4314925

Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

Threats and Opportunities for Mountain Area Development in KenyaAuthor(s): Francis Ndegwa GichukiReviewed work(s):Source: Ambio, Vol. 28, No. 5, Research for Mountain Area Development: Africa and Asia(Aug., 1999), pp. 430-435Published by: Springer on behalf of Royal Swedish Academy of SciencesStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4314925 .Accessed: 31/10/2012 13:17

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Francis Ndegwa Gichuki

Threats and Opportunities for Mountain Area Development in Kenya

The mountain ecosystems of Kenya include the Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon and Aberdare (Nyandarua) mountain ranges. These mountain areas have been recognized as important ecosystems with high social, spiritual, economic and environmental values. They are used as water catch- ments, forest reserves, national parks and agricultural land. Increasing population pressure on the natural resources of these ecosystems has led to environment and devel- opment challenges such as unsustainable utilization, conversion of forest to cropland, human-wildlife conflicts and highland-lowland resource-use conflicts. Several initiatives are involved in promoting sustainable manage- ment and conservation of these important ecosystems. The notable opportunities include changes in government policy to promote integrated and participatory interventions and existing partnerships in resource use and conservation.

INTRODUCTION Kenya is located between latitudes 40 21'N and 40 28'S and between longitudes 340 and 42?E. Kenya covers an area of 587 900 km2 of which 576 000 km2 is land surface with a high topographical diversity that ranges from the sea level at the coast to 5199 m a.s.l. at the summit of Mount Kenya (1). The mean annual rainfall ranges from 250 mm in the arid zones to 2600 mm in the highland and mountain areas. The distribution of agro- climatic potential along the altitudinal belt is shown in Table 1.

The highlands and mountain areas of Kenya (areas above 1500 m a.s.l.) cover an area of 88 500 kM2, approximately 15.2% of the total land area (Fig. 1). These areas have a rich natural-re- sources base and are a source of the life supporting systems in the lowlands. The highland areas are important water catchments and were estimated to be home to over 24.4 million inhabitants in 1989 (3). These areas are experiencing high population pres- sure. Kohler (4) reported that highland forest areas at altitudes between 1500 and 2500 m decreased by about 80% over a pe- riod of 100 years, while mountain forests in areas above 2500 m a.s.l. decreased by 20%. In 1992, the rate of depletion of for- est areas was estimated at 1 % annually (4). This paper describes the main features of three mountain ecosystems (Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon on the Kenya-Uganda border and the Aberdare mountain range) and presents their environmental and develop- ment challenges and opportunities.

MOUNTAIN AREA ECOSYSTEMS OF KENYA

Mount Kenya Ecosystem Mount Kenya is in central Kenya and overlaps five administra- tive districts, Nyeri, Kirinyaga, Embu, Tharaka-Nithi and Meru. Mt Kenya ecosystem rises to an altitude of 5200 m and has a steep ecological gradient, with four main zones based on alti- tude, land use, and vegetation (Table 2). Mount Kenya ecosys- tem has an exceptional biodiversity value. It has diverse veg- etation, which include many endemic afro-alpine plant species and the largest contiguous closed canopy indigenous forest.

Mount Kenya forest covers an area of over 2000 km2, con- sisting of 500 km2 of closed canopy indigenous forest, 280 km2 of other mixed forest formations, 200 km2 of bamboo forest and 170 km2 of plantation forest. The main forest-based industries

Figure 1. Map of Kenya showing the mountain areas. Source: (2).

Mt. Kulal

Mt Marsabit

Mt. ElgorJ ani

~eRange

Chyulu Range

Mt. Kilimanjar

Waterbodies 1500-2500 m a.s.l. 2500-3000 m a.s.l.

_ above 3000 m a.s.l.

are a large number of sawmills, furniture, and construction in- dustries. Emerton (6) reported that the most prevalent local use of forest resources is fuel wood, and charcoal production is the least prevalent. Charcoal production has decreased due to the ban on charcoal production in forest reserves and enforcement of this ban through restrictions in charcoal transportation and market- ing.

Mount Kenya ecosystem is the main water catchment area from which the Tana (the largest river in Kenya) and Ewaso Ng'iro North rivers rise. The glacier, snow and spring flow sus- tains the dry season flows of rivers originating from Mount Kenya. In dry years, western and northern Mount Kenya eco- system contributes as much as 75% of the Ewaso Ng'iro North river flow at Archers Post, 69% of the flow in February, the dri- est month and 46% of the mean annual flows (7). The Mount Kenya ecosystem provides water to over 2 million people (8).

Mount Kenya National Park consists of the area above 3200 m a.s.l. and two narrow salients reaching down to the forest area at 2440 m. The park is home to a wide range of fauna including 4 endemic bird species and 4 rare mammal species (6). The Na- tional Park has an area of 620 km2 and receives an average of 15 000 visitors per year (9). The area was gazetted as a national park because of (i) the importance of tourism for the local and national economy; (ii) the great scenic beauty; (iii) the need to preserve the water catchments; (iv) the need to conserve the high biodiversity of plant and animal life. There is low human pres- sure for settlement in these high altitude areas as the afro-alpine ecosystem is too cold for human settlement, agriculture, indus- tries and plantation forest.

Crop and livestock production is a major land use in the lower zones of Mount Kenya. On the wetter, more fertile southern and

430 0 Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1999 Ambio Vol. 28 No. 5, August 1999 http://www.ambio.kva.se

Mount Kenya --At ecosystem gradient. Photos: NRM3 database.

Mt. Kenya r forest.

. V ; *.A&

Smaliholder cultivation in footslopes of Mt. Kenya.

I~~~~~~~~

I~~~~~~~~-

eastern areas, farmers pursue intensive mixed farming with tea, coffee, maize, beans, potatoes and vegetables as the main crops (Fig. 2). Grade cattle are kept for milk production. Agricultural opportunities in the drier north and northwest area are limited. Here, small- holder farming is based on subsistence maize, bean and potato production, while large-scale farmers grow wheat and barley. Livestock production in this area is based on extensive grazing of indigenous stock. Irrigation is being used to intensify horticulture crop pro- duction for local and export markets. This is contributing to water scarcity in the adjacent lowlands, thereby, intensi- fying conflicts among upstream and downstream water users.

The human population density of the

Table 1. Percentage of altitudinal and agro-climatic zones of Kenya.

Agro-climatic zones High potential Medium potential Low potential Afro-alpine zone

Altitudinal belts (humid and subhumid) (sub-humid) (semiarid/arid)

0-900 m 0.03 1.22 67.16 900-1 500m 2.04 3.18 11.17

1 500-2 150 m 3.26 3.74 3.88 2150-3050m 2.83 1.2

>3 050 m 0.27

Total 8.17 9.34 82.22 0.27

Source: (5).

Table 2. Vegetational and management zones of the Mount Kenya ecosystem.

Altitude Vegetation Status Management

> 3300 m Alpine and nival peaks and moorland Largely pristine Kenya Wildlife Service 2500-3300 m Montane and sub-alpine forest and bamboo Generally good quality, patchy degradation Forest Department 1 800-2 500 m Sub-montane forest Severely degraded Forest Department < 2 500 m Mixed smallholder agriculture Human land-use, no forest; tree planting, Private landowners

agroforesty Private landowners

Source: (6)

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Mount Kenya ecosystem varies with rainfall, altitude, land ten- ure and land use. Emerton (10) reported that more than 30 000 households lived within 1.5 km of the edge of the forest within an area of nearly 400 km2. The population density ranges from 600 persons per km2 in the southern edge of the forest, where rainfall is high and the land fertile, to 100 persons per km2 in the drier northwestern region (6). Remittances and employment (casual labor on large-scale tea, coffee, wheat and ranching es- tates) are major components of rural household income. In ur- ban centers nonagricultural opportunities for income and employ-

MERU

NYERI C Sheep- 0~ Barley FOREST NITHI

. / KIRINYAGA .

Figure 2. Schematic representation of agro-ecological zones in the forest-adjacent area. Source: (6).

Table 3. Population within 1.5 km of Mount Kenya forest.

Density (person kml) Area (km2) No. households

Embu 612 28 3427 Kidnyaga 612 40 4896 Meru 216 141 6089 Nyed 419 145 12158 Tharaka Nithi 459 42 3856

Total 384 396 30 427

Source: (6, 10).

Table 4. Project demand and supply of wood.

Volume of wood in '000 m3

Year 2000 2020

Total sustainable wood supply 24 929 33 064 Nonsustainable wood supply 414 911 Total wood supply 25 343 33 975 Total wood demand 26 746 45 676 Deficit -1403 -11 701

Source: (1).

Table 5. Elephant densities in the mountain ecosystems.

Region Elephants km~2

Mt. Kenya National P ark and forest reserve 2.57 Mt. Kenya (Sirimon/Naro Moru area) 1.95-3.05 Mt. Kenya (Embu area) 4.26-5.61 Mt. Kenya (Chogona area) 2.38 Abordare national park and forest reserve 1.25 Elgon National park and forest reserve 0.3

Source: (14).

ment include small business and trade, artisan industry, sales of forest products (6).

Aberdare Mountain Range Aberdare mountain range, also known as "The Nyandarua moun- tain range", is located in central Kenya and rises to an altitude of 4000 m a.s.l. The mountain range is shared by Kiambu, Muranga and Nyeri districts to the east, Laikipia district to the north, Nyandarua district to the west and Nakuru district to the south. The rainfall over the Aberdare mountain range is well distributed and varies from 1400 to 2600 mm yr-'. The high rain- fall, favorable soils and ground cover make this a high water- yielding catchment. This water catchment is the main source of water for the city of Nairobi; for Tana River which flows to the Indian Ocean; for Ewaso N'giro River which traverses the arid areas north of Mount Kenya and dries up at Lorian Swamp; and for Malewa River that feeds Lake Naivasha.

The main vegetation types are moorland, high and low altitude shrubs, Hagenia abyssinica, bamboo, juniperous/podo/olive forests, plantation forest and bush. Plantation forest covers about 150 km2. Exploitation of plantation forest is constrained by lack of forest roads and the rugged terrain (11).

The Aberdare National Park has an area of 767 km2 and is one of the most famous mountain parks in the country as it supports a high diversity of wildlife with about 72 large mammals. It receives about 65 000 visitors per year. There are approximately 2000 elephants and 40 rhinoceros. Elephants and rhinoceros are a major cause of wildlife-human conflict and an electric fence is now being erected to minimize conflicts (11).

Expansion of agricultural activities in the Aberdare mountain ecosystem is driven by land scarcity and the demand for more land on which to grow tea. The eastern side of Aberdare ranges is densely populated and is the main smallholder tea and coffee growing area in Kenya. Agricultural intensification has not taken place in on the western side due to the poor road network and poorly drained soils (11).

Mount Elgon Ecosystem Mount Elgon is the fourth highest mountain in Africa with a peak at 4320 m a.s.l. The topography ranges from the steep slopes in the mountain slope area and dissected and undulating landscape on the foothills. The mountain areas of Mount Elgon ecosystem encompass 1082 km2 in Kenya and 1145 km2 in Uganda (12). The southern side of Mount Elgon receives well-distributed an- nual rainfall of between 1600-1800 mm per annum due to local rains caused by the winds from Lake Victoria. The northern side of the mountain is drier receiving 1000-1200 mm per annum due to the rain-shadow effect of the mountain. Mount Elgon is an important water catchment for Western Kenya and Eastern Uganda. Rivers and springs from these mountain areas supply water to the rich farmlands, urban areas, and Lake Victoria. The catchment is also an important water source for Suam River on which the multi-million dollar Turkwell Gorge dam and hydro- power plant are constructed.

The main vegetation zones on Mount Elgon are mainly influ- enced by altitude, soils and climate. Four major vegetation zones are distinguished, namely: afro-alpine vegetation; bamboo; open woodland in the drier northern and eastern slopes; and tropical moist forest mainly on the southern slopes. These zones have a high diversity of plant life with Elgon teak being the most im- portant hardwood species. Mount Elgon has two forest reserves with an area of 664 kin2, covering most of the middle and lower slopes. Indigenous forest on the northern and eastern side of the mountain are largely intact, but that on the southern fringe has been degraded to a large extent due to commercial logging, en- croachment, and permanent settlement. The southern forest is under considerable pressure through ongoing illegal encroach- ment; government approved excision of certain areas; over-

432 ?D Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1999 Ambio Vol. 28 No. 5, August 1999 http://www.ambio.kva.se

exploitation of indigenous tree species; and no enrichment planting. Plantation for- ests consisting of cypress, pine and euca- lyptus species have been established. Ap- proximately, 50% of the plantation forest area has been turned to bush land due to lack of an effective management strategies for re-establish-ment, and utilization of plantation forests (12).

Mount Elgon National Park encom- passes 169 km2 and covers part of the top and a narrow strip of the middle and lower slopes of the mountain. The main animal species found in the National Park and the adjacent forest reserves include elephants (Loxodonta africana), buffalo (Synicerus caffer), leopard (Panthera pacrdus), baboon (Papio anubis), colobus monkey (Colobus guereza), blue monkey (Cercopithecus mi- tis), rock hyrax (Procavia capensis), bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus), water buck (Ko- bus ellipsiprymnus), porcupine (Hystrix cristata) and warthog (Phacochoerus africanus). The high population of animals and decreasing wildlife habitat is leading to severe degradation of the forest resources (12). The tourism potential of this eco- system has not been fully tapped due to lack of infrastructure and insecurity.

The inhabitants living in mountain areas of the Kenyan side of Mount Elgon were estimated to be 690 000 people in 1989 with a population density of 370 persons per km2 in the south- ern area and 123 persons per km2 on the eastern side (12). Popu- lation pressure is leading to land and political conflicts among the different ethnic groups living there. The mainstay of the ru- ral population, which comprises approximately 400 000 people, is agriculture. The foot slopes of Mount Elgon have a high ag- ricultural potential and are mainly used for maize, wheat, beans and horticultural production. The soils are well drained, fertile, and hence the area has high agricultural potential (13).

ENVIRONMENTAL AND DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES

Unsustainable Exploitation of Mountain Vegetation Resources Unsustainable exploitation of forest resources is taking place is some areas of the three mountain ecosystems. The areas ex- periencing the highest threats are those that are easily accessi- ble for commercial logging activities and areas that are inacces- sible to law enforcement officers. The main driving force is the unmanaged legal and illegal harvesting of a wide variety of forest products. Of immediate concern is the harvest of fuelwood, timber, poles, bamboo, and medicinal herbs. Harvesting of Mount Elgon teak and other hardwoods is taking place at un- sustainable levels, partly because of the low growth rate of the indigenous hardwood trees (12).

The projected supply and demand for wood supply presented in Table 4 shows that Kenya is able to meet its wood require- ments until 1999 with some supply coming from unsustainable sources such as clearing forests and woodlands. Future trends are expected to be worse, as evidenced by the projected wood supply deficit. The mountain areas are the major producers of wood supplies and they will be relied upon to offset the deficit. This can be achieved by better management to increase produc- tion and promoting of on-farm fuel wood production and by re- ducing the demand. An important challenge lies in the search for sustainable utilization of the forest resources.

Figure 3. ONTUI.II.I_1 Area of severe animal damage V IMNTI' around Mount j + 9> > t (RS Kenya National r FOREST''<t

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The wildlife population has increased in the national parks and forest reserves following the banning of game hunting and sale of game trophies and the eradication of poaching activities. Large mammals are heavy feeders. For example, elephants consume nearly 150 kg of forage per day and tend to destroy vegetation. Overpopulation of elephants can therefore slowly convert a for- est to a grassland environment (14). This has been observed in dryland forests of Tsavo National Park and some localized ar- eas in the mountain ecosystems.-

Conversion of Forest Land to Crop Land Most of the forest reserves were gazetted between 1930 and 1965. Since then there has been a number of alterations of the boundaries due to excisions for settlement and agriculture (6). The main forces behind conversion of forestland to cropland are: - high dependency on agriculture and lack of alternative non-

land-based sources of livelihood; - land scarcity as evidenced by increasing population-land

ratio; - low level of productivity per unit area of cultivated land; - economic, social and political pressure for excision of forest

land for human settlement; and - poor understanding of the impacts of changing from forest to

agriculture land use. Some patches of poorly accessible forestland are being used

for the production of Cannabis sativa. Although this has not reached alarming proportions, with increasing economic hard- ships this may become a major social problem in the future.

Human-Wildlife Conflict The main forms of human-wildlife conflict are competition for land and grazing resources and damage caused by problem ani- mals such as elephants, buffaloes and baboons. Damage includes human injury or death and damage to crops, forest plantation and infrastructure such as fences.

Conflict between human and wildlife has increased because of increases in animal and human population. The conflicts are exacerbated during the dry season when food and grazing re- sources are scarce. With the expansion of human settlements, areas previously used by wildlife have been converted for agri- culture and livestock production. The pressure is highest in densely populated mountain areas (Fig. 3). The perception of the affected people is that the government is protecting wildlife more than it is protecting them. For example in Shimba Hills between

Ambio Vol. 28 No. 5, August 1999 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1999 433 http://www.ambio.kva.se

1989 and 1994, wildlife injured or killed 36 people and only 19 elephants were killed. Buffer zones proposed are ineffective, as. they are the first targets of encroachment and overexploitation. Several defense and protection measures have been imple- mented, albeit not fully. They include: - raising the human tolerance threshold

and changing per-ceptions of wildlife; - removal of animals or increasing produc-

tivity of animal habitat; - buffer zoning and creating an animal

density gradient between the wilderness and human settlement area; and

- deterrence of animals through the con- struction of mechanical barriers (1 1, 12, 15).

Highland-Lowland Resource Use Conflicts Vast semiarid and arid lowlands surround the mountain areas of Kenya. The inhabit- ants of these lowlands are agro-pastoralist and pastoralists. Competition for water and grazing resources is the main source of conflict among the high- land and lowland inhabitants. Studies of the upper Ewaso Ng'iro North basin, that drains the northern part of the Aberdare Moun- tain ranges and the western and northern areas of Mount Kenya, indicates that dry season flows of Ewaso Ng'iro North River measured at Archers Post are decreasing (Fig. 4). The decrease is attributed to land-use changes in the mountain and lowland areas and to over-abstracting irrigation water mostly in the moun- tain foot-slope areas (7). The resulting water scarcity in the low- land has negative environmental impacts on riverine, Lorian swamp, and Samburu and Buffalo Springs game reserve ecosys- tems. The negative socioeconomic impacts on the pastoralists, hoteliers and tour operators are increasing leading to calls for a more equitable allocation of surface-water resources and for stream flow regulation to guarantee acceptable low flow water levels.

Grazing resources in the mountain areas during periods of pro- longed drought are seen as the only way to save the drought- stricken pastoralist livestock. This puts the mountain area re- sources at the highest level of demand and leads to conflicts and resource degradation due to overutilization.

Soil and Water Resource Degradation The fragile areas of mountain ecosystems such as cultivated and cleared steep slopes are experiencing high levels of resource deg- radation. Soil erosion is a major threat in cultivated mountain slopes. Soil erosion gradually reduces the production potential of the land and pollutes the water resources through sedi-

November flows at Archers Post 200 -

0) n 150 E

0 100 ------- . _ ...

0

0

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

February flows at Archers Post 80 -

E 60 - ----- E

3:40 0

CO2

(520 _

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Figure 4. February (dry season low flow) and November (rainy season high flow) at Archers Post. Source: (16).

mentation. The Masinga Dam catchment area of 7950 km2, com- prising the forested and cultivated catchments of east Aberdare and south Mount Kenya has a sediment yield of 250 000 to 1 283 000 tonnes per year (17). This poses a major problem for the future of Masinga Dam, the main streamflow regulating res- ervoir of Tana River and the hydropower generation.

In the tea and coffee zones and in intensive horticultural pro- duction areas, use of artificial fertilizers, pesticides and insecti- cides in large quantities is contributing to water pollution. Cof- fee-processing factories also emit large quantities of pollutants during periods of low river flows, thereby affecting water qual- ity during low flow periods, albeit for only a short distance.

CAPITALIZING ON THE OPPORTUNITIES Making the Best of the Proposed Policy Changes The mountain ecosystems are protected by the many regulations based on Acts of Parliament, ministerial policies, and Presiden- tial Directives. Over the last few years major changes in gov- ernment policies have been proposed. In some cases, the pro- posed policies are in direct contrast to the previous policy. There is general shift from government control to creating room for the involvement of nongovemment, private, and community or- ganizations in mountain ecosystem management. Table 6 shows the changes that have taken place in the forestry sector.

Partnerships in Management and Conservation Mountain areas have been recognized as complex and diverse

Table 6. Changes in government policy on forest resource management.

Act or Policy instrument Main features

Forests Act of 1942 and Forestry Policy of 1968 Permitted adjacent communities to use forest reserves without license or fee by virtue of customary practice. A Presidential Directive of 1983 Banned felling of live indigenous trees on gazetted forest lands. Nyayo Tea Zone established in 1984 Introduced a 50-500 m wide tea buffer zone in area suitable for tea production to reduce encroachment into

the forest areas by forest adjacent dwellers and reduce wildlife damage to adjacent cropland. Departmental Instruction in 1988 Stopped exports of unworked indigenous timber. Departmental Instruction in 1988. The shamba system of forest cultivation-a system of plantation management based on temporarily allowing

combined agricultural production and plantation maintenance-was discontinued, and forest squatters removed. Departmental Instructions in 1991 The shamba system has been reinstated in selected areas of the country permitting non-resident cultivation in

plantation areas. Forest grazing was also re-introduced. New forestry policy for Kenya in 1994 Policy revised to include major stated objectives of supporting national government policy of alleviating policy

and promoting rural development through income based on forest and tree resources, by providing employment, by promoting equity and participation of local communities.

Govemment announcement in 1995 Sales of hardwoods declared illegal.

Source: (12,18).

434 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1999 Ambio Vol. 28 No. 5, August 1999 http://www.ambio.kva.se

ecosystems utilized and managed by many stakeholders. Part- nerships of all stakeholders are contributing to reduced illegal exploitation and promoting regeneration. Notable partnerships include: Partnership between Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) and the lo- cal communities: Sharing benefits with the adjacent com- munities has been proposed as a solution to promoting sustain- able management of mountain resources, particularly through sharing of tourism revenue. Kenya Wildlife Services has estab- lished a community wildlife program in order to increase par- ticipation of local communities in wildlife operations. The pro- gram objectives include: using a percentage of revenues received from park entrances to finance rural development activities pro- posed by the communities; and supporting rural communities to operate tour ventures and other small-scale development activi- ties compatible with and supportive of conservation (9, 15).

Partnership between Forest Department (FD) and Timber Saw Millers: In regeneration of plantation forests and repair of for- est roads (1).

Memorandum of understanding between KWS and FD: Signed in December 1991 is aimed at enhancing and improving, through collaborative initiatives, the integrated management and conser- vation of forest resources and the wildlife contained in them. The memorandum covers partnerships in policy formulation, man- agement planning, promotion of joint forest management, com- munity involvement, tourism development, and problem animal control activities (15).

Partnership between National Soil and Water Conservation Pro- gramme and the land users: Started in 1974 when the Swedish Government granted Kenya financial support to promote soil conservation activities. The program based in the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing provides advice and financial support towards sustainable use of the land resources through soil and water conservation and agroforestry initiatives. To date, the program is credited for its contribution in reversing soil degradation trends through creating awareness, promoting better farming techniques and construction of millions of kilometers of soil conservation structures (19).

Resolving Transborder Resource-use Conflicts The mountain ecosystem of Mount Elgon straddles the Kenya- Uganda border and falls in the category of Transboundary Protected Areas (12). The main transborder resource-management issues are migration of people and wildlife, protection of the Uganda water catchment that feeds Suam River on which Kenya constructed a multi-million dollar dam and hydropower plant; law enforcement in poorly accessible no-man's land; intercountry integrated planning and management. Management initiatives with an integrated and participatory approach have been success- fully launched in Kenya and Uganda. The Kenyan and Ugan- dan project are working on modalities to jointly address zoning, management of migratory species, tourism and security issues.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Mountain ecosystems of Kenya are important for their economic, social, spiritual and environmental values. They directly support over 60%o of the population and indirectly support an additional 20%. Threats to sustainable use and management of these eco- systems are highest in densely populated areas and during the drought periods.

There are many initiatives aimed at addressing the threats. Their success is constrained by inadequate understanding of the impacts. Most of the institutions charged with the responsibil- ity of promoting sustainable development of mountain areas have

no capacity and/or willingness to monitor and assess the impact of current levels of exploitation. As a result there are limited data on the current levels of exploitation and its environmental, so- cial and economic impacts. There is a need to quantitatively dem- onstrate the relationship between current levels of exploitation and future production levels. This would provide a sound basis for planning natural-resources development and utilization to minimize conflicts. The demonstration would also provide a ba- sis for drafting regulations that will promote sustainable utiliza- tion.

Knowledge gaps exist on the impacts of land-use changes, impacts from terracing on mass movement, threat of climate change, impacts of different policies on resource use and man- agement, and opportunities for non-land based sources of live- lihood for mountain area dwellers.

Reference and Notes 1. MENR (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources) 1994. Kenya Forestry Mas-

ter Plan 1995-2020. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Nairobi, Kenya. 2. Muchena, F.N. and Gachene, C.K.K. 1990. Soils of the Highland and Mountainous

Areas of Kenya with Special Emphasis on Agricultural Soils. In: B. Messerli and H. Humi (Eds), African Mountains and Highlands: Problems and Perspectives. Walsworth Press, Marceline, Missouri, USA, pp. 157-170.

3. GoK (Govemment of Kenya) 1989. Govemment of Kenya: National Development Plan for the Period 1989:1993. Nairobi.

4. Kohler T. 1976. Wald und Waldnutzung in Kenya. Institute of Geography, University of Beme, Beme, Switzerland.

5. Mountain Agenda, 1992. The state of the Worlds Mountains: A Global Report. Stone, P.B. (ed.). Zed Books Ltd., London, UK, p. 391.

6. Emerton, L. 1996. Socio-economic Survey Recommendations for Mount Kenya For- est. Project Technical Paper No. 10. Report on a consultancy carried out for the Con- servation and Management of Indigenous Forests Project. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Nairobi, Kenya.

7. Gichuki, F. N., Liniger, H.P., MacMillan, L.C., Schwilch, G. and Gikonyo, J.K. 1998. Scarce water: Exploring resource availability, use and improved management. East. South. Afr. Geogr. J. 8, Special Number, 1998, 15-28.

8. Liniger, H.P., Weingartner, R. Grosjean, M., Kull, C., MacMillan, L., Messerli, B., Bisaz, A. and Lutz, U. 1998. Mountains of the World, Water Towers for the 21st Cen- tury-A Contribution to Global Freshwater Management. Mountain Agenda, Paul Haupt, Bem, p. 32.

9. KWS (Kenya Wildlife Service) 1993. Mount Kenya National Park Management Plan 1993-1998. KWS report. Nairobi, Kenya

10. Emerton, L. 1995. Socio-Economic Notes on Mount Kenya Forest Reserve. Centre for Biodiversity, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi.

11. MENR (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources) 1996. Kenya: The Aberdares Natural Resources Development Project. Ministry of Environment and Natural Re- sources, Nairobi, Kenya.

12. Bakema, R.J., Betlem, J., Kamweti, D., Ongayo, M., Gathaara, G., Kahuki, C., Kisioh, H. and Wasike, S. 1997. Mount Elgon Integrated Conservation and Development Project: Formulation Document. IUCN, Nairobi, Kenya, p. 64.

13. Jaetzold, R. and Schmidt, H. 1982. Farm Management Handbook of Kenya, Vol II. Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi, Kenya.

14. Reuling, M., Mativu, V., Njumbi, S. and Litoroh, M. 1992. Mount Kenya and Mount Elgon Forest Elephant Survey. Kenya Wildlife Service report, Nairobi.

15. Gathaara, G. and Kahuki, C. 1994. Partnership in management and conservation. MOU newsletter, Issue 1. Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi.

16. NRM3 (Natural Resources Monitoring, Modelling and Management), Photo database. 17. Schneider, H.M. 1994. Sediment Sources to the Masinga Dam. Paper presented at the

4th National Workshop on Soil and Water Conservation held in Nairobi, Kenya, Feb- ruary, 1994.

18. MENR (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources) 1994. Kenya National Envi- ronmental Action Plan, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Nairobi, Kenya.

19. MoALDM (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing), 1997. National Soil and Water Conservation Programme-Annual Report, Nairobi, Kenya.

20. Acknowledgements. I would like to thank the organizers of Symposium on Research for Mountain Area Development (Africa and Asia) for inviting me to present this work. Special thanks go to Mr. G. Gathaara of Kenya Wildlife Services and Mr. Humphrey Kisio of IUCN for sharing with me their experiences in mountain issues. I am grateful to the many authors that I have quoted and to the University of Nairobi for giving me time off to participate in the symposium.

Francis Ndegwa Gichuki completed his studies at the Utah State University, Logan, Utah, USA, with a PhD thesis on development of a branching canal network hydraulic model. He has undertaken teaching in soil and water engineering and research in sustainable natural-resources management. He is currently a senior lecturer at the Department of Agricultural engineering, University of Nairobi, Kenya. He is also a Regional Coordinator of the Soil and Water Management Programme. His address: Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya. e-mail: [email protected]

Ambio Vol. 28 No. 5, August 1999 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1999 435 http://www.ambio.kva.se