disease

Source:Icrisat.org


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11


survive mainly in crop debris, cultural practices such as crop rotation, burying

crop debris during land preparation and early sowing can signicantly reduce

the incidence o the diseases. Chemical control may not be economical or rain-

ed crops but the ungicides ridomil, milraz or mancozeb (Dithane M-45) can be

used at the rate o 50 g o the chemical with 20 l water. Apply when lesions arerst seen and then at 14- day intervals or 34 sprays.

6.3 Rust

Rust occurrence is generally sporadic but sometimes there are severe outbreaks.It can survive in volunteer plants and spores can disperse over long distancesto inect other areas. Rust is characterized by orange-red pustules on the leaveswhich later turn dark brown and cause curling o leaets and deoliation.

MainGr

oundnutdiseases

Fig. 4b: Late lea spotFig. 4a: Early lea spotSource:PageW.W.e

tall(2002)

Fig. 5 - Groundnut plant aected by rusts diseaseSource:

PageW.W.e

tall(2002)


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12


The disease is o little consequence i it appears 23 weeks beore harvesting.The cultural practices and ungicidal control measures recommended or leaspot should be used.

6.4 Groundnut Blight

Blight disease causes wilt which occurs on the leaves in patches in the eld.

Sunken, brown lessons appear on the stems. More prevalent in wet weather

Control: early weeding

6.5 Peanut Clump Virus (PCV)

It is a soil and seed borne disease. Inected plants are stunted and have symptoms

such as mottling, mosaic and chlorotic rings on the leaves.

Control is through rogueing and burn inected crops and avoiding contaminated

elds or crop growing / closed season.

6.6 Peanut Mottle Virus (PMV)

It is a virus disease. Symptoms include dark green irregular patches on young

leaves.

Control is through closed season and planting resistant varieties.

MainGroundnut

diseases

Fig. 6 - Groundnut plant aected by Blight diseaseSource:CEF

A(2010)


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13


7. Main Groundnut Pests

7.1 Aphids

Although the main pest status or aphids on groundnut is as a vector o rosette

disease, aphids can, in large numbers, damage the plant tissues when eeding.

They can be controlled using insecticides (see rosette disease above). There are

also new varieties o groundnut (ICGV12988 and ICGV12991) which are aphid

resistant and, thereore, do not usually get rosette disease. These varieties can be

grown without the need to spray insecticides to kill the aphids.

7.2 Groundnut lea miner

Groundnut lea miner is a comparatively new pest. It is the larva o a small moth

which burrows and mines into the leaets o the plant. When the larvae have

grown, they come out o their mines and pull the leaves together with threads.

Severe cases o lea miner damage make the crop look as i it has been burnt

and severe crop losses can occur. It is suggested that systemic insecticides (see

rosette disease above) are used as soon as quantities o mines are observed.

Main

GroundnutPests

Fig. 7 - Groundnut plant inested with aphids

Source:PageW.W.e

tall(2002)

Source:PageW.W.e

tall(2002)

Fig. 8 - Groundnut lea inested with lea minor


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14


7.3 Termites

Termite damage can be recognized when plants wither and die. There are no

efcient control measures against termites so it is important to avoid growing

groundnut in elds that have a history o termites or that have obvious termitemounds. Spot spraying with chlorpyrios or methyl bromide can be tried (e.g

gladiator).

7.4 Groundnut Hopper

Plants are attacked under the soil surace at the base o the stem. Plants wither,

turn yellow and die.

Control: Beore planting work Aldrine or Dieldrin into the topsoil, later spray the

base o the plants with Diazinon, Fenthion or Fenitrothion. Reer to your trusted

agro-vet dealer or proper dosage o the above chemicals.

7.5 Millipedes

They attack mainly young seedlings and developing pods. It can cause signicant

damage and it is difcult to control.

Damage by millipedes can be limited by incorporating an insecticide into the

seed treatment.

7.6 White Grubs

They are larvae o small brown chaers ound in pod development area and eed

on roots, nodules and pods.

MainGroundnut

Pests

Fig. 9 - Termite damaging groundnut eldSource:PageW.W.e

tall(2002)


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15


Symptoms include yellowing and rapid wilting o the plant. Constant monitoring

and chemical control plus Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategy should be

included in control.

7.7 Nematodes

They are soil dwelling round worms, less than 1mm long which bore into roots

and pods. Their presence in the roots severely decreases the number o nodules

and activity o nitrogen xing bacteria.

Symptoms include yellowish oliage and severely reduced production, pod

damage is characterized by the appearance o small brown spots which become

larger and darker as nematodes grow.

It is controlled by systematic insecticides such as Carbon Furan.

7.8 Thrips

Thrips are slender insects, 2mm long and 0.5mm wide. They are yellow, brown or

black and have ringed wings which allow them to stick on to slippery suraces.

They are piercing-sucking insects that destroy the parenchyma o the plant

with their short stylets thereby reducing photosynthetic capacity o the plant.

Attack is severe under humid conditions as they reproduce more under such

condition.

Control is by use o resistant varieties and use o chemicals such as

Deltamethrine.

Main

GroundnutPests

Fig. 10b - Damage caused by thrips

on groundnut leavesFig. 10a - Enlarged picture o a thripSource:Icrisat.o

rg(http://vasatwiki.icrisat.org/index.php/

Thrips_inestation_

in_

groundnut)


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16


7.9 Caterpillars

Commonly called hairy cowpea caterpillar, adult is 12-16 mm long with wing

span o 35-40mm. The larva is a hairy deoliating caterpillar with a yellow head

and yellowish brown patterned segments. Adults appear 3-5 days ater the rstsubstantial rains and lay eggs on young plants.

Control is through cultural practices such as early planting. Also controlled

chemically by use o Endosulan (Insecticide).

8. Harvesting

8.1 Timing

It is very important to harvest groundnuts at the correct time. Flowering isindeterminate in the groundnut; thereore there are a variable proportion o

mature and immature pods at the end o the crop cycle. Groundnuts are mature

when 70-80% o the inside o the pods shells have dark markings and the kernels

are plump, with colour characteristic o that variety. I harvested too early, the

seeds will shrink when drying which lowers the yield, oil content and quality

o the seed. Delays in harvesting will result in poor quality seed due to mould

inections and subsequent aatoxin contamination o the seeds/pods. Late

harvesting also reduces yield because higher proportions o pods are let in the

ground due to the pegs being weak and the pods breaking o. I harvested late,some non-dormant varieties will begin to sprout in the eld resulting in yield

losses.

MainGroundnut

Pests/

Harvesting

Fig. 11 - Caterpillar and its damage on groundnut leaves

Source:jnkvv.nic.in

(http://w

ww.jn

kvv.nic.in

/ipm%20project/insect-groundnut.ht

ml)


23/37

17


8.2 Indicators or harvesting time

Lea all is not a good indicator o when to harvest. It is recommended that

a ew plants (35) should be pulled up randomly and the pods removed and

shelled. The insides o the shells should be examined. I the majority o pods(70% upwards) have dark markings inside the shell and the seeds are plump and

the correct colour or that variety, then the groundnuts are mature and ready

or harvest. I the crop is severely deoliated as a result o disease (only one or

two leaves per branch) or i sprouting has begun, the crop should be harvested

regardless o maturity. The estimated period o maturity or each variety can be

used as a rough guide.

8.3 Hand liting

Harvesting by hand only is more suitable or the bunch/erect groundnut varieties

in sandy, loam soils which are well drained. When the soil is wet and heavy or very

dry, it is much more difcult to pull up the whole plant without losing pods.

8.4 Hand liting with a hoe or ork

By using a hoe during harvesting it is possible to lit plants out o heavy or dry

soil with a reduced pod loss. Spreading/runners varieties can also be more easily

lited. Care should be taken not to damage the pods with the hoe as damage

makes the pods susceptible to ungal attack. A hoe ork lessens the likelihood

o such damage.

8.5 Cleaning

It is important to shake the plant ater liting to remove excess soil rom the pods,

particularly when the soil is wet or heavy. Soil stuck to the pods will lengthen

drying times and produce better conditions or the development o unwanted

ungal growth.

8.6 Drying

8.6.1 The importance o drying

The primary objective o curing or drying is to achieve a rapid but steady drying

o pods in order to avoid aatoxin contamination. Harvested plants should be

staked in the eld and let there or a ew days to allow them to dry in the sun

and air, beore stripping the pods. The correct drying or curing o the harvested

groundnuts is very important as poor curing can help induce ungal growth(producing aatoxin contamination) and reduce seed quality or consumption,

marketing and germination or the ollowing seasons planting. For good storage

Harvesting


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18


and germination, the moisture content o the pods should be reduced to 68%

(see Section 9.2 to see how to test moisture content in grains). This can normally

be achieved by drying the pods in the sun or 6-7 days, taking care to cover them

i it rains. There are dierent ways o drying the pods, some o which are better

than others. It is particularly important to note that i the pods are exposed to thesun or too long the seed quality can deteriorate considerably and germination

can be aected. The dierent methods o drying are explained below.

8.6.2 Drying in windrows

I the harvested groundnut plants are let to dry on the soil surace where they

have been lited, the pods are likely to be in contact with the soil, which can

contain moisture and be at a higher temperature. In this case it can easily aect

the quality o the seed, particularly i there is rain during the drying period. Ield drying is used, it is better to use windrows, where plants are laid in rows

to catch the wind and dry more quickly. The drying o pods in windrows (35

days) should produce the required level o moisture beore the pods are picked

or stripped. Excessive exposure to the sun can aect the quality o the seed.

8.6.3 Drying on mats

The plants can be picked/ plucked rom the windrows and then laid out in a

thin layer in the sun on dry ground, mats or other dry suraces or a urther

25 days ater stripping which would normally dry the pods to the required

moisture content or storing. Pods should be covered or taken indoors during

wet weather. They can also be picked immediately ater liting and then dried

in the sun as above or 68 days. Once again excessive exposure to the sun can

aect the quality o the seed.

8.6.4 Strippingwinnowing

The dried plants and pods are kept in a rooms or about 2 to 6 weeks in order

to make sure that the pods water content stabilizes at around 10%. Ater thisperiod pods are stripped. This operation consists o separating the pods rom

the vegetative parts o the plants (vines). In traditional arming systems, manual

stripping is the rule. Pods are individually detached rom the vines and thereore

dry very quickly stabilizing at 6-8% moisture content. The process results in a

perect quality product. This technique is used or the production o edible or

conectionery groundnuts in order to minimize pod damage and contamination

by Aspergillus avus. However, stripping is most oten done using sticks. These

reduce the heap o groundnut plants into a mixture o chopped vines and

partially broken pods that are then separated by winnowing.

Harvesting


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19


9. Storage

9.1 Storage Requirements

Pods should be stored in order to provide a quality product and to ensure

protability. Groundnuts should be stored under the ollowing conditions:

collect quality raw material (well lled mature pods), clean, ree rom visible

insect damage, well cured (6-8% moisture content);

clean storage acilities;

treat storage acilities and seeds;

check seeds regularly during storage (every 15 days or once a month

according to storage period).

It is best to store groundnuts in their shell. Good drying o the pods to 78%

moisture content will help to ensure that the seeds remain in good condition

during storage. Never bag groundnuts or storage i the pods are still damp.

Beore storing, poor, damaged, shrivelled, rotten, or ungus-inected pods

should be removed. Whatever the storage container, it is important to ensure

that the store is dry and that there is good ventilation so that the pods/seeds do

not increase in moisture content, which would encourage ungal growth. Ideally

the store should be cool, as this prolongs the storage lie o the pods.

Note. Moisture is the key to sae storage and moisture content o grain is related

to relative humidity o surrounding air. Sae moisture content o cereal is 13% -

15%

9.2 How to test moisture content in grain

Use dry bottle with a lid;

Put one table spoon o salt in the bottle;

Pour a hal glass o groundnut in the bottle;

Seal the lid and shake up to mix well;Place the bottle in the sunshine or 30 minutes;

I the grain is not dry, then the moisture will be attached to the bottle wall,

which will thereore need more drying.

9.3 Temperature

Very high temperature 66C will destroy seeds;

High temperature 21-24 C speed up respiration o grains;

The lower the temperature the better.

Storage


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20


9.4 Storage hygiene

Stores should be kept clean at all time;

Grain is dried clean and ree rom discolored and low quality seed;

Bags be kept o oor on wooden platorm to avoid absorption o

moisture;

Produce be treated with pesticide beore intake to store.

Note. It should kept good records o store e.g. no. o bags, time o storage, dusting

e.t.c

9.5 Quality guard

Quality starts rom the eld whereby good agronomic and storage practicesneed to be observed beore the produce goes to the customers.

9.6 Storage methods

9.6.1 In bags

Bags should be made o a material which allows the air to circulate, thereore,

gunny bags are recommended. Do not use polythene or polypropylene bags as

these restrict air ow and ungal growth could occur. For the same reason, do not

cover bags with plastic or tarpaulin (canvas) which may also restrict ventilationand increase condensation. Bags should be stored away rom the ground on

wooden slats to avoid damage rom dampness. I bags are stacked, a gap should

be let between stacks to allow ventilation. Do not stack bags more than ten

bags high.

9.6.2 Other methods

I bags cannot be used, storage in clay pots, woven baskets, or storing loose may

be used. In all cases it is important to ensure good ventilation by keeping thestorage vessel o the ground and ensuring that the storage place used is dry.

When storing the pods loose, a platorm made o local material (e.g. bamboo)

should be made to keep the pods o the ground.

9.7 Ways o protecting stored grains

9.7.1 Contact treatments or unshelled groundnuts

Stacking sites should be treated with insecticide dust beore windrows andstacks are ormed or drying the groundnuts. The surrounding should also be

treated to protect the site. Groundnuts are thus protected against termites

Storage


27/37

21


and seed bugs. Storage areas, containers, drums, bags and storage equipment

(conveyors, etc.) should be treated beore storing groundnuts. Cleaning o these

areas can be ollowed by umigation or spraying with insecticides. Pesticides are

applied using a sandwich technique. Seeds are dusted during bagging, and then

an insecticide dust is applied between each layer o bags. Organophosphates arecontact insecticides currently used. Other available products with long residual

activity include Ethyl-Pyrimiphos (Actellic) Methylchlorpyriphos (Reldan). Their

residual activity is low in the open air but is eective or more than 6 months on

stored seeds protected rom light.

9.7.2 Fumigation

Groundnut seeds (sorted pods or kernels) can be treated under airtight plastic,

sealed silos or warehouses. Bags are arranged to orm a pyramid. The base issealed with a row o sandbags. Hydrogen phosphide (PH3) is the only authorized

umigant. It is available in tablet orm and its use requires absolute adherence

to manuactures recommendations in order or it to be eective. Successul

umigation depends on ambient moisture, umigant dose and duration. Fumigant

dose can be reduced in airtight treatment areas with high temperature. Stored

groundnuts should be regularly checked and a seed sample taken every 3 weeks

to ensure proper conservation.

9.7.3 Physical and mechanical methods

These methods are low cost, eective and readily available to armers. Several

techniques are used, depending on the area:

groundnuts are mixed with powdered minerals (ashes, sand, etc.) that act as

abrasives or physical barriers;

sealed containers(silos) in which anoxic conditions limit insect

development,

Temperatures below (40C) are optimum or insect

development.

10. Shelling

Shelling should be done as and when groundnut seeds are required or

consumption, marketing or or planting as the storage lie o the seed outside the

shell is short and the quality can reduce rapidly. With both hand and mechanical

shelling, the seeds should be checked and any discoloured, mouldy or shrivelled

seeds should be thrown away.

S

torage/Shelling


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22


10.1 Hand Shelling

Hand shelling is labour intensive but is eective or small quantities o groundnut.

It is particularly good or the selection o seed or planting the ollowing season as

there is less damage to the seeds, thus avoiding ungal inections. The practice oputting pods into sacks and beating them to break them up is not recommended

as this can produce a high level o damaged seeds.

10.2 Mechanical shelling

There are a number o mechanical hand shellers on the market that can shell

groundnuts at a rate o up to six bags an hour. Continuous rotating types have

the advantage o continuous operation (rather than shelling in batches) and new

designs produce very little wastage in terms o damaged seed.

11. Common storage pests

When pests damage the pods/seeds, they create the conditions or the build-up

o ungal inection. Insect storage pests can be controlled using Pirimiphosmethyl

(Actellic Super) applied as a dust to the pods beore bagging. The principle

storage pests o groundnut are the seed bug (Heteroptera sp) and the groundnut

seed beetle (Caryedon cerratus); these can cause signicant damage. Otherinsects, particularly Khapra beetles (Trogoderma granarium E.) as well as our

beetles, (Tribolium castaneum H. and T. conusum) are also important, especially

on shelled groundnuts. The groundnut seed beetle is the most harmul storage

pest. The larva develops inside the pods and is thereore difcult to control.

11.1 Mites

Are smaller than insects and appears as dusts on grain. Some eed on grains

which others eed on moulds developing on grains. Mites are associated with

high moisture content in stored seeds / grains.

11.2 Insects

Some o the insects that damage the grain begin their attack in the eld several

weeks beore harvest. E.g. pulse beetle. Survival o storage insects depend on

temperature and moisture content temperature >42 degrees C or < 10 degrees

C will kill insects and moisture content below 8% will not permit insects

multiplication. Damage by one insect may lead to urther damage by second

type o insects e.g. grain weevil destroys sound grain, its lava bores into grainand eeds on endosperm. Red our beetle, which eeds on the grain dust, urther

attacks damaged grain , saw beetle also eed on the damaged grain.

Commonstorage

pests


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23


11.3 Rodents

Rats and mice are most important rodents o the stored ood. They cause damage

by:

Consuming grain;1.Contaminating with the grains with excretion;2.

Carry diseases.3.

12. Critical microbiological problems in groundnut

12.1 Fungi

Most common mould requires relative humidity above 70%. Temperature

increases rate o ungal reproduction, optimum temperature range or most

ungus is 35 40 C. Mould is a primary cause o loss o viability in seed.

Some ungi produce toxic substances Aspergillum avours produce toxic

subsistence Aatoxins.

12.2 Afatoxins

Aatoxins are toxic substance produced by mould ungi (Aspergillus favus and A.

parasiticus) which can grow on poorly managed agricultural crops, particularlygroundnuts. Aatoxin contamination may happen during pre-harvest and

post-harvest handling o the crop. Pre-harvest contamination is severe during

periods o drought at the pod lling stage. Post-harvest Contamination results

mostly rom poor drying and curing procedures. I eaten in sufcient quantities

Aatoxins can cause sickness, hepatitis and/or liver cancer. It is, thereore,

extremely important to ensure good management o groundnut crops and

any suspect seed should be destroyed rather than used or human or animal

consumption. I groundnuts are to be sold or export no aatoxin contamination

must be present. Although the practices or minimizing mould are mentioned inthe dierent sections above, they are summarized here.

(a) Harvest the crop as soon as it is mature, any delay will encourage the

development o ungus;

(b) Avoid damaging pods during cropping;

(c) Remove soil rom the pods beore leaving to dry;

(d) Ensure that the correct drying procedures are used and that damaged,

shrivelled, or rotten pods are removed beore storage;

(e) Store the pods under dry, well ventilated conditions to ensure the moisture

content remains low, thus discouraging ungal growth;() Avoid damaging the seed during shelling and destroy any discoloured,

shrivelled or mouldy seed;

Criticalmicrobiologicalproblem

ingroundnut


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24


(g) Avoid pod damage by insects as this can leave the pods/seeds susceptible to

ungal inection;

(h) Pre-harvest contamination is severe during drought and extra care should be

taken to clean the seed, especially the smaller seed.

12.3 Salmonella

Salmonella are normally transmitted rom animal aeces. It may also be

contaminated by the unwashed hands o an inected ood handler, who orgotto wash his or her hands with soap ater using the bathroom.

Salmonella may also be ound in aeces o pets, especially those with diarrhoea.

Reptiles are particularly likely to harbour salmonella

13. Quality and marketing

The quality o groundnut is determined very much at the arm level. Good

growing, harvesting, drying and storage on-arm (as set out in this manual) willensure that the pods/seeds are marketable. A buyer will, in particular, be looking

or (ideals shown in brackets): varietal purity (at least 95%), low moisture content

(78%), high shelling percentage (above 55%), low level o damaged pods/

kernels (less than 17%) and no aatoxin contamination.

13.1 General characteristics o good quality groundnuts

Variety: Sorting should be done according to the same variety o the groundnut

or uniormity in colours, size and variety.

Criticalmicrobiolo

gicalproblemin

groundnut/

Quality

andmarke

ting

Fig. 12 - Symptoms o Aspergillus favus which produces

afatoxin contamination

Source:PageW.W

.etall(2002)


31/37

25


Premature or discolored or spoiled grains: This gives or lowers the quality and gives a

poor presentation.

Broken or ragmented grains: This allows the mould to use exposed material and

acilitates easy spread. The mould produces aatoxin, which is a worldwideproblem because, is remains in the ood even ater the ungus that produces it

has died.

Moisture content: Should be dried to a moisture content o 15% (grain) and 7%-8%

or pods to avoid mould growth.

14. Utilization o groundnut

Groundnuts have a high nutritional value. They are rich in protein and minerals

and are a good source o cooking oil. They can be eaten on their own or blended

with other dishes to improve taste and nutritional value

Roasted Groundnuts

Clean seed is roasted dry or in oil on a rying pan;

Salt is added to taste;

Varieties like ICGV12988 and ICGV12991 are preerred because they tastierthan others.

Boiled Groundnuts

Harvest the groundnuts;

Remove the soil;

Wash the pods and boil with water;

Add salt to taste.

Groundnut Githeri

Boil groundnuts together with maize;

Fry the mixture with onions and tomatoes;

Serve as a main meal.

Groundnut sauce

Roast clean seed and cool;

Remove the seed coat;

Pound using a mortar and pestle or grinding stone to orm paste;

Utilizat

ionofgroundnut


32/37

26


Fry with onions and tomatoes;

Add little water to orm a thick paste;

Serve with bananas, rice, chapatis, ugali, potatoes or any other carbohydrate

oods.

Groundnut porridge

Mix 1 cup o groundnut paste with 3 cups o sorghum, maize or millet

our;

Add the mixture to water and cook like ordinary porridge.

Groundnut snacks

Groundnuts can also be used in several snacks like chocolate, sweets,cakes,biscuits and making peanut butter.

Utilizationofgroundnut


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27


15. Gross margin analysis

Gross Margin = Gross Output (sake) Total Variable costs

In simple terms: Prot = Total Sales Costs

Gros

smarginanalysis

!

Item Unit QuantityUnitCost

(Kshs)

Total Cost(Kshs)

OUTPUT

1. Yield per acre Kg 300 100 30,000

VARIABLE COSTS

2. Land Preparation

Clearing Ploughing Harrowing

MD

Kshs

Kshs

8

1 acre

1 acre

100

1,500

1,200

800

1,500

1,200

3. Seed Kg 25 115 2,875

5. Labour

o Plantingo Weeding 1sto Weeding 2ndo Harvesting

Digging

o Harvesting Stripping

o Shellingo Drying

MD

MD

MD

MD

MD

MD

MD

15

20

15

15

10

15

4

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

1,500

2,000

1,500

1,500

1,000

1,500

400

6. Bags (unshelled) No. 10 50 500

7 Transport Trips 1 1,000 1,000

8.Total Variable Cost Kshs. 17,275

9. Gross Margin Kshs 12,725

Table 2 - Gross margin per acre of groundnuts in South Nyanza (Western Kenya)


34/37

28


Summary

Table3-Generalstagesofdevelopmentofgroundnutandrecommendedpractices(forlongduration

varieties)

a)Forlongdurationvarietiese.g.

Homabaylocal,ICGV07

-(Days)

Stageso

f

deve

lopmento

f

groun

dnut

Recommen

de

d

practice

A

Germination

and

emergen

ce

Preparelan

dearly

sothatseed

can

beplantedearly

aterrstrains.

Ipossible,

ertilizewith

SSP

orTSPbeore

planting.

Choosego

od

qualityseed

.

Dressseed

withThiram

to

controlung

aland

bacterialgrowth.

Sowat56

cm

depth.Spac

eat

30-45x7.5

10cm

orbunchtype

varieties.

Spaceat60

x1015cm

orsemi-ere

ct

(Virginia)type

varieties.

Ensuregood

weedcontrol.

Weed

by

handpulling

toavoid

earthingup

anddamage

topeg

ging.

Checkor

pestsand

diseasesand

contro

lwhere

necessary.

Iweedingis

requireduse

handpulling.

Checkor

pestsand

diseasesand

controlwhere

necessary.

Ha

rvestwhen

70%

ormore

podsaremature.

Us

edark

ma

rkingson

insideoshell.

Se

edsshould

beplumpand

cor

rectcolour

or

variety.

Icropis

sev

erely

de

oliated(95%)

orsproutinghas

beg

un,harvest

stra

ightaway.

Cleanexcess

soilrompods.

Wilt/dryin

win

drowsor

35

days.

Drypodsonma

ts

oraurther25

days.

IA-ramesor

cocksused,dry

or34weeksand

thenpickothe

pods.

Donotdryany

urtherater

picking.

Beorestoring

removepoor,

damaged,

shrivelled,rotten

orungus-inecte

d

pods.

Storepodsin

gunnybagsin

acool,dry,well

ventilatedstore.

Donotstoremo

ist

groundnuts.

Donotuseplastic

orpolyweavebags

Ensuregood

weedcontrol.

Avoid

earthingup

plantswhen

usinghoe.

Checkor

aphidsor

leaminers

andcontroli

necessary.

B

Vegetative

growth

C

Vegetative

grow

thand

fow

ering/

peg

ging

D

Peggingand

podding

podlling

E

Harvest

maturity

F

Postharvest

0-1

0

20

-40

40

-80

80

-110

110

-120

120

-130


35/37

29


Summary

Table4-Generalstagesofdevelo

pmentofgroundnutandrecommendedpractices(forshortduration

varieties)

b)Forshortduration

varietiese.g.

ICGV-1

2988(redsmall),

ICGV-1

2991(brownsmall)-

(Days)

Stageso

f

deve

lopmento

f

groun

dnut

Recommen

de

d

practice

A

Germination

and

emergen

ce

Preparelan

dearly

sothatseed

can

beplantedearly

aterrstrains.

Ipossible,

ertilizewith

SSP

orTSPbeore

planting.

Choosego

od

qualityseed

.

Dressseed

withThiram

to

controlungaland

bacterialgrowth.

Sowat56

cm

depth.Spac

eat

30-45x7.5

10cm

orbunchtype

varieties.

Spaceat60

x1015cm

orsemi-ere

ct

(Virginia)type

varieties.

Ensuregood

weedcontrol.

Weed

by

handpulling

toavo

id

earthingup

anddamage

topeg

ging.

Checkor

pestsand

diseasesand

contro

lwhere

necessary.

Iweedingis

requireduse

handpulling.

Checkor

pestsand

diseasesand

controlwhere

necessary.

Harvestwhen

70%

ormore

podsaremature.

Usedark

ma

rkingson

insideoshell.

Se

edsshould

be

plumpand

cor

rectcolour

or

variety.

Icropis

sev

erely

deoliated(95%)

orsproutinghas

begun,harvest

stra

ightaway.

Cleanexcess

soilrompods.

Wilt/dryin

win

drowsor

35

days.

Drypodsonma

ts

oraurther25

days.

IA-ramesor

cocksused,dry

or34weeksand

thenpickothe

pods.

Donotdryany

urtherater

picking.

Beorestoring

removepoor,

damaged,

shrivelled,rotten

orungus-inecte

d

pods.

Storepodsin

gunnybagsin

acool,dry,well

ventilatedstore.

Donotstoremo

ist

groundnuts.

Donotuseplastic

orpolyweavebags

Ensuregood

weedcontrol.

Avoid

earthingup

plantswhen

usinghoe.

Checkor

aphidsor

leaminers

andcontroli

necessary.

B

Vegetative

growth

C

Vegetative

grow

thand

fow

ering/

pegging

D

Peggingand

podding

podlling

E

Harvest

maturity

F

Postharvest

0-1

0

20

-30

30

-60

60

-75

75

-80

80

-90


36/37

30


Bibliography

Kipkoech A. K., Okiror M.A., Okalebo J. R. and Maritim H. K., (2007). Production

efciency and economic potential o dierent soil ertility management strategiesamong groundnut armers o Kenya, Science World Journal Vol 2(no 1)

Ntare BR, Diallo AT, Ndjeunga and Waliyar F., (2008). Groundnut Seed production

Manual, Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute or the

Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). 20 pp.

Page, W.W., Busolo-Bulau, C.M., Vander Merwe, P.J.A. and Chancellor, T.C.B. (2002).

Groundnut Manual or Uganda: Recommended Groundnut Production Practices

or Smallholder Farmers in Uganda. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute.

Mwariri M., Kamidi M., Wanjekeche E., Omamo B., Okumu M. and Wanyonyirr

M., (2005). Grow and eat groundnut or more money and better health, Bulletin

supported and unded by the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute and the

Rockeeller Foundation.

Bibliography


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NOTES

475uk GNUT Manual

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