4. Solid LLW: in US LLW is not HLW, TRU, tailings, "acceptable for land disposal" <10 nCi/g of TRU, LLW "produced" and "requiring offsite disposal", management options: on/off site, allowable limits on release LLW Streams produced by Power Reactors (R), Medical, Academic and Institutional generators (M), Industry (I) and Government (G). Source RM IG Compacted trash or solids XXXX Dry active waste, dewatered ion-exchange resins X Contaminated bulk and plant hardware X XX Liquid scintillation wastes, absorbed liquids XXX Biological waste+ animal carcasses X LLRW Policy Amendments Act of 1985: compact states*, surcharge 10-40$ Management steps*: segregation 10 CFR 61 * class A, B, C requirements: stable 300 y, <1 % free water, explosive, toxic gases Sources: tailings: sand + slimes Ra-226, bone, Rn-222 lungs, cancer Composition of Uranium Mill Tailings: Dry solids (pCi/g) : U 3 0 S : 63, 226-Ra : 450, 230-Th : 430; Total = 4400 pCi/g = 163 Bq/g Liquids (gil) : ammonia: 0.5, Ca : 0.5, CI : 0.3, Fe : 1, Mn : 0.5, Hg : 7E-5, Mo : 0.1, Na: 0.2, sulphates : 30; Liquids (pCi/I) : U : 5400, 226-Ra : 400, 230-Th : 1500, 210-Pb, 210-Po, 210-Pb, 210-Bi : 400. Production: 1800 tid, 1E+ 14 Bqly, onsite impoundments 1
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4. Solid LLW: in US LLW is not HLW, TRU, tailings,"acceptable for land disposal" <10 nCi/g of TRU, LLW"produced" and "requiring offsite disposal", managementoptions: on/off site, allowable limits on releaseLLW Streams produced by Power Reactors (R), Medical,Academic and Institutional generators (M), Industry (I) andGovernment (G).Source RM I GCompacted trash or solids X X X XDry active waste, dewatered ion-exchange resins XContaminated bulk and plant hardware X X XLiquid scintillation wastes, absorbed liquids X X XBiological waste+ animal carcasses XLLRW Policy Amendments Act of 1985: compact states*,surcharge 10-40$Management steps*: segregation 10 CFR 61 * class A, B, Crequirements: stable 300 y, <1% free water, explosive, toxicgasesSources: tailings: sand + slimes Ra-226, bone, Rn-222 lungs,cancer Composition ofUranium Mill Tailings:Dry solids (pCi/g) : U30 S : 63, 226-Ra : 450, 230-Th : 430;Total = 4400 pCi/g = 163 Bq/gLiquids (gil) : ammonia: 0.5, Ca : 0.5, CI : 0.3, Fe : 1, Mn: 0.5, Hg : 7E-5, Mo : 0.1, Na: 0.2, sulphates : 30;Liquids (pCi/I) : U : 5400, 226-Ra : 400, 230-Th : 1500,210-Pb, 210-Po, 210-Pb, 210-Bi : 400.Production: 1800 tid, 1E+14 Bqly, onsite impoundments 1
, .
kIn long, 10 m high, 80 ha, wet/dry, stabilization + closure,NRC 1979-200020 MCi Rn-222 181 deathsTailing sites: 7 US states (NM 50% Wyo 30% Utah + Col6% Texas 4% Wash, SD), 9E+7 m3
, 408 kCi, 9 kW;remedial actions: 17E+6 m3
, Grand Junction (Col),Canonsburg (Pen)U conversion: refineries, enrichment, 1400 m3
(walls, bottom?), basin, cover; liners: permeability (p-m/s),clay: 0.3-1. m P = lE-9 ion exchange, bentonite,montmorillonite; synthetic L: PVC, neoprene, gunite,hypalon P=lE-ll to 1E-12 resistance, aging; asphalt,concrete; management program: liquid removal, drainage,cover stabilization (clay, soil, rocksAlternative designs: above or below grade (AG, BG):above-grade*: dikes, slurry pipeline, water recycled, activecare; below grade*: mines, pits, less erosion; excavated BGtrench*: sections, sealing, segregation; upgradedconventional AG impoundment*: erosion, isolation,topography, windSea dumping of RW*: controversy, WW 2, ecologymovement, 2 routes: liquid LLW, packaged SLLW +m..W?; deliberate, fallout, air emissions, accidents; history:1946-67 US 4000 TBq Pacific and Atlantic, GulfofMexico,1200 TBq Seawolf submarine, 2800 m site 38'30''N72'06"W, 10 sites 46'N 17'W countries (B, N, SZ, UK),LLW from NFC, medicine,.. in Atlantic 1948-82: 142275t, alpha 680 TBq: Pu* + Am-241 96%, beta 38000 TBq, H3 15000 TBq, H-3 + Pu-241 87%; Sr-90, Cs-137, Co-60,dumping rates TBqly: 0.03 U-238 to 1490 Pu-241,packaging (S/HfT); regulation: LDC 1972-5 ratified by 61states, proscribed: m..W, TBq/kg alpha>5E-5, beta (T>1y»2E-2, beta (T< 1y) +H-3 >3; 1000 t max;recommendations: dose<l mSv, site: depth>4 km, 10000km2 50 N<site<50 S latitude, clear of continental margins
islands cables fishing..Safety assessment: RI not detectable, modelling, ID = 20mSv/y 200 y mollusc Pu-239/241, CD = 4.2 manSv/y C-14,NEA 1985 site suitable for dumping 5 y* lOX; recentdevelopments: 1983 7th meeting (K+N) ban proposed~ 19859th meeting ban adopted, 10 cancers/y at 200 y shellfish,1000 deaths/10000 y, C·14 Pu-241, dose to marine life,studies
Waste GenerationSource
Residual Recoveryfor Reuse
Collection/Segregation
Processing
tConditioning ------------~ Treatment
Discharge ofTreated Effluent
'------....-lPackaging~----...
Interim Storage
Transport
Disposal
Figure 5-1 Steps in the management of low-level waste~
•
·---,._¥-.".-~.... - .._~.~~._".-. --_...
AP - APPALACHIANCM - CENTRAL MIDWESTCS - CENTRAL STATESMW - MIDWESTNE - NORTHEASTNW - NORTHWESTRM - ROCKY MOUNTAINSE - SOUTHEASTWE - WESTERN
Interst8te compacts for low-level waste disposal. The states without shading havenot joined a compact. (Courtesy of Nuclear News. American Nuclear Society.)
MIXTUREpCi/cc
TABLE 1LONG-LIVED RADIONUCLIDE LIMITS
CONVERT TOneil;
CLASS A LIMITS
NUCLIDE Cilm'
.CiI,
1003,500
20,000
7070015044
70040
7003.5
350.041
700700070004600
NUCLIDE
TRU ft~ <5 yrlPu·241Cm-242
a80
2200.230.08
CLASS 8 LIMITS
NUCLIDE Cilm'
TABLE 2SHORT·LIVED
RADIONUCLIDE
CLASS CLIMITS
NUCLIDE Cilm'
lyo <5 yrH·3Co·60Ni·63Ni·63·5,-90Cs-137
Ni·63Ni-63·5,·90Cs·137
Ni·63Ni·63·S,·90 'Cs-137
NUCLIDE
C·14C·14·Ni-5i·Nb·i4·Tc-991·129 .
NO
CLASS 8WASTE
CLASS AWASTE
CLASS CWASTE
EXCEEOSCLASSCLIMITS
"IN ACTIVATED METAL
Figure 5-2 Classification chart for radioactive waste based on 10 CFR Part 61. Source:(DOE 1984).
LlI::FL=U=E=G=A::=S=C=O=O=L=E=R=~:fr--...,TO MAIN STA
TO COOLING . -':~""""_---' • ~_---lnl=;-;::="========~AND RECYCLE _..., COOLING WATER \ ,
1-__ COOLING AND i
RECYCLE
j, FILTERS, CERAM,~FI:(PUSH USED FILTERSINTO FURNACE I
BOXED 0 0 0 0 6:J MOLTEN GLASSWASTE ELECTRODES ~
Figure 5-15 Flow diagram of the Penberthy molten-glass incinerator (electromsystem. Source: (DOE 1984)..
TI/Jff/!-(1S
_.---".-'...~~
"i .-
;igur<: 9.3 Thc ncar-surfac<: LLWilLW disposal f;tcility at Centrc i'vlanch<:. Cap la Hague,;ranc<:. showing engineered disposal of wastes in conercte containers in (a) shallowrem;hes capped olT with more wast<:s (b) in a tumulus; shown sch<:matically in (c).::'ourlesy of CEA/Andr:t
~~Ccp
Permeable sedlmenfs Impermeable clay
Figun: <).4 Sdlt.:l1lalit.: diagram of lht.: t.:lmt.:<:pl 1)1' tr<:nt.:h disposal in p<:rm<:abl<:>t.:dimt.:nls abl)\t.: a 11ut.:lualing walc:r labl<:. and in impt.:rmc:abk clays bdow tht.:".,t , .. ,,,t..l .. , I~, ...,. t.·· ••• ,· .... ,'1.-f ·",·,-f,·",;..:P'·': ·lr- .• ,L',nin-'ff'II h.; ditl"lls1\)n. nin.:t:tions
--:-.-----_--~-~ ',7'(VEGETATION)
y-------------"':~/(TOPsOTL)
LOW- PERMEABILITYCLAY LAYER
UNDERDRAINAGEBLANKET
WASTE PACKAGES
PERVIOUS Bti:KFILL--""l'-:
LON-PERMEABILITY
MEMBRANE --'o;':';';';';I~_~~~~F'tf. '!-.-g~
-ground vault. (Courtesy of U,S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.)
Figure 9.2 Conceptu~l di~gr~m or an enginccrcd nC:.lr-surracc disposal f~cility for SOl
eatcgorics or lov.: or short-lived intermediatc level wastcs. Thc pacbgcd W:.lstcs ~
embedded in cement in a concrctc structure. situated bdow a separatc concrete rdcsigncd to protect against inadvertent intrusion (courtesy of UK Nircx Ltd)
Earth-mounded concrete bunker, developed by the French. (Courtesy of the UNuclear Regulatory Commission.)
SLOPESAWAY FROMSTRUCTURE
LOW- PERMEABILITY
SLOPE UNDER GRAVEL TO SINGLE DRAIN
Jove-ground vault. (Courtesy of U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.)~-----------_.....-
CLAYCAP
SOIL COVER ANDVEGETATION
-~~~_-E'
• • It •
•TAILINGS
"a '''''7SUBSOILS
COMPACTED
.bove-grade disposal of uranium tailings. Source: {NRC
to
NORMAL STEEP SIDEWALL THICK SIDEWALL LINER OPTION
REDUCED SIDEWALLSLOPE-THIN LINER OPTION
THICKCLAY LINER
CLAYCAP
OVERBURDENCOVER
TOPSOIL ANDVEGETATION
THIN CLAY11M) OR
SYNTHETICLINER
CLAY BOTTOM LINERIOPTION BELOW OR
ABOVE FILL)
Figure 6-15 Disposal of tailings slurry in available open-pit mine. Source: (NRC 19
IPLAN IVIEWSECTION BEING EXCAVATED
AND LINED
REVEGETATEDI'>ECTION OF ACTIVE DEPOSITION RECLAIMED
/II. SECTION
TEM~~~ARY r---- ---- ---------------------yI I1 - --- ------------------.., I
_. ----~ I FUTURE
I r : ,..- ---- J TRENCH AREA
I I A--------------:~ ./I L / y.-------------~ "
~'---------------J~-------_----, I----' I,,____I
REVEGETATEDIRECLAIMED
SECTION
SECTION OFACTIVE
DEPOSITION
SECTIONA·A
STOCKPILEDOVERBURDEN,-_r
SLIMES
•• • SANDS: •••
--BOTTOMAND SIDE LINING
CLAY OR SYNTHETIC
CLAYCAPOVERBURDEN
)-16 Disposal in specially excavated below-grade trench. Source: (NRC 1979).
~ DAMFACIPROTECTE
WITH RIPR,
NO UPSTREAMDRAINAGE
/
[ SECTION
TOPSOILAND
VEGETATION
BOTTOMLINER
CLAY CAP OVERBURDEN
EARTHENDAM WITH
CLAY CORE EMBANKMEISLOPE CONTOITO BE VERY F
EMBANKMENTRIPRAP ON
VERYGRADU,SLOPE
/'/
TAILINGSNEAR DIVIDE
COVERED -,......
/' /TA>I'5LI;=:NG:::S~~~::---.J~~",IJ -----TOPOGRAPHY ,,/ ./' ~PROVIDES GOOD ,,/
WIND PROTECTION /' /,/./-- /.~ /. ./
Figure 6-17 Tailings Disposed above grade with specialSource: (NRC 1979).
siting and design featu
.-"'-
",-, ,.
'.
'~.
•.",,:.---
\ ...•.
~'~.:. " ~,~
. ,.
-"- -""
. "":~":~.,..
r,,'~~':~.
"
'~" ...
.'.",.•.. ;
. -'.~.....
. ,.
.re 2: Radioactive waste container on the floor of the AtlanIn. The United States Environmental Protection Agency.owledged for providing permission to reproduce this photogra}: