4. Polysemy and Homonymy

4. Sense Relations (I): Polysemy and Homonymy

4.1 Semasiology and onomasiology - two basic approaches to the study of words and their senses

The terminological pair onomasiology/ semasiology is a traditional one in European lexicology and lexicography. This pair is generally regarded as identifying two different perspectives for studying the relationship between words and their semantic values.

Semasiology (from the Greek sema, "sign") takes its starting point in the word as a form and describes what semantic values/senses/signifies it may have. Onomasiology (from Greek onoma "name") accounts for the opposite direction in the study of meaning, that is it starts from a semantic value/given concept (signified/ signifie) to the various words/expressions/signifiers (signifiants) that are used to name that particular concept. Actually, onomasiological research is rather concerned with sets of related concepts (expressed by sense relations such as synonymy and antonymy) than with a single semantic category (e.g. polysemy and homonymy); as such, it traditionally coincides with lexical field research.

Geeraerts, Grondelaersand and Bakema (1994: 3) include semasiological and onomasiological variation among the four main kinds of lexical variation they identify: semasiological, onomasiological, formal and contextual. The first two types are placed under the general heading conceptual variation.

Semasiological variation involves the situation that one particular lexical item may refer to distinct types of referents. Onomasiological variation involves the situation that a referent or type of referent may be named by means of various conceptually distinct lexical categories.

While the poststructuralist phase in the history of lexical semantics had a predominantly semasiological focus (concentrating as it did on the changes of meaning of individual words), the structuralist stage stressed the necessity of complementing the semasiological perspective with an onomasiological one.

Baldinger (1980: 307) discusses onomasiology and semasiology in terms of speaker's and hearer's points of view: "Onomasiology approaches problems form the viewpoint of the speaker, who has to choose between different names of expression. Semasiology approaches problems from the viewpoint of the listener, who has to determine the meaning of the words he hears, from all the possible meanings"

The complementarity of the onomasiological and semasiological perspectives is summarized in the last chapter, presenting the interdependence of the two structures: "Each linguistic evolution is

produced on the one hand within the framework of a semasiological structure and on the other within the framework of an onomasiological structure." (Baldinger, 1980: 308)

4.2 From word to concept: polysemy and homonymy

The classical distinction between polysemy and homonymy has concerned semanticists like Ullman (1962), Weinreich (1963, 1966), Lyons (1977), Lehrer (1974b).

Ullman (1962) has proposed two criteria for distinguishing homonymy and polysemy: etymology and spelling. Following Lehrer (1974b) we contend that these criteria rely on diachronic structure and are not workable for languages that are unwritten or for which the history is unknown.

However, Ullmann (1962) rightly notes that it is impossible to imagine a language without polysemy while a language without homonymy is not only conceivable; it would in fact be a more efficient medium.

The criteria that are most invoked in the literature to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy are etymology and relatedness of meaning. In terms of the former criterion, lexical items with the same origin are considered as polysemic, whereas if they have evolved from distinct lexemes in some earlier stage of the language than they are regarded as homonymous.

This condition is not always relevant and therefore decisive, because the history of the language does not always reflect its present state: there are instances of words that come from the same source and cannot be considered polysemantic, but homonymic. For instance, in present-day English, the lexemes pupil1 "student" and pupil2, "iris of the eye" are not semantically related but they both come from Latin pupillus, pupilla "ward, orphan-boy" which is a diminutive of pupus "child".

The opposite case is also fairly common, namely when two lexemes derived from different roots in an earlier state of the language are seen as related. For example, ear1 "organ of hearing" comes form Latin auris 'ear', while ear2 "spike of corn" is derived form Latin acus, aceris 'husk' .

Synchronically, most people heat these two lexemes as one polysemous word and explain their relation by means of metaphor, i.e. the ear corn was felt to be a metaphor of the type "the eye of a needle", "the foot of the mountain", etc.

Therefore, the etymological criterion can be misleading when deciding between homonymy and polysemy. The latter criterion, i.e. relatedness vs. unrelatedness of meaning is questioned by Lyons (1977)

who argues that relatedness of meaning appears to be a matter of degree, together with the fact that sometimes native speaker's intuitions are from being the true interpretations as has been seen with the ear example.

Similarity/relatedness of meaning has been represented in a formalized manner by Katz (1972), Katz and Fodor (1963) who propose the decomposition of the sense of a word into its minimal distinctive features, i.e. into semantic components which contrast with other components.

Unfortunately, componential definitions of the type [physical object], [concrete], [animate] for the description of lexemes such as bank or mouth are not sufficient for the polysemy-homonymy problem.

The relatedness between the different senses of a word is not expressible in terms of +- features because there are cases in which these features are present in different degrees, not in absolute terms. For instance, the terms bachelor, lie and mother have become classic examples in the literature.

Fillmore (1982a) analyses bachelor that is usually defined as an unmarried adult man by bringing into discussion less typical examples of bachelors such as male participants in long-term unmarried coupling, boys abandoned in the jungle and grown to maturity away from contact with human society, some priests or homosexuals.

Coleman and Kay (1981: 21) discuss the concept lie in terms of (a) falsehood, (b) deliberateness and (c) intent to deceive. As these three elements may possess different degrees of importance, there may be prototypical lies, when a statement is characterized by properties (b) and (c) and partial lies that include instances of social lie (e.g. 'Drop in any time'), white lie, exaggerations, joke, etc. A social lie is a case where deceit is helpful and a white lie is a case where deceit is not harmful.

Lakoff (1987: 76) analyses the concept mother and concludes that it cannot be defined "in terms of common necessary and sufficient condition approach" that can be associated with CA in structuralist semantics. His argument is the existence of marginal or less typical cases of mother: biological mothers, donor mothers (who donate an egg), surrogate mothers (who bear the child but may not have donated the egg), adoptive mothers, unwed mothers who give their children up for adoption, and stepmothers.

The problem of relatedness of meaning should therefore be regarded as a gradient and sometimes subjective notion. Although some linguists such as Lyons (1977: 553) question to some extent the theoretical significance of the distinction between polysemy and homonymy, the two phenomena differ from each other in two major points:

(1) homonymy is an accident and thus highly language-specific phenomenon

(2) polsemy is motivated and similar senses can be found in different even typologically/historically unrelated languages.

4.3. Study questions and exercises

1. Answer these questions:

1. What do semasiology and onomasiology generally study? Semasiology (from the Greek sema, "sign") takes its starting point in the word as a form and describes what semantic values/senses/signifies it may have. Onomasiology (from Greek onoma "name") accounts for the opposite direction in the study of meaning, that is it starts from a semantic value/given concept (signified/ signifie) to the various words/expressions/signifiers (signifiants) that are used to name that particular concept.2. What is the distinction between semasiology and onomasiology? Onomasiological research is rather concerned with sets of related concepts (expressed by sense relations such as synonymy and antonymy) than with a single semantic category (e.g. polysemy and homonymy); as such, it traditionally coincides with lexical field research.Semasiological variation involves the situation that one particular lexical item may refer to distinct types of referents. Onomasiological variation involves the situation that a referent or type of referent may be named by means of various conceptually distinct lexical categories.

3. What is the focus of semasiological research? Single semantic category (e.g. polysemy and homonymy)4. What semantic relations are associated with onomasiology?

Sets of related concepts (expressed by sense relations such as synonymy and antonymy).

What does semasiological variation refer to? Semasiological variation involves the situation that one particular lexical item may refer to distinct types of referents.

What does onomasiological variation imply? Onomasiological variation involves the situation that a referent or type of referent may be named by means of various conceptually distinct lexical categories.

5. How does onomasiology differ from semasiology? While the poststructuralist phase in the history of lexical semantics had a predominantly semasiological focus (concentrating as it did on the

changes of meaning of individual words), the structuralist stage stressed the necessity of complementing the semasiological perspective with an onomasiological one. Baldinger (1980: 307) discusses onomasiology and semasiology in terms of speaker's and hearer's points of view: "Onomasiology approaches problems form the viewpoint of the speaker, who has to choose between different names of expression. Semasiology approaches problems from the viewpoint of the listener, who has to determine the meaning of the words he hears, from all the possible meanings"

6. What are the criteria used in distinguishing polysemy from homonymy?

Ullman (1962) has proposed two criteria for distinguishing homonymy andpolysemy: etymology and spelling.

2. Explain the mechanism of sense extension in these words:

a) climb Noun 1. climb - an upward slope or grade (as in a road); "the car couldn't

make it up the rise"acclivity, ascent, upgrade, raise, riseincline, slope, side - an elevated geological formation; "he climbed the steep slope"; "the house was built on the side of a mountain"uphill - the upward slope of a hill

2. climb - an event that involves rising to a higher point (as in altitude or temperature or intensity etc.)climbing, mountingrising, ascension, ascent, rise - a movement upward; "they cheered the rise of the hot-air balloon"

3. climb - the act of climbing something; "it was a difficult climb to the top"mountascending, rise, ascent, ascension - the act of changing location in an upward directionscaling - ascent by or as if by a ladderclamber - an awkward climb; "reaching the crest was a real clamber"mountain climbing, mountaineering - the activity of climbing a mountainrock climbing - the sport or pastime of scaling rock masses on mountain sides (especially with the help of ropes and special equipment)

Verb 1. climb - go upward with gradual or continuous progress; "Did you ever climb up the hill behind your house?"climb up, go up, mountscale - climb up by means of a ladderescalade - climb up and over; "They had to escalade canyons to reach their destination"ramp - creep up -- used especially of plants; "The roses ramped over the wall"mountaineer - climb mountains for pleasure as a sportgo up, rise, move up, lift, arise, come up, uprise - move upward; "The fog lifted"; "The smoke arose from the forest fire"; "The mist uprose from the meadows"ride - climb up on the body; "Shorts that ride up"; "This skirt keeps riding up my legs"bestride, climb on, hop on, jump on, mount up, get on, mount - get up on the back of; "mount a horse"climb down, alight - come down; "the birds alighted"

2. climb - move with difficulty, by graspingmove - move so as to change position, perform a nontranslational motion; "He moved his hand slightly to the right"shin, shinny, skin, clamber, scramble, sputter, struggle - climb awkwardly, as if by scrambling

3. climb - go up or advance; "Sales were climbing after prices were lowered"mount, wax, risejump - increase suddenly and significantly; "Prices jumped overnight"increase - become bigger or greater in amount; "The amount of work increased"gain, advance - rise in rate or price; "The stock market gained 24 points today"

4. climb - slope upward; "The path climbed all the way to the top of the hill"slope, incline, pitch - be at an angle; "The terrain sloped down"

5. climb - improve one's social status; "This young man knows how to climb the social ladder"progress, shape up, come along, come on, get along, get on, advance - develop in a positive way; "He progressed well in school"; "My plants are coming along"; "Plans are shaping up"

6. climb - increase in value or to a higher point; "prices climbed steeply"; "the value of our house rose sharply last year"go up, rise

soar - go or move upward; "The stock market soared after the cease-fire was announced"bull - advance in price; "stocks were bulling"grow - become larger, greater, or bigger; expand or gain; "The problem grew too large for me"; "Her business grew fast"1

climb

verb

1. ascend, scale, mount, go up, clamber, shin up Climbing the first hill took half an hour.

2. clamber, descend, scramble, dismount He climbed down from the cab.

3. rise, go up, soar, ascend, fly up The plane took off, lost an engine as it climbed, and crashed just off the runway.

4. increase, rise, mount, go up, rocket, soar, escalate, inflate, shoot up, snowball Prices have climbed by 21% since the beginning of the year.

5. slope, rise, go up, incline The road climbs steeply.

climb down back down, withdraw, yield, concede, retreat, surrender, give in, cave in (informal), retract, admit defeat, back-pedal, eat your words, eat crow (U.S. informal) He has climbed down on pledges to reduce capital gains tax.

Related wordsadjective scansoriald) writingNoun 1. writing - the act of creating written works; "writing was a form

of therapy for him"; "it was a matter of disputed authorship"authorship, penning, compositionverbal creation - creating something by the use of speech and

1 Based on WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. © 2003-2012 Princeton University, Farlex Inc.

languageadoxography - fine writing in praise of trivial or base subjects; "Elizabethan schoolboys were taught adoxography, the art of eruditely praising worthless things"; "adoxography is particularly useful to lawyers"drafting - writing a first version to be filled out and polished laterdramatisation, dramatization - conversion into dramatic form; "the play was a dramatization of a short story"fabrication, fictionalisation, fictionalization - writing in a fictional formhistoriography - the writing of historymetrification - writing a metrical composition (or the metrical structure of a composition)novelisation, novelization - converting something into the form of a novelredaction - the act of putting something in writinglexicography - the act of writing dictionariesversification - the art or practice of writing verseindite, pen, write, compose - produce a literary work; "She composed a poem"; "He wrote four novels"write about, write of, write on - write about a particular topic; "Snow wrote about China"profile - write about; "The author of this article profiles a famous painter"paragraph - write paragraphs; work as a paragrapherdash off, fling off, scratch off, toss off, knock off - write quickly; "She dashed off a note to her husband saying she would not be home for supper"; "He scratched off a thank-you note to the hostess"rewrite - rewrite so as to make fit to suit a new or different purpose; "re-write a play for use in schools"write copy - write for commercial publications; "She writes copy for Harper's Bazaar"dramatise, dramatize, adopt - put into dramatic form; "adopt a book for a screenplay"draft, outline - draw up an outline or sketch for something; "draft a speech"author - be the author of; "She authored this play"co-author - be a co-author on (a book, a paper)ghostwrite, ghost - write for someone else; "How many books have you ghostwritten so far?"annotate, footnote - add explanatory notes to or supply with critical comments; "The scholar annotated the early edition of a

famous novel"reference, cite - refer to; "he referenced his colleagues' work"write out, write up - put into writing; write in complete form; "write out a contract"script - write a script for; "The playwright scripted the movie"

2. writing - the work of a writer; anything expressed in letters of the alphabet (especially when considered from the point of view of style and effect); "the writing in her novels is excellent"; "that editorial was a fine piece of writing"piece of writing, written materialbowdlerisation, bowdlerization - written material that has been bowdlerizedtitle - (usually plural) written material introduced into a movie or TV show to give credits or represent dialogue or explain an action; "the titles go by faster than I can read"black and white, written communication, written language - communication by means of written symbols (either printed or handwritten)cryptogram, secret writing, cryptograph - a piece of writing in code or cipherrewrite, revision, rescript - something that has been written again; "the rewrite was much better"literary composition, literary work - imaginative or creative writingliterature - creative writing of recognized artistic valueliterature - published writings in a particular style on a particular subject; "the technical literature"; "one aspect of Waterloo has not yet been treated in the literature"matter - written works (especially in books or magazines); "he always took some reading matter with him on the plane"literary criticism, criticism - a written evaluation of a work of literaturesection, subdivision - a self-contained part of a larger composition (written or musical); "he always turns first to the business section"; "the history of this work is discussed in the next section"epilog, epilogue - a short passage added at the end of a literary work; "the epilogue told what eventually happened to the main characters"paragraph - one of several distinct subdivisions of a text intended to separate ideas; the beginning is usually marked by a new indented linediary, journal - a daily written record of (usually personal)

experiences and observationsinscription, lettering - letters inscribed (especially words engraved or carved) on somethingmanuscript, ms - the form of a literary work submitted for publicationautograph - something written by one's own handtreatise - a formal expositionadaptation, version - a written work (as a novel) that has been recast in a new form; "the play is an adaptation of a short novel"essay - an analytic or interpretive literary compositionediting, redaction - putting something (as a literary work or a legislative bill) into acceptable formreligious text, religious writing, sacred text, sacred writing - writing that is venerated for the worship of a deityscreed - a long piece of writingdocument, papers, written document - writing that provides information (especially information of an official nature)dramatic composition, dramatic work - a play for performance on the stage or television or in a movie etc.dithyramb - a wildly enthusiastic speech or piece of writingplagiarism - a piece of writing that has been copied from someone else and is presented as being your own worktranscript - something that has been transcribed; a written record (usually typewritten) of dictated or recorded speech; "he read a transcript of the interrogation"; "you can obtain a transcript of this radio program by sending a self-addressed envelope to the station"

3. writing - (usually plural) the collected work of an author; "the idea occurs with increasing frequency in Hemingway's writings"body of work, oeuvre, work - the total output of a writer or artist (or a substantial part of it); "he studied the entire Wagnerian oeuvre"; "Picasso's work can be divided into periods"plural, plural form - the form of a word that is used to denote more than oneblack and white, written communication, written language - communication by means of written symbols (either printed or handwritten)patristics, patrology - the writings of the early Church Fathers

4. writing - letters or symbols that are written or imprinted on a surface to represent the sounds or words of a language; "he turned the paper over so the writing wouldn't show"; "the doctor's writing was illegible"black and white, written communication, written language -

communication by means of written symbols (either printed or handwritten)orthography, writing system - a method of representing the sounds of a language by written or printed symbolscoding system - a system of signals used to represent letters or numbers in transmitting messagescapitalisation, capitalization - writing in capital letterstypewriting, typing - writing done with a typewriterprinting - text handwritten in the style of printed matterhandwriting, script, hand - something written by hand; "she recognized his handwriting"; "his hand was illegible"hieroglyph, hieroglyphic - writing that resembles hieroglyphics (usually by being illegible)skywriting - writing formed in the sky by smoke released from an airplaneprinting process, printing - reproduction by applying ink to paper as for publicationnotation, notational system - a technical system of symbols used to represent special things

5. writing - the activity of putting something in written form; "she did the thinking while he did the writing"committal to writingactivity - any specific behavior; "they avoided all recreational activity"coding, steganography, cryptography, secret writing - act of writing in code or cipherhandwriting - the activity of writing by hand; "handwriting can be slow and painful for one with arthritis"inscription - the activity of inscribing (especially carving or engraving) letters or wordsnotation - the activity of representing something by a special system of marks or characters

writing

noun

1. script, hand, print, printing, fist (informal), scribble, handwriting, scrawl, calligraphy, longhand, penmanship, chirography It's a little difficult to read your writing.

2. documents, works, books, letters, titles, opuses, publications, literature, compositions, belles-lettres Althusser's writings are focused mainly on France.

writing on the wall omen, sign, warning, signal, portent, forewarning, ill omen We should have seen the writing on the wall and guessed what was coming.

Quotations"Writing, at its best, is a lonely life" [Ernest Hemingway speech, accepting the Nobel Prize for Literature]"I think writing does come out of a deep well of loneliness and a desire to fill some kind of gap" [Jay McInerney]"Would you not like to try all sorts of lives - one is so very small - but that is the satisfaction of writing - one can impersonate so many people" [Katherine Mansfield letter]b) mouth Noun

1.mouth - the opening through which food is taken in and vocalizations emerge; "he stuffed his mouth with candy"oral cavity, oral fissure, rima oristeeth, dentition - the kind and number and arrangement of teeth (collectively) in a person or animalglossa, lingua, tongue, clapper - a mobile mass of muscular tissue covered with mucous membrane and located in the oral cavitymouth - the externally visible part of the oral cavity on the face and the system of organs surrounding the opening; "she wiped lipstick from her mouth"cakehole, maw, yap, gob, trap, hole - informal terms for the mouthbuccal cavity - the cavity between the jaws and the cheeksgingiva, gum - the tissue (covered by mucous membrane) of the jaws that surrounds the bases of the teethpalate, roof of the mouth - the upper surface of the mouth that separates the oral and nasal cavitiessalivary gland - any of three pairs of glands in the mouth and digestive system that secrete saliva for digestionrima - a narrow elongated opening or fissure between two symmetrical parts

2.mouth - the externally visible part of the oral cavity on the face and the system of organs surrounding the opening; "she wiped lipstick from her mouth"cytostome - mouth of a protozoanbeak, neb, nib, pecker, bill - horny projecting mouth of a bird

beak - beaklike mouth of animals other than birds (e.g., turtles)orifice, porta, opening - an aperture or hole that opens into a bodily cavity; "the orifice into the aorta from the lower left chamber of the heart"mouth, oral cavity, oral fissure, rima oris - the opening through which food is taken in and vocalizations emerge; "he stuffed his mouth with candy"lip - either of two fleshy folds of tissue that surround the mouth and play a role in speakingarteria lingualis, lingual artery - an artery originating from the external carotid artery and supplying the under side of the tonguelingual vein, vena lingualis - a vein that receives blood from the tongue and the floor of the mouth and empties into the internal jugular or the facial veinface, human face - the front of the human head from the forehead to the chin and ear to ear; "he washed his face"; "I wish I had seen the look on his face when he got the news"

3.mouth - an opening that resembles a mouth (as of a cave or a gorge); "he rode into the mouth of the canyon"; "they built a fire at the mouth of the cave"opening, gap - an open or empty space in or between things; "there was a small opening between the trees"; "the explosion made a gap in the wall"

4.mouth - the point where a stream issues into a larger body of water; "New York is at the mouth of the Hudson"geological formation, formation - (geology) the geological features of the earth

5.mouth - a person conceived as a consumer of food; "he has four mouths to feed"eater, feeder - someone who consumes food for nourishment

6.mouth - a spokesperson (as a lawyer)mouthpiececolloquialism - a colloquial expression; characteristic of spoken or written communication that seeks to imitate informal speechspokesperson, representative, interpreter, voice - an advocate who represents someone else's policy or purpose; "the meeting was attended by spokespersons for all the major organs of government"

7.mouth - an impudent or insolent rejoinder; "don't give me any of your sass"back talk, backtalk, sass, sassing, lipcomeback, rejoinder, retort, riposte, replication, counter, return - a

quick reply to a question or remark (especially a witty or critical one); "it brought a sharp rejoinder from the teacher"

8.mouth - the opening of a jar or bottle; "the jar had a wide mouth"bottle - a glass or plastic vessel used for storing drinks or other liquids; typically cylindrical without handles and with a narrow neck that can be plugged or cappedjar - a vessel (usually cylindrical) with a wide mouth and without handlesopening - a vacant or unobstructed space that is man-made; "they left a small opening for the cat at the bottom of the door"

Verb

1.mouth - express in speech; "She talks a lot of nonsense"; "This depressed patient does not verbalize"speak, talk, verbalise, verbalize, utterread - look at, interpret, and say out loud something that is written or printed; "The King will read the proclamation at noon"communicate, intercommunicate - transmit thoughts or feelings; "He communicated his anxieties to the psychiatrist"phonate, vocalise, vocalize - utter speech soundstroll - speak or recite rapidly or in a rolling voicebegin - begin to speak or say; "Now listen, friends," he beganlip off, shoot one's mouth off - speak spontaneously and without restraint; "She always shoots her mouth off and says things she later regrets"shout - utter in a loud voice; talk in a loud voice (usually denoting characteristic manner of speaking); "My grandmother is hard of hearing--you'll have to shout"whisper - speak softly; in a low voicepeep - speak in a hesitant and high-pitched tone of voicespeak up - speak louder; raise one's voice; "The audience asked the lecturer to please speak up"snap, snarl - utter in an angry, sharp, or abrupt tone; "The sales clerk snapped a reply at the angry customer"; "The guard snarled at us"enthuse - utter with enthusiasmspeak in tongues - speak unintelligibly in or as if in religious ecstasy; "The parishioners spoke in tongues"swallow - utter indistinctly; "She swallowed the last words of her speech"verbalise, verbalize - be verbose; "This lawyer verbalizes and is rather tedious"whiff - utter with a puff of air; "whiff out a prayer"talk of, talk about - discuss or mention; "They spoke of many things"

blubber out, blubber - utter while cryingdrone on, drone - talk in a monotonous voicestammer, stutter, bumble, falter - speak haltingly; "The speaker faltered when he saw his opponent enter the room"rasp - utter in a grating voiceblunder out, blurt, blurt out, ejaculate, blunder - utter impulsively; "He blurted out the secret"; "He blundered his stupid ideas"inflect, modulate, tone - vary the pitch of one's speechdeliver, present - deliver (a speech, oration, or idea); "The commencement speaker presented a forceful speech that impressed the students"generalise, generalize - speak or write in generalitiesblabber, palaver, piffle, prate, prattle, tattle, tittle-tattle, twaddle, gabble, gibber, blab, clack, maunder, chatter - speak (about unimportant matters) rapidly and incessantlychatter - make noise as if chattering away; "The magpies were chattering in the trees"rattle on, yack, yack away, yap away, jaw - talk incessantly and tiresomelyopen up - talk freely and without inhibitionsnivel, whine - talk in a tearful mannermurmur - speak softly or indistinctly; "She murmured softly to the baby in her arms"mumble, mussitate, mutter, maunder - talk indistinctly; usually in a low voiceslur - utter indistinctlybark - speak in an unfriendly tone; "She barked into the dictaphone"bay - utter in deep prolonged tonesjabber, mouth off, rabbit on, rant, rave, spout - talk in a noisy, excited, or declamatory mannersiss, sizz, hiss, sibilate - express or utter with a hisscackle - talk or utter in a cackling manner; "The women cackled when they saw the movie star step out of the limousine"babble - utter meaningless sounds, like a baby, or utter in an incoherent way; "The old man is only babbling--don't pay attention"intone, tone, chant - utter monotonously and repetitively and rhythmically; "The students chanted the same slogan over and over again"gulp - utter or make a noise, as when swallowing too quickly; "He gulped for help after choking on a big piece of meat"

2.mouth - articulate silently; form words with the lips only; "She

mouthed a swear word"dissemble, feign, pretend, sham, affect - make believe with the intent to deceive; "He feigned that he was ill"; "He shammed a headache"lip-sync, lip-synch - move the lips in synchronization (with recorded speech or song)

3.mouth - touch with the mouthtouch - make physical contact with, come in contact with; "Touch the stone for good luck"; "She never touched her husband"

mouth

noun

1. lips, trap (slang), chops (slang), jaws, gob (slang, esp. Brit.), maw, yap (slang), cakehole (Brit. slang) She clamped her hand against her mouth.

2. entrance, opening, gateway, cavity, door, aperture, crevice, orifice the mouth of the tunnel

3. opening, lip, rim a lit candle stuck in the bottle's mouth

4. inlet, outlet, estuary, firth, outfall, debouchment the mouth of the river

5. (Informal) boasting, gas (informal), bragging, hot air (slang), braggadocio, idle talk, empty talk She is all mouth and no talent.

verb

utter, say, speak, voice, express, pronounce, articulate, enunciate, verbalize, vocalize, say insincerely, say for form's sake I mouthed some sympathetic platitudes.

keep your mouth shut say nothing, keep quiet, keep mum (informal), not tell a soul, keep something under your hat You'd do well to keep your mouth shut about it.

mouth off (Informal) rant, rave, spout, sound off, declaim, jabber He received a yellow card for mouthing off to the referee.

Related wordsadjectives oral, oscular, stomatic

Proverbs"A shut mouth catches no flies" e) tongueNoun

1.tongue - a mobile mass of muscular tissue covered with mucous membrane and located in the oral cavityglossa, lingua, clapperorgan - a fully differentiated structural and functional unit in an animal that is specialized for some particular functionarticulator - a movable speech organmouth, oral cavity, oral fissure, rima oris - the opening through which food is taken in and vocalizations emerge; "he stuffed his mouth with candy"gustatory organ, taste bud, tastebud - an oval sensory end organ on the surface of the tonguepharynx, throat - the passage to the stomach and lungs; in the front part of the neck below the chin and above the collarbone

2. tongue - a human written or spoken language used by a community; opposed to e.g. a computer languagenatural languagelanguage, linguistic communication - a systematic means of communicating by the use of sounds or conventional symbols; "he taught foreign languages"; "the language introduced is standard throughout the text"; "the speed with which a program can be executed depends on the language in which it is written"first language, maternal language, mother tongue - one's native language; the language learned by children and passed from one generation to the nexttonal language, tone language - a language in which different tones distinguish different meaningscreole - a mother tongue that originates from contact between two languagesAmerican-Indian language, Amerind, Amerindian language, American Indian, Indian - any of the languages spoken by AmerindiansEskimo-Aleut, Eskimo-Aleut language - the family of languages that includes Eskimo and AleutChukchi language, Chukchi - an indigenous and isolated language of unknown origin spoken by the Chukchi that is pronounced differently by men and womenSino-Tibetan, Sino-Tibetan language - the family of tonal languages spoken in eastern Asia

Austro-Asiatic, Austro-Asiatic language, Munda-Mon-Khmer - a family of languages spoken in southern and southeastern AsiaHmong language, Miao, Hmong - a language of uncertain affiliation spoken by the HmongAustronesian language, Austronesian - the family of languages spoken in Australia and Formosa and Malaysia and PolynesiaPapuan language, Papuan - any of the indigenous languages spoken in Papua New Guinea or New Britain or the Solomon Islands that are not Malayo-Polynesian languagesKhoisan, Khoisan language - a family of languages spoken in southern AfricaIndo-European language, Indo-Hittite, Indo-European - the family of languages that by 1000 BC were spoken throughout Europe and in parts of southwestern and southern AsiaUral-Altaic - a (postulated) group of languages including many of the indigenous languages of Russia (but not Russian)Basque - the language of the Basque people; of no known relation to any other languageElamitic, Susian, Elamite - an extinct ancient language of unknown affinities; spoken by the ElamitesCassite, Kassite - an ancient language spoken by the KassitesCaucasian language, Caucasian - a number of languages spoken in the Caucasus that are unrelated to languages spoken elsewhereDravidian language, Dravidic, Dravidian - a large family of languages spoken in south and central India and Sri LankaAfrasian, Afrasian language, Afro-Asiatic, Afroasiatic, Afroasiatic language, Hamito-Semitic - a large family of related languages spoken both in Asia and AfricaNiger-Kordofanian, Niger-Kordofanian language - the family of languages that includes most of the languages spoken in Africa south of the Sahara; the majority of them are tonal languages but there are important exceptions (e.g., Swahili or Fula)Nilo-Saharan, Nilo-Saharan language - a family of East African languages spoken by Nilotic peoples from the Sahara south to Kenya and Tanzania

3. tongue - any long thin projection that is transient; "tongues of flame licked at the walls"; "rifles exploded quick knives of fire into the dark"knifeprojection - any solid convex shape that juts out from something

4. tongue - a manner of speaking; "he spoke with a thick tongue"; "she has a glib tongue"manner of speaking, delivery, speech - your characteristic style or manner of expressing yourself orally; "his manner of speaking was quite abrupt"; "her speech was barren of southernisms"; "I detected a slight accent in his

speech"sharp tongue - a bitter or critical manner of speaking

5. tongue - a narrow strip of land that juts out into the seaspitcape, ness - a strip of land projecting into a body of watersand - a loose material consisting of grains of rock or coral

6. tongue - the tongue of certain animals used as meatorgans, variety meat - edible viscera of a butchered animalbeef tongue - the tongue of a cow eaten as meatcalf's tongue - the tongue of a calf eaten as meat

7. tongue - the flap of material under the laces of a shoe or bootboot - footwear that covers the whole foot and lower legflap - any broad thin and limber covering attached at one edge; hangs loose or projects freely; "he wrote on the flap of the envelope"shoe - footwear shaped to fit the foot (below the ankle) with a flexible upper of leather or plastic and a sole and heel of heavier material

8. tongue - metal striker that hangs inside a bell and makes a sound by hitting the sideclapperbell - a hollow device made of metal that makes a ringing sound when struckstriker - the part of a mechanical device that strikes something

Verb

1.tongue - articulate by tonguing, as when playing wind instrumentsmusic - musical activity (singing or whistling etc.); "his music was his central interest"music - (music) the sounds produced by singers or musical instruments (or reproductions of such sounds)spiel, play - replay (as a melody); "Play it again, Sam"; "She played the third movement very beautifully"double tongue, triple-tongue - play fast notes on a wind instrument

2. tongue - lick or explore with the tongue      lap, lick - pass the tongue over; "the dog licked her hand

c) beaver Noun

1.beaver - the soft brown fur of the beaver    beaver furfur, pelt - the dressed hairy coat of a mammal

2.Beaver - a native or resident of Oregon      OregonianAmerican - a native or inhabitant of the United States

3.beaver - a full beard                        beard, face fungus, whiskers - the hair growing on the lower part

of a man's face4.beaver - a man's hat with a tall crown; usually covered with silk

or with beaver furdress hat, opera hat, silk hat, top hat, stovepipe, high hat, topperchapeau, hat, lid - headdress that protects the head from bad weather; has shaped crown and usually a brimman's clothing - clothing that is designed for men to wear

5.beaver - a movable piece of armor on a medieval helmet used to protect the lower facearmor plate, armor plating, armour plate, plate armor, plate armour - specially hardened steel plate used to protect fortifications or vehicles from enemy firehelmet - a protective headgear made of hard material to resist blows

6.beaver - a hat made with the fur of a beaver (or similar material)castorfur hat - a hat made of fur

7.beaver - large semiaquatic rodent with webbed hind feet and a broad flat tail; construct complex dams and underwater lodgesgnawer, rodent - relatively small placental mammals having a single pair of constantly growing incisor teeth specialized for gnawinggenus Castor, Castor - type genus of the Castoridae: beaversCastor fiber, Old World beaver - a European variety of beaverCastor canadensis, New World beaver - a variety of beaver found in almost all areas of North America except Florida

Verb

1.beaver - work hard on something              beaver awaywork - exert oneself by doing mental or physical work for a purpose or out of necessity; "I will work hard to improve my grades"; "she worked hard for better living conditions for the poor"

f) reader

Noun

1.reader - a person who enjoys reading          bookworm - someone who spends a great deal of time readingbookman, scholar, scholarly person, student - a learned person (especially in the humanities); someone who by long study has gained mastery in one or more disciplines

2.reader - someone who contracts to receive and pay for a service or a certain number of issues of a publicationsubscriber

customer, client - someone who pays for goods or services3.reader - a person who can read; a literate person

decipherer - a reader capable of reading and interpreting illegible or obscure textliterate, literate person - a person who can read and writemap-reader - a person who can read maps; "he is a good map-reader"skimmer - a rapid superficial reader

4.reader - someone who reads manuscripts and judges their suitability for publicationreviewer, refereecritic - anyone who expresses a reasoned judgment of somethingscanner - someone who scans verse to determine the number and prosodic value of the syllables

5.reader - someone who reads proof in order to find errors and mark correctionsproofreaderpressman, printer - someone whose occupation is printing

6.reader - someone who reads the lessons in a church service; someone ordained in a minor order of the Roman Catholic Churchlectorclergyman, man of the cloth, reverend - a member of the clergy and a spiritual leader of the Christian ChurchHoly Order, Order - (usually plural) the status or rank or office of a Christian clergyman in an ecclesiastical hierarchy; "theologians still disagree over whether `bishop' should or should not be a separate Order"

7.reader - a public lecturer at certain universitieslecturer, lectoreducator, pedagog, pedagogue - someone who educates young people

8.reader - one of a series of texts for students learning to readschool text, schoolbook, text edition, textbook, text - a book prepared for use in schools or colleges; "his economics textbook is in its tenth edition"; "the professor wrote the text that he assigned students to buy"McGuffey Eclectic Readers - readers that combined lessons in reading with moralistic messages

3. Explain the mechanism of sense extension in these examples:

a) This land belongs to the Crown.

Noun

1. Crown - the Crown (or the reigning monarch) as the symbol of the power and authority of a monarchy; "the colonies revolted against the Crown"symbol - an arbitrary sign (written or printed) that has acquired a conventional significance

2. crown - the part of a tooth above the gum that is covered with enameltooth - hard bonelike structures in the jaws of vertebrates; used for biting and chewing or for attack and defenseenamel, tooth enamel - hard white substance covering the crown of a toothtop - the upper part of anything; "the mower cuts off the tops of the grass"; "the title should be written at the top of the first page"

3. crown - a wreath or garland worn on the head to signify victorycrown of thorns - a mock crown made of thorn branches that Roman soldiers placed on Jesus before the Crucifixionchaplet, coronal, lei, wreath, garland - flower arrangement consisting of a circular band of foliage or flowers for ornamental purposes

4. crown - an ornamental jeweled headdress signifying sovereigntydiademcoronet - a small crown; usually indicates a high rank but below that of sovereigncrown jewels - regalia (jewelry and other paraphernalia) worn by a sovereign on state occasionsjeweled headdress, jewelled headdress - a headdress adorned with jewels

5. crown - the part of a hat (the vertex) that covers the crown of the headchapeau, hat, lid - headdress that protects the head from bad weather; has shaped crown and usually a brimapex, acme, vertex, peak - the highest point (of something); "at the peak of the pyramid"

6. crown - an English coin worth 5 shillingscoin - a flat metal piece (usually a disc) used as money

7. crown - the upper branches and leaves of a tree or other planttreetoptop - the upper part of anything; "the mower cuts off the tops of the grass"; "the title should be written at the top of the first page"tree - a tall perennial woody plant having a main trunk and branches forming a distinct elevated crown; includes both gymnosperms and angiosperms

capitulum - an arrangement of leafy branches forming the top or head of a tree

8. crown - the top or extreme point of something (usually a mountain or hill); "the view from the peak was magnificent"; "they clambered to the tip of Monadnock"; "the region is a few molecules wide at the summit"crest, summit, top, peak, tiphilltop, brow - the peak of a hill; "the sun set behind the brow of distant hills"pinnacle - a lofty peakplace, spot, topographic point - a point located with respect to surface features of some region; "this is a nice place for a picnic"; "a bright spot on a planet"mountain peak - the summit of a mountain

9. crown - the award given to the champion      pennantaccolade, honor, laurels, honour, award - a tangible symbol signifying approval or distinction; "an award for bravery"

10.

crown - the top of the headpate, pollhuman head - the head of a human beingtonsure - the shaved crown of a monk's or priest's headtop side, upper side, upside, top - the highest or uppermost side of anything; "put your books on top of the desk"; "only the top side of the box was painted"

11.

crown - (dentistry) dental appliance consisting of an artificial crown for a broken or decayed tooth; "tomorrow my dentist will fit me for a crown"crownwork, jacket crown, jacket, capdental appliance - a device to repair teeth or replace missing teethdental medicine, dentistry, odontology - the branch of medicine dealing with the anatomy and development and diseases of the teeth

12.

crown - the center of a cambered roadcrestroad, route - an open way (generally public) for travel or transportationtop side, upper side, upside, top - the highest or uppermost side of anything; "put your books on top of the desk"; "only the top side of the box was painted"

Verb

1. crown - invest with regal power; enthrone; "The prince was crowned in Westminster Abbey"

coronateenthrone, vest, invest - provide with power and authority; "They vested the council with special rights"

2. crown - be the culminating event; "The speech crowned the meeting"topclimax, culminate - end, especially to reach a final or climactic stage; "The meeting culminated in a tearful embrace"

3. crown - form the topmost part of; "A weather vane crowns the building"head - be in the front of or on top of; "The list was headed by the name of the president"

4. crown - put an enamel cover on; "crown my teeth"cover - provide with a covering or cause to be covered; "cover her face with a handkerchief"; "cover the child with a blanket"; "cover the grave with flowers"

b) We need some new faces around here.Noun

1. face - the front of the human head from the forehead to the chin and ear to ear; "he washed his face"; "I wish I had seen the look on his face when he got the news"human facehuman, human being, homo, man - any living or extinct member of the family Hominidae characterized by superior intelligence, articulate speech, and erect carriageexternal body part - any body part visible externallybeard, face fungus, whiskers - the hair growing on the lower part of a man's facemouth - the externally visible part of the oral cavity on the face and the system of organs surrounding the opening; "she wiped lipstick from her mouth"eye, oculus, optic - the organ of sighteyebrow, supercilium, brow - the arch of hair above each eyefacial vein, vena facialis - any of several veins draining the facefacial, facial nerve, nervus facialis, seventh cranial nerve - cranial nerve that supplies facial muscleshead, caput - the upper part of the human body or the front part of the body in animals; contains the face and brains; "he stuck his head out the window"nose, olfactory organ - the organ of smell and entrance to the respiratory tract; the prominent part of the face of man or other mammals; "he has a cold in the nose"

chin, mentum - the protruding part of the lower jawphysiognomy, visage, smiler, kisser, phiz, countenance, mug - the human face (`kisser' and `smiler' and `mug' are informal terms for `face' and `phiz' is British)feature, lineament - the characteristic parts of a person's face: eyes and nose and mouth and chin; "an expression of pleasure crossed his features"; "his lineaments were very regular"facial muscle - any of the skeletal muscles of the facebrow, forehead - the part of the face above the eyescheek - either side of the face below the eyesjowl - a fullness and looseness of the flesh of the lower cheek and jaw (characteristic of aging)jaw - the bones of the skull that frame the mouth and serve to open it; the bones that hold the teeth

2. face - the feelings expressed on a person's face; "a sad expression"; "a look of triumph"; "an angry face"expression, look, facial expression, aspectcountenance, visage - the appearance conveyed by a person's face; "a pleasant countenance"; "a stern visage"leer - a suggestive or sneering look or grinsparkle, twinkle, spark, light - merriment expressed by a brightness or gleam or animation of countenance; "he had a sparkle in his eye"; "there's a perpetual twinkle in his eyes"

3. face - the general outward appearance of something; "the face of the city is changing"appearance, visual aspect - outward or visible aspect of a person or thing

4. face - the striking or working surface of an implementclub head, club-head, clubhead, golf-club head - (golf) the head of the club which strikes the ballhead - the striking part of a tool; "the head of the hammer"racquet, racket - a sports implement (usually consisting of a handle and an oval frame with a tightly interlaced network of strings) used to strike a ball (or shuttlecock) in various gamessurface - the outer boundary of an artifact or a material layer constituting or resembling such a boundary; "there is a special cleaner for these surfaces"; "the cloth had a pattern of red dots on a white surface"

5. face - a part of a person that is used to refer to a person; "he looked out at a roomful of faces"; "when he returned to work he met many new faces"individual, mortal, person, somebody, someone, soul - a human

being; "there was too much for one person to do"synecdoche - substituting a more inclusive term for a less inclusive one or vice versa

6. face - a surface forming part of the outside of an object; "he examined all sides of the crystal"; "dew dripped from the face of the leaf"sidebeam-ends - (nautical) at the ends of the transverse deck beams of a vessel; "on her beam-ends" means heeled over on the side so that the deck is almost verticalbottom, underside, undersurface - the lower side of anythingforepart, front, front end - the side that is forward or prominentlee side, leeward, lee - the side of something that is sheltered from the windwindward - the side of something that is toward the windback end, backside, rear - the side of an object that is opposite its front; "his room was toward the rear of the hotel"surface - the extended two-dimensional outer boundary of a three-dimensional object; "they skimmed over the surface of the water"; "a brush small enough to clean every dental surface"; "the sun has no distinct surface"top side, upper side, upside, top - the highest or uppermost side of anything; "put your books on top of the desk"; "only the top side of the box was painted"

7. face - the part of an animal corresponding to the human faceanimal, animate being, beast, creature, fauna, brute - a living organism characterized by voluntary movementmuzzle - forward projecting part of the head of certain animals; includes the jaws and noseexternal body part - any body part visible externally

8. face - the side upon which the use of a thing depends (usually the most prominent surface of an object); "he dealt the cards face down"clock dial, clock face - the face of a clock showing hours and minutes of the daydial - the face of a timepiece; graduated to show the hoursfront - the side that is seen or that goes firstplaying card - one of a pack of cards that are used to play card gameswatch, ticker - a small portable timepiece

9. face - a contorted facial expression; "she made a grimace at the prospect"

grimacefacial expression, facial gesture - a gesture executed with the facial musclesmoue, pout, wry face - a disdainful grimace

10.

face - a specific size and style of type within a type familyfont, fount, typeface, casetype - printed characters; "small type is hard to read"type family - a complete set of type suitable for printing textunicameral script - a script with a single casebicameral script - a script having two distinct casesconstant-width font, fixed-width font, monospaced font, typewriter font - a typeface is which each character is given the same width (as by a typewriter)proportional font - any font whose different characters have different widthscartridge font, font cartridge - any font that is contained in a cartridge that can be plugged into a computer printerblack letter, Gothic - a heavy typeface in use from 15th to 18th centuriesbold, bold face, boldface - a typeface with thick heavy linesitalic - a typeface with letters slanting upward to the rightraster font, screen font - the font that is displayed on a computer screen; "when the screen font resembles a printed font a document may look approximately the same on the screen as it will when printed"Helvetica, sans serif - a typeface in which characters have no serifs

11.

face - status in the eyes of others; "he lost face"status, position - the relative position or standing of things or especially persons in a society; "he had the status of a minor"; "the novel attained the status of a classic"; "atheists do not enjoy a favorable position in American life"

12.

face - impudent aggressiveness; "I couldn't believe her boldness"; "he had the effrontery to question my honesty"boldness, nerve, brass, cheekaggressiveness - the quality of being bold and enterprisingaudaciousness, audacity - aggressive boldness or unmitigated effrontery; "he had the audacity to question my decision"

13.

face - a vertical surface of a building or cliffperpendicular - an extremely steep facevertical surface - a surface that is verticalcoalface - the part of a coal seam that is being cut

Verb

1. face - deal with (something unpleasant) head on; "You must confront your problems"; "He faced the terrible consequences of his mistakes"face up, confrontconfront, face, present - present somebody with something, usually to accuse or criticize; "We confronted him with the evidence"; "He was faced with all the evidence and could no longer deny his actions"; "An enormous dilemma faces us"go about, set about, approach - begin to deal with; "approach a task"; "go about a difficult problem"; "approach a new project"tackle, undertake, take on - accept as a challenge; "I'll tackle this difficult task"

2. face - oppose, as in hostility or a competition; "You must confront your opponent"; "Jackson faced Smith in the boxing ring"; "The two enemies finally confronted each other"confrontfront, breast - confront bodily; "breast the storm"take the bull by the horns - face a difficulty and grapple with it without avoiding itencounter, take on, meet, play - contend against an opponent in a sport, game, or battle; "Princeton plays Yale this weekend"; "Charlie likes to play Mary"pit, play off, oppose, match - set into opposition or rivalry; "let them match their best athletes against ours"; "pit a chess player against the Russian champion"; "He plays his two children off against each other"bully off, face off - start a game by a face-off

3. face - be oriented in a certain direction, often with respect to another reference point; be opposite to; "The house looks north"; "My backyard look onto the pond"; "The building faces the park"front, looklie - be located or situated somewhere; occupy a certain positionface - be opposite; "the facing page"; "the two sofas face each other"confront - be face to face with; "The child screamed when he confronted the man in the Halloween costume"

4. face - be opposite; "the facing page"; "the two sofas face each other"be - occupy a certain position or area; be somewhere; "Where is my umbrella?" "The toolshed is in the back"; "What is behind this behavior?"front, face, look - be oriented in a certain direction, often with

respect to another reference point; be opposite to; "The house looks north"; "My backyard look onto the pond"; "The building faces the park"

5. face - turn so as to face; turn the face in a certain direction; "Turn and face your partner now"turn - change orientation or direction, also in the abstract sense; "Turn towards me"; "The mugger turned and fled before I could see his face"; "She turned from herself and learned to listen to others' needs"face - turn so as to expose the face; "face a playing card"

6. face - present somebody with something, usually to accuse or criticize; "We confronted him with the evidence"; "He was faced with all the evidence and could no longer deny his actions"; "An enormous dilemma faces us"confront, presentface, face up, confront - deal with (something unpleasant) head on; "You must confront your problems"; "He faced the terrible consequences of his mistakes"

7. face - turn so as to expose the face; "face a playing card"face - turn so as to face; turn the face in a certain direction; "Turn and face your partner now"disclose, expose - disclose to view as by removing a cover; "The curtain rose to disclose a stunning set"

8. face - line the edge (of a garment) with a different material; "face the lapels of the jacket"line - cover the interior of; "line the gloves"; "line a chimney"face - cover the front or surface of; "The building was faced with beautiful stones"reface - put a new facing on (a garment)

9. face - cover the front or surface of; "The building was faced with beautiful stones"revet - face with a layer of stone or concrete or other supporting material so as to retain; "face an embankment"reface - provide with a new facing; "The building was refaced with beautiful stones"face - line the edge (of a garment) with a different material; "face the lapels of the jacket"cover - provide with a covering or cause to be covered; "cover her face with a handkerchief"; "cover the child with a blanket"; "cover the grave with flowers"

face

noun

1. countenance, features, kisser (slang), profile, dial (Brit. slang), mug (slang), visage, physiognomy, lineaments, phiz or phizog (slang) She had a beautiful face.

2. expression, look, air, appearance, aspect, countenance He was walking around with a sad face.

3. side, front, cover, outside, surface, aspect, exterior, right side, elevation, facet, vertical surface He climbed 200 feet up the cliff face.

4. dial, display The face of the clock was painted yellow.

5. nature, image, character, appearance, concept, conception, make-up Players like him have changed the face of snooker.

6. self-respect, respect, reputation, dignity, standing, authority, image, regard, status, honour, esteem, prestige, self-image, mana (N.Z.) They don't want a war but they don't want to lose face.

7. (Informal) impudence, front, confidence, audacity, nerve, neck (informal), sauce (informal), cheek (informal), assurance, gall (informal), presumption, boldness, chutzpah (U.S. & Canad. informal), sass (U.S. & Canad. informal), effrontery, brass neck (Brit. informal), sassiness (U.S. informal) I haven't the face to borrow off him.

verb

1. look onto, overlook, be opposite, look out on, front onto, give towards or onto The garden faces south.

2. confront, meet, encounter, deal with, oppose, tackle, cope with, experience, brave, defy, come up against, be confronted by, face off (slang) He looked relaxed and calm as he faced the press.

3. (often with up to) accept, deal with, tackle, acknowledge, cope with, confront, come to terms with, meet head-on, reconcile yourself to You must face the truth that the relationship has ended.

4. beset, worry, trouble, bother, distress, plague There are two main health risks that face women.

face someone down intimidate, defeat, confront, subdue, disconcert He's confronted crowds before and faced them down.

face to face facing, tête-à-tête, opposite, confronting, eyeball to eyeball, in confrontation, à deux (French), vis-à-vis It would have been their first face to face encounter.

fly in the face of something defy, oppose, disregard, go against, flout, rebel against, disobey, act in defiance of He said that the decision flew in the face of natural justice.

make or pull a face at someone scowl, frown, pout, grimace, smirk, moue (French) She made a face at him behind his back.

on the face of it to all appearances, apparently, seemingly, outwardly, at first sight, at face value, to the eye On the face of it, that seems to make sense.

put on a brave face appear cheerful, air, take courage, grin and bear it (informal), look cheerful, keep your chin up (informal), not show your disappointment Friends will see you are putting on a brave face.

show your face turn up, come, appear, be seen, show up (informal), put in or make an appearance, approach I felt I ought to show my face at her father's funeral.

to your face directly, openly, straight, in person, in your presence Her opponent called her a liar to her face.

Quotations"The face is the image of the soul" [Cicero De Oratore]

"The face is the soul of the body" [Ludwig Wittgenstein Journal]"I think your whole life shows in your face and you should be proud of that" [Lauren Bacall]"At 50, everyone has the face he deserves" [George Orwell last entry in notebook]"Was this the face that launched a thousand ships""And burnt the topless towers of Ilium?" [Christopher Marlowe Dr. Faustus]c) He elbowed me out of the queue.Noun

1.elbow - hinge joint between the forearm and upper arm and the corresponding joint in the forelimb of a quadrupedarticulatio cubiti, cubital joint, cubitus, elbow joint, human elbowmusculus articularis cubiti - a small branch of the triceps that inserts into the capsule of the elbow jointarm - a human limb; technically the part of the superior limb between the shoulder and the elbow but commonly used to refer to the whole superior limbginglymoid joint, ginglymus, hinge joint - a freely moving joint in which the bones are so articulated as to allow extensive movement in one planecrazy bone, funny bone - a point on the elbow where the ulnar nerve passes near the surface; a sharp tingling sensation results when the nerve is knocked against the bone; "the funny bone is not humerus"

2.elbow - a sharp bend in a road or riverbend, curve - curved segment (of a road or river or railroad track etc.)

3.elbow - a length of pipe with a sharp bend in itpipage, pipe, piping - a long tube made of metal or plastic that is used to carry water or oil or gas etc.

4.elbow - the part of a sleeve that covers the elbow joint; "his coat had patches over the elbows"cloth covering - a covering made of clothsleeve, arm - the part of a garment that is attached at the armhole and that provides a cloth covering for the arm

5.elbow - the joint of a mammal or bird that corresponds to the human elbowforeleg - the forelimb of a quadrupedarticulatio, joint, articulation - (anatomy) the point of connection between two bones or elements of a skeleton (especially if it allows motion)

Ver 1.elbow - push one's way with the elbows

b shove, jostle - come into rough contact with while moving; "The passengers jostled each other in the overcrowded train"

2.elbow - shove one's elbow into another person's ribsnudge, poke at, prod - to push against gently; "She nudged my elbow when she saw her friend enter the restaurant"

4. Explain the type of sense extension in these polysemantic words:

a) paper Noun

1.paper - a material made of cellulose pulp derived mainly from wood or rags or certain grassescard - one of a set of small pieces of stiff paper marked in various ways and used for playing games or for telling fortunes; "he collected cards and traded them with the other boys"confetti - small pieces or streamers of colored paper that are thrown around on festive occasions (as at a wedding)piece of paper, sheet of paper, sheet - paper used for writing or printingmaterial, stuff - the tangible substance that goes into the makeup of a physical object; "coal is a hard black material"; "wheat is the stuff they use to make bread"art paper - a high-quality paper (usually having a filler of china clay)blotter, blotting paper - absorbent paper used to dry inkblueprint paper - sensitized paper used to make blueprintscellulose - a polysaccharide that is the chief constituent of all plant tissues and fiberscarbon paper, carbon - a thin paper coated on one side with a dark waxy substance (often containing carbon); used to transfer characters from the original to an under sheet of papercardboard, composition board - a stiff moderately thick papercartridge paper - paper for making cartridge caseschad - a small piece of paper that is supposed to be removed when a hole is punched in a card or paper tapecomputer paper - paper folded to permit continuous printing controlled by a computerconstruction paper - paper suitable for drawing and making cutoutscrepe, crepe paper - paper with a crinkled texture; usually colored and used for decorationsdrawing paper - paper that is specially prepared for use in draftingfilter paper - a porous unsized paper used for filtering

flypaper - paper that is poisoned or coated with a sticky substance to kill fliesgraph paper - paper that has lines to permit drawing graphsgreaseproof paper - paper that is impermeable to oil or grease; used in cookinglinen paper, linen - a high-quality paper made of linen fibers or with a linen finishlitmus paper - unsized paper treated with litmus for use as an acid-base indicatormanifold paper, manifold - a lightweight paper used with carbon paper to make multiple copies; "an original and two manifolds"manila, manila paper, manilla, manilla paper - a strong paper or thin cardboard with a smooth light brown finish made from e.g. Manila hempmusic paper, score paper - paper with lines appropriate for writing musicnewsprint, newspaper - cheap paper made from wood pulp and used for printing newspapers; "they used bales of newspaper every day"oilpaper - paper that has been made translucent and waterproof by soaking in oilindia paper - a thin tough opaque paper used in fine bookspad, pad of paper, tablet - a number of sheets of paper fastened together along one edgepaper tape - a long narrow strip of paperpaper toweling - absorbent paper used as towelingpaper-mache, papier-mache - a substance made from paper pulp that can be molded when wet and painted when drypapyrus - paper made from the papyrus plant by cutting it in strips and pressing it flat; used by ancient Egyptians and Greeks and Romansparchment - a superior paper resembling sheepskinrice paper - a thin delicate material resembling paper; made from the rice-paper treeroofing paper, tar paper - a heavy paper impregnated with tar and used as part of a roof for waterproofingticker tape - a continuous thin ribbon of paper on which stock quotes are writtentissue paper, tissue - a soft thin (usually translucent) papertracing paper - a semitransparent paper that is used for tracing drawingstransfer paper - a paper that is coated with a preparation for transferring a design to another surface

wallpaper - a decorative paper for the walls of roomswaste paper - paper discarded after usewax paper - paper that has been waterproofed by treatment with wax or paraffin

2.paper - an essay (especially one written as an assignment); "he got an A on his composition"theme, report, compositionessay - an analytic or interpretive literary compositionterm paper - a composition intended to indicate a student's progress during a school term

3.paper - a daily or weekly publication on folded sheets; contains news and articles and advertisements; "he read his newspaper at breakfast"newspaperpublic press, press - the print media responsible for gathering and publishing news in the form of newspapers or magazinesrotogravure - printed material (text and pictures) produced by an intaglio printing process in a rotary pressdaily - a newspaper that is published every daygazette - a newspaper or official journalschool newspaper, school paper - a newspaper written and published by students in a schooltabloid, rag, sheet - newspaper with half-size pageseditorial, newspaper column, column - an article giving opinions or perspectivesfeature article, feature - a special or prominent article in a newspaper or magazine; "they ran a feature on retirement planning"news article, news story, newspaper article - an article reporting newsheadline, newspaper headline - the heading or caption of a newspaper articlesports section - the section of a newspaper that reports on sportsnews item - an item in a newspapercartoon strip, comic strip, funnies, strip - a sequence of drawings telling a story in a newspaper or comic book

4.paper - a medium for written communication; "the notion of an office running without paper is absurd"medium - a means or instrumentality for storing or communicating informationpage - one side of one leaf (of a book or magazine or newspaper or letter etc.) or the written or pictorial matter it contains

5.paper - a scholarly article describing the results of observations or stating hypotheses; "he has written many scientific papers"article - nonfictional prose forming an independent part of a publication

6.paper - a business firm that publishes newspapers; "Murdoch owns many newspapers"newspaper, newspaper publisherpublisher, publishing company, publishing firm, publishing house - a firm in the publishing business

7.paper - the physical object that is the product of a newspaper publisher; "when it began to rain he covered his head with a newspaper"newspaperproduct, production - an artifact that has been created by someone or some process; "they improve their product every year"; "they export most of their agricultural production"

Verb

1.paper - cover with paper; "paper the box"cover - provide with a covering or cause to be covered; "cover her face with a handkerchief"; "cover the child with a blanket"; "cover the grave with flowers"

2.paper - cover with wallpaper                wallpapercover - provide with a covering or cause to be covered; "cover her face with a handkerchief"; "cover the child with a blanket"; "cover the grave with flowers"

e) snarl Noun

1.snarl - a vicious angry growl                utterance, vocalization - the use of uttered sounds for auditory communication

2.snarl - an angry vicious expressionfacial expression, facial gesture - a gesture executed with the facial muscles

3.snarl - something jumbled or confused; "a tangle of government regulations"maze, tangleperplexity - trouble or confusion resulting from complexity

Verb

1.snarl - utter in an angry, sharp, or abrupt tone; "The sales clerk snapped a reply at the angry customer"; "The guard snarled at us"snapmouth, speak, talk, verbalise, verbalize, utter - express in speech; "She talks a lot of nonsense"; "This depressed patient does not verbalize"

2.snarl - make a snarling noise or move with a snarling noise; "Bullets snarled past us"sound, go - make a certain noise or sound; "She went `Mmmmm'"; "The gun went `bang'"

3.snarl - twist together or entwine into a confusing mass; "The child entangled the cord"mat, entangle, tangledistort, twine, twist - form into a spiral shape; "The cord is all twisted"felt - mat together and make felt-like; "felt the wool"enmesh, ensnarl, mesh - entangle or catch in (or as if in) a meshunsnarl, disentangle, straighten out - extricate from entanglement; "Can you disentangle the cord?"

snarl1

verb

1. growl, show your teeth (of an animal) The dogs snarled at the intruders.

2. snap, bark, lash out, speak angrily, jump down someone's throat, speak roughly `Call that a good performance?' he snarled.

snarl2

noun tangle, mass, twist, web, knot, jungle, mat, coil, mesh, ravel, entanglement a snarl of logs and branches

snarl something up tangle, complicate, muddle, embroil, entangle, entwine, ravel, enmesh The row snarled up the work of the commission. The group had succeeded in snarling up rush-hour traffic throughout the country.2

b) board Nou 1.board - a committee having supervisory powers; "the board has

2 Collins Thesaurus of the English Language – Complete and Unabridged 2nd Edition. 2002 © HarperCollins Publishers 1995, 2002

n seven members"appeal board, appeals board, board of appeals - a board of officials that are not judicial but are appointed to hear appealsboard of selectmen - a board of officials elected to administer the public business of a New England townFederal Reserve Board - the seven-member board governing the Federal Reserve Systemgoverning board - a board that manages the affairs of an institutioncommission, committee - a special group delegated to consider some matter; "a committee is a group that keeps minutes and loses hours" - Milton Berleboard of directors, directorate - a group of persons chosen to govern the affairs of a corporation or other large institutionadvisory board, planning board - a board appointed to advise the chief administratordraft board - a board to select personnel for involuntary military serviceboard of education, school board - a board in charge of local public schoolszoning board - a board of officials who divide an area into zones that are subject to different restrictionsdirector - member of a board of directorsboard member - a member of a governing board

2.board - a stout length of sawn timber; made in a wide variety of sizes and used for many purposesplankmatchboard - a board that has a groove cut into one edge and a tongue cut into the other so they fit tightly together (as in a floor)skid - one of a pair of planks used to make a track for rolling or sliding objectsstrake, wale - thick plank forming a ridge along the side of a wooden shiplumber, timber - the wood of trees cut and prepared for use as building materialchipboard, hardboard - a cheap hard material made from wood chips that are pressed together and bound with synthetic resindeal - a plank of softwood (fir or pine board)knot - a hard cross-grained round piece of wood in a board where a branch emerged; "the saw buckled when it hit a knot"knothole - a hole in a board where a knot came out

3.board - a flat piece of material designed for a special purpose; "he nailed boards across the windows"aquaplane - a board that is pulled by a speedboat as a person

stands on it and skims over the top of the waterbread board, breadboard - a wooden or plastic board on which dough is kneaded or bread is slicednotice board, bulletin board - a board that hangs on a wall; displays announcementschopping board, cutting board - a wooden board where meats or vegetables can be cutdrafting board, drawing board - a smooth board on which paper is placed for making drawingsdrainboard, draining board - a board beside a kitchen sink and inclined to drain into the sinkfloor board, floorboard - a board in the floorironing board - narrow padded board on collapsible supports; used for ironing clotheskneeler - a board (sometimes cushioned) for someone to kneel onmortarboard, hawk - a square board with a handle underneath; used by masons to hold or carry mortarpalette, pallet - board that provides a flat surface on which artists mix paints and the range of colors usedplanchette - a triangular board supported on casters; when lightly touched with the fingertips it is supposed to spell out supernatural (or unconscious) messagesscoreboard - a large board for displaying the score of a contest (and some other information)flat solid, sheet - a flat artifact that is thin relative to its length and widthsideboard - a board that forms part of the side of a bed or cribsideboard - a removable board fitted on the side of a wagon to increase its capacityskateboard - a board with wheels that is ridden in a standing or crouching position and propelled by footsnowboard - a board that resembles a broad ski or a small surfboard; used in a standing position to slide down snow-covered slopesspringboard - a flexible board for jumping upwardsurfboard - a narrow buoyant board for riding surftrencher - a wooden board or platter on which food is served or carvedwake board, wakeboard - a buoyant board (resembling a surfboard) that is used to ride over water while being pulled behind a motorboatdry wall, drywall, wallboard - a wide flat board used to cover walls or partitions; made from plaster or wood pulp or other

materials and used primarily to form the interior walls of houseswork-board, workboard - a horizontal board that provides a supported surface for manual work

4.board - food or meals in general; "she sets a fine table"; "room and board"tablefare - the food and drink that are regularly served or consumedtraining table - planned meals for athletes in training (usually served in a mess hall)

5.board - a vertical surface on which information can be displayed to public viewdisplay board, display panelbig board - the large display board at the New York Stock Exchange that reports on stocks traded on the exchangevideo display, display - an electronic device that represents information in visual form

6.board - a table at which meals are served; "he helped her clear the dining table"; "a feast was spread upon the board"dining tabledining-room table - dining-room furniture consisting of a table on which meals can be serveddinner table - the dining table where dinner is served and eatenhigh table - a dining table in a dining-hall raised on a platform; seats are reserved for distinguished personsrefectory table - a long narrow dining table supported by a stretcher between two trestlestable - a piece of furniture with tableware for a meal laid out on it; "I reserved a table at my favorite restaurant"triclinium - a dining table with couches along three sides in ancient Rome

7.board - electrical device consisting of a flat insulated surface that contains switches and dials and meters for controlling other electrical devices; "he checked the instrument panel"; "suddenly the board lit up like a Christmas tree"control board, control panel, instrument panel, paneldashboard, fascia - instrument panel on an automobile or airplane containing dials and controlselectrical device - a device that produces or is powered by electricityidiot light - a colored warning light on an instrument panel (as for low oil pressure)

8.board - a printed circuit that can be inserted into expansion slots

in a computer to increase the computer's capabilitiesadd-in, circuit board, circuit card, plug-in, cardCPU board, mother board - the main circuit board for a computerPC board - a removable circuit board for a personal computer; fits into a slot in the mother boardprinted circuit - computer circuit consisting of an electronic sub-assembly; copper conductors are laminated on an insulating board or card and circuit components are inserted into holes and dip soldered

9.board - a flat portable surface (usually rectangular) designed for board games; "he got out the board and set up the pieces"gameboardbackgammon board - the board on which backgammon is playedchecker board, checkerboard - a board having 64 squares of two alternating colorscribbage board - a board with pegs and regularly spaced holes for holding the pegs; used for keeping the score in a game of cribbagedart board, dartboard - a circular board of wood or cork used as the target in the game of dartsgo board - a board used for playing gomonopoly board - a board used for playing monopolyOuija, Ouija board - a board with the alphabet on it; used with a planchette to spell out supernatural messagespegboard - a board perforated with regularly spaced holes into which pegs can be fittedpunchboard - a small board full of holes; each hole contains a slip of paper with symbols printed on it; a gambler pays a small sum for the privilege of pushing out a slip in the hope of obtaining one that entitles him to a prizesurface - the outer boundary of an artifact or a material layer constituting or resembling such a boundary; "there is a special cleaner for these surfaces"; "the cloth had a pattern of red dots on a white surface"

Verb

1.board - get on board of (trains, buses, ships, aircraft, etc.)get onembark, ship - go on boardentrain - board a traincome in, enter, get in, go in, go into, move into, get into - to come or go into; "the boat entered an area of shallow marshes"catch - reach in time; "I have to catch a train at 7 o'clock"

2.board - live and take one's meals at or in; "she rooms in an old boarding house"

roominhabit, live, populate, dwell - inhabit or live in; be an inhabitant of; "People lived in Africa millions of years ago"; "The people inhabited the islands that are now deserted"; "this kind of fish dwells near the bottom of the ocean"; "deer are populating the woods"

3.board - lodge and take meals (at)habituate, use - take or consume (regularly or habitually); "She uses drugs rarely"board - provide food and lodging (for); "The old lady is boarding three men"

4.board - provide food and lodging (for); "The old lady is boarding three men"board - lodge and take meals (at)live in, sleep in - live in the house where one works; "our babysitter lives in, as it is too far to commute for her"cater, ply, provide, supply - give what is desired or needed, especially support, food or sustenance; "The hostess provided lunch for all the guests"

board

noun

1. blackboard, noticeboard, chalkboard, flip chart, whiteboard He wrote a few more notes on the board.

2. plank, panel, timber, piece of wood, slat, piece of timber, lath The floor was draughty bare boards.

3. management, heads, leaders, directors, managers, executives, committee, bosses (informal), governors, panel, administrators, controllers, directorate the agenda for the October 12 meeting of the board

4. council, directors, committee, congress, ministry, advisers, panel, assembly, chamber, trustees, governing body, synod, directorate, quango, advisory group, conclave the US National Transportation Safety Board

5. meals, food, eats (informal), provisions, refreshments, grub (informal), kai (N.Z. informal), sustenance, nosh (informal), victuals, edibles, daily meals Free room and board are provided for all hotel staff.

verb

1. get on, enter, mount, embark, get on board, go aboard, entrain, embus, enplane I boarded the plane bound for England.get on land, arrive, get off, alight, disembark, dismount, go ashore

2. stay, lodge, live, room, stop, be housed, have rooms, sojourn She boarded at the Lord Mayor Treloar College.

board something up cover up, seal, close up, shut up Shopkeepers have boarded up their windows.

to take sth on board [+ idea] → adoptar algo, asimilar algo4. (= group of officials) → junta f, consejo m5. (gas, water etc) → comisión f6. the boards (Theat) → las tablasto tread the boards (as profession) → ser actor/actriz; (= action) → salir a escenaB. VT1. [+ ship, plane] → subir a bordo de, embarcarse en; [+ enemy ship] → abordar; [+ bus, train] → subir a2. (also board up) (= cover with boards) → entablar3. (= feed, lodge) → hospedar, dar pensión(completa)aC. VI to board with → hospedarse en casa deD. CPD board game N → juego m de tableroboard meeting N → reunión f de la junta directiva or del consejo de administraciónboard of directors N → junta f directiva, consejo m de administraciónboard of governors N (Brit) (Scol) → consejo m (de un colegio, instituto etc)board of inquiry N → comisión f investigadoraBoard of Trade N (Brit) (formerly) → Departamento m de Comercio y Exportación (US) → Cámara f de Comercioboard in VT + ADV = board up

board out VT + ADV [+ person] → buscar alojamiento ahe is boarded out with relatives → vive con unos parientes(pagando la pensión)board up VT + ADV [+ door, window] → entablar

board (boːd) noun

1. a strip of timber. The floorboards of the old house were rotten.tabla, plancha

2. a flat piece of wood etc for a special purpose. notice-board; chessboard.tablón, tablero

3. meals. board and lodging.pensión, comida

4. an official group of persons administering an organization etc. the board of directors.consejo, junta

verb

1. to enter, or get on to (a vehicle, ship, plane etc). This is where we board the bus.subir a

2. to live temporarily and take meals (in someone else's house). He boards at Mrs Smith's during the week.alojarse en, estar hospedado en

ˈboarder noun

a person who temporarily lives, and takes his meals, in someone else's house. huésped; interno

ˈboarding-house noun

a house where people live and take meals as paying guests. pensión

ˈboarding-school noun

a school which provides accommodation and food as well as instruction. internado

across the board adjective (etc) applying in all cases: They were awarded wage increases across the board; ()

an across-the-board increase. general

go by the board

to be abandoned. All my plans went by the board when I lost my job.irse al traste, venirse abajo

f) purr Noun

1.purr - a low vibrating sound typical of a contented catsound - the sudden occurrence of an audible event; "the sound awakened them"

Verb

1.purr - make a soft swishing sound; "the motor whirred"; "the car engine purred"birr, whir, whirr, whiz, whizzsound, go - make a certain noise or sound; "She went `Mmmmm'"; "The gun went `bang'"

2.purr - indicate pleasure by purring; characteristic of catsmake vibrant soundsresonate, vibrate - sound with resonance; "The sound resonates well in this theater"

c) dry

Noun

1. dry - a reformer who opposes the use of intoxicating beveragesprohibitionistcrusader, meliorist, reformer, reformist, social reformer - a disputant who advocates reform

Verb

1. dry - remove the moisture from and make dry; "dry clothes"; "dry hair"dry outalter, change, modify - cause to change; make different; cause a transformation; "The advent of the automobile may have altered the growth pattern of the city"; "The discussion has changed my thinking about the issue"dry up, exsiccate, dehydrate, desiccate - lose water or moisture; "In the desert, you get dehydrated very quickly"dehydrate, desiccate - remove water from; "All this exercise and sweating has dehydrated me"spin-dry - dry (clothes) by spinning and making use of centrifugal forcestumble dry - dry by spinning with hot air inside a cylinder; "These fabrics are delicate and cannot be tumbled dry"spray-dry - dry by bringing into the form of a spray, through contact with a hot gasdehumidify - make less humid; "The air conditioner dehumidifies the air in the summer"parch, sear - cause to wither or parch from exposure to heat; "The sun parched the earth"rough-dry - dry without smoothing or ironing; "rough-dry the laundry"blow-dry - dry hair with a hair dryerdrip-dry - dry by hanging up wetair - expose to warm or heated air, so as to dry; "Air linen"wet - cause to become wet; "Wet your face"

2. dry - become dry or drier; "The laundry dries in the sun"dry outchange - undergo a change; become different in essence; losing one's or its original nature; "She changed completely as she grew older"; "The weather changed last night"scorch - become scorched or singed under intense heat or dry conditions; "The exposed tree scorched in the hot sun"run dry, dry out - become empty of water; "The river runs dry in the summer"

Adj. 1. dry - free from liquid or moisture; lacking natural or normal moisture or depleted of water; or no longer wet; "dry land"; "dry

clothes"; "a dry climate"; "dry splintery boards"; "a dry river bed"; "the paint is dry"wet - covered or soaked with a liquid such as water; "a wet bathing suit"; "wet sidewalks"; "wet weather"

2. dry - humorously sarcastic or mocking; "dry humor"; "an ironic remark often conveys an intended meaning obliquely"; "an ironic novel"; "an ironical smile"; "with a wry Scottish wit"ironic, wry, ironicalhumorous, humourous - full of or characterized by humor; "humorous stories"; "humorous cartoons"; "in a humorous vein"

3. dry - lacking moisture or volatile components; "dry paint"wet - containing moisture or volatile components; "wet paint"

4. dry - opposed to or prohibiting the production and sale of alcoholic beverages; "the dry vote led by preachers and bootleggers"; "a dry state"wet - supporting or permitting the legal production and sale of alcoholic beverages; "a wet candidate running on a wet platform"; "a wet county"

5. dry - not producing milk; "a dry cow"lactating, wet - producing or secreting milk; "a wet nurse"; "a wet cow"; "lactating cows"

6. dry - (of liquor) having a low residual sugar content because of decomposition of sugar during fermentation; "a dry white burgundy"; "a dry Bordeaux"nonsweet, sugarless - not containing sugarsour - having a sharp biting tastesweet - (used of wines) having a high residual sugar content; "sweet dessert wines"

7. dry - without a mucous or watery discharge; "a dry cough"; "that rare thing in the wintertime; a small child with a dry nose"phlegmy - characterized by phlegm; "a phlegmy discharge"

8. dry - not shedding tears; "dry sobs"; "with dry eyes"dry-eyed, tearless - free from tears

9. dry - lacking interest or stimulation; dull and lifeless; "a dry book"; "a dry lecture filled with trivial details"; "dull and juiceless as only book knowledge can be when it is unrelated to...life"- John Mason Brownjuicelessunexciting, unstimulating - not stimulating

10.

dry - used of solid substances in contrast with liquid ones; "dry weight"solid - of definite shape and volume; firm; neither liquid nor

gaseous; "ice is water in the solid state"11.

dry - unproductive especially of the expected results; "a dry run"; "a mind dry of new ideas"unproductive - not producing or capable of producing; "elimination of high-cost or unproductive industries"

12.

dry - having no adornment or coloration; "dry facts"; "rattled off the facts in a dry mechanical manner"plain - not elaborate or elaborated; simple; "plain food"; "stuck to the plain facts"; "a plain blue suit"; "a plain rectangular brick building"

13.

dry - (of food) eaten without a spread or sauce or other garnish; "dry toast"; "dry meat"plain - not elaborate or elaborated; simple; "plain food"; "stuck to the plain facts"; "a plain blue suit"; "a plain rectangular brick building"

14.

dry - having a large proportion of strong liquor; "a very dry martini is almost straight gin"alcoholic - characteristic of or containing alcohol; "alcoholic drinks"

15.

dry - lacking warmth or emotional involvement; "a dry greeting"; "a dry reading of the lines"; "a dry critique"unemotional - unsusceptible to or destitute of or showing no emotion

16.

dry - practicing complete abstinence from alcoholic beverages; "he's been dry for ten years"; "no thank you; I happen to be teetotal"teetotalsober - not affected by a chemical substance (especially alcohol)

dry

adjective

1. dehydrated, dried-up, baked, arid, scorched, torrid, parched, desiccated, bone dry, waterless, rainless, juiceless, sapless, moistureless a hard, dry desert landscapedehydrated wet, damp, moist, humid

2. dried, crisp, withered, brittle, shrivelled, crispy, parched, desiccated, sun-baked She heard the rustle of dry leaves.

3. thirsty, dehydrated, parched, dying of thirst, gasping, longing for a drink She was suddenly dry.

4. alcohol-free, teetotal, abstinent, clean, on the wagon (informal), prohibitionist, non-drinking Gujerat is a dry state.

5. sarcastic, cutting, sharp, keen, cynical, low-key, sly, sardonic, deadpan, droll, ironical, quietly humorous He is renowned for his dry wit.

6. unemotional, cool, impassive, cold, phlegmatic, unfeeling, undemonstrative, unexcitable The solicitor's dry voice

7. dull, boring, tedious, commonplace, dreary, tiresome, monotonous, run-of-the-mill, humdrum, unimaginative, uninteresting, mind-numbing, ho-hum (informal) The work was very dry and dulldull interesting, entertaining, lively

8. plain, simple, bare, basic, pure, stark, unembellished an infuriating list of dry facts and dates

9. dried out, old, hard, stale, dehydrated, overcooked, past its best The meat was dry, shrunk on the bone

verb

1. drain, make dry, remove the water from, wipe, dab dry, rub dry Wash and dry the lettuce.

2. (often with out) dehydrate, make dry, desiccate, bake, sear, parch, dehumidify, remove the moisture from They bought a machine to dry the wood and cut costs.dehydrate wet, moisten

dry out become sober, give up drinking, give up alcohol, go on the wagon, become teetotal, overcome alcoholism He checked into hospital to dry out.

dry up or out

1. become dry, harden, wither, mummify, shrivel up, wizen The pollen dries up and becomes hard.

2. dwindle, decline, disappear, run out, diminish, decrease, lessen, wane, subside, ebb, die out, fade away, peter out, taper off Credit from foreign banks is drying up.

g) grunt Noun

1.grunt - the short low gruff noise of the kind made by hogsoinknoise - sound of any kind (especially unintelligible or dissonant sound); "he enjoyed the street noises"; "they heard indistinct noises of people talking"; "during the firework display that ended the gala the noise reached 98 decibels"

2.grunt - an unskilled or low-ranking soldier or other worker; "infantrymen in Vietnam were called grunts"; "he went from grunt to chairman in six years"unskilled person - a person who lacks technical training

3.grunt - medium-sized tropical marine food fishes that utter grunting sounds when caughtpercoid, percoid fish, percoidean - any of numerous spiny-finned fishes of the order Perciformesfamily Haemulidae, Haemulidae - gruntsHaemulon album, margate - a grunt with a red mouth that is found from Florida to BrazilHaemulon macrostomum, Spanish grunt - a kind of gruntHaemulon aurolineatum, tomtate - found off the West Indies and Floridacottonwick, Haemulon malanurum - of warm Atlantic watersHaemulon parra, sailors choice, sailor's-choice - a grunt found from Florida to Brazil and Gulf of MexicoAnisotremus virginicus, pork-fish, porkfish - black and gold grunt found from Bermuda to Caribbean to BrazilAnisotremus surinamensis, black margate, pompon - dusky grey food fish found from Louisiana and Florida southwardOrthopristis chrysopterus, pigfish, hogfish - found from Long Island southward

Verb

1.grunt - issue a grunting, low, animal-like noise; "He grunted his reluctant approval"

let loose, let out, utter, emit - express audibly; utter sounds (not necessarily words); "She let out a big heavy sigh"; "He uttered strange sounds that nobody could understand"

d) sharp

Noun

1. sharp - a musical notation indicating one half step higher than the note namedmusical notation - (music) notation used by musiciansdouble sharp - a musical notation of two sharps in front of a note indicating that it is to be raised by two semitones

2. sharp - a long thin sewing needle with a sharp pointsewing needle - a needle used in sewing to pull thread through cloth

Adj. 1. sharp - (of something seen or heard) clearly defined; "a sharp photographic image"; "the sharp crack of a twig"; "the crisp snap of dry leaves underfoot"crispdistinct - easy to perceive; especially clearly outlined; "a distinct flavor"; "a distinct odor of turpentine"; "a distinct outline"; "the ship appeared as a distinct silhouette"; "distinct fingerprints"

2. sharp - ending in a sharp point              acuate, needlelike, acutepointed - having a point

3. sharp - having or demonstrating ability to recognize or draw fine distinctions; "an acute observer of politics and politicians"; "incisive comments"; "icy knifelike reasoning"; "as sharp and incisive as the stroke of a fang"; "penetrating insight"; "frequent penetrative observations"incisive, keen, penetrating, penetrative, piercing, knifelike, discriminating, acuteperceptive - having the ability to perceive or understand; keen in discernment; "a perceptive eye"; "a perceptive observation"

4. sharp - marked by practical hardheaded intelligence; "a smart businessman"; "an astute tenant always reads the small print in a lease"; "he was too shrewd to go along with them on a road that could lead only to their overthrow"astute, shrewdsmart - showing mental alertness and calculation and resourcefulness

5. sharp - harsh; "sharp criticism"; "a sharp-worded exchange"; "a tart remark"sharp-worded, tartunpleasant - disagreeable to the senses, to the mind, or feelings ;

"an unpleasant personality"; "unpleasant repercussions"; "unpleasant odors"

6. sharp - having or emitting a high-pitched and sharp tone or tones ; "a shrill whistle"; "a shrill gaiety"shrillhigh-pitched, high - used of sounds and voices; high in pitch or frequency

7. sharp - extremely steep; "an abrupt canyon"; "the precipitous rapids of the upper river"; "the precipitous hills of Chinese paintings"; "a sharp drop"precipitous, abruptsteep - having a sharp inclination; "the steep attic stairs"; "steep cliffs"

8. sharp - keenly and painfully felt; as if caused by a sharp edge or point; "a sharp pain"; "sharp winds"dull - not keenly felt; "a dull throbbing"; "dull pain"

9. sharp - having or made by a thin edge or sharp point; suitable for cutting or piercing; "a sharp knife"; "a pencil with a sharp point"pointed - having a pointdull - not having a sharp edge or point; "the knife was too dull to be of any use"

10.

sharp - (of a musical note) raised in pitch by one chromatic semitone; "C sharp"music - an artistic form of auditory communication incorporating instrumental or vocal tones in a structured and continuous mannerflat - (of a musical note) lowered in pitch by one chromatic semitone; "B flat"natural - (of a musical note) being neither raised nor lowered by one chromatic semitone; "a natural scale"; "B natural"

11.

sharp - very sudden and in great amount or degree; "a sharp drop in the stock market"sudden - happening without warning or in a short space of time; "a sudden storm"; "a sudden decision"; "a sudden cure"

12.

sharp - quick and forceful; "a sharp blow"forceful - characterized by or full of force or strength (often but not necessarily physical); "a forceful speaker"; "a forceful personality"; "forceful measures"; "a forceful plan for peace"

Adv. 1. sharp - changing suddenly in direction and degree; "the road twists sharply after the light"; "turn sharp left here"; "the visor was acutely peaked"; "her shoes had acutely pointed toes"acutely, sharply

5. Give the homonyms of these words and then use them in sentences of your own:

a) through threw

Through—used as a function word to indicate movement into at one side or point and out at another and especially the opposite side of He hit the nail through the wood.Threw- the word threw is the simple past of the verb to throwWhen I read the expression “through me for a loop” in a recent comment, I can tell you, it threw me for a loop!d) steal steel

Steal- Accusations that one group had stolen ideas from the other were soon flying.Steel- The beams are made of steel.

b) storeys stories

Story means narrative. Story also means 'level of a building' in the US. However, in the UK, 'level of a building' is written storey. Story or Stories may refer to:

Story, a recounting of a sequence of events Narrative Story (surname) Story, or storey, a floor or level of a building Stories, colloquial, US American expression for soap operas

In American English, the noun story means narrative or 'level of a building'.  However, in British English, 'level of a building' is written 'storey'.The plural of story is stories.  The plural of storey is storeys.

Examples:

Did you hear the story about bungee jumper who died because he miscalculated the height of the each storey before diving off a building? Beowulf is an epic traditional good-versus-evil story.  Beowulf battles

three monsters throughout the story. With 160 storeys, the Burj Khalifa in Dubai is the tallest building in the

world.

e) ball ball

Ball, n. — a sphere; any spherical body Bounce the ball and try and hit it over the net.

Ball, n. — a large dancing party Ball gowns remain the most formal female attire to this day, and are worn exclusively to balls. Cinderella met the prince at the ball

bawl v. ----to cry or wail loudly He bawled for days after his dog died.

c) sew So, Sow, Sew So- adverb (followed by an adjective or another adverb): Why are you so angry this morning?Sow- to plant seeds in an area of ground Farmers sowed the fields with corn.Sew- To make, repair, or fasten by stitching, as with a needle and thread or a sewing He sewed a patch onto his sleeve.

f) stare stairStare- to gaze fixedly and intently, especially with the eyes wide open. His mother told him not to stare.Stair- one of the steps in a set of stairs He tripped on the bottom stair and almost fell. 6. Consider the following English words and decide whether they are thought of in terms of homonymy or polysemy and why. Try translating them into any other language you know; are there several possible translation equivalents or will one word do for the different meanings the English word has? cap face row clubway bed match plot

7. How many meanings or senses do you know for the following English words? Do some senses seem more basic or central than others? If so, which ones and why?

top

page button ring

7. Complete the following examples of polysemy in English. Note the degree to which they correspond with your own language

leg of a person / chair mouth of a person / of a river branch of a tree / of a science top at the top of something/the very top/ on top of something tail be on someone's tail 9. Consider the sentences below and comment on the polysemy of HEAD by explaining which meaning extensions are metaphors and which are metonymies:

a) My head is full of strange thoughts.b) That joke went over his head.c) The queen is still the head of state.d) I prefer my beer without a head of foam.e) We paid ten pounds a head for the meal.

head 1. a. The uppermost or forwardmost part of the body of a vertebrate, containing the brain and the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and jaws.b. The analogous part of an invertebrate organism.c. The length or height of such a part: The horse lost by a head. She is two heads taller than he is.2. The seat of the faculty of reason; intelligence, intellect, or mind: I did the figuring in my head.3. Mental ability or aptitude: She has a good head for mathematics.4. Freedom of choice or action: Give the child his head and see how well he solves the problems.5. Slang a. A habitual drug user. Often used in combination: a dopehead.b. An enthusiast. Often used in combination: a chilihead.6. A person considered foolish or contemptible. Often used in combination: a chowderhead.7. A portrait or representation of a person's head.8. (used with a sing. verb) The side of a coin having the principal design, often of the head of a famous person, and the date. Often used in the

plural with a singular verb.9. Informal A headache: had a bad head early this morning.10. a. An individual; a person: charged five dollars a head.b. pl. head A single animal: 20 head of cattle.11. a. A person who leads, rules, or is in charge; a leader, chief, or director: the head of the corporation.b. A headmaster or headmistress.12. The foremost or leading position: marched at the head of the parade.13. A headwaiter.14. a. The difference in depth of a liquid at two given points.b. Abbr. hd. The measure of pressure at the lower point expressed in terms of this difference.c. The pressure exerted by a liquid or gas: a head of steam.d. The liquid or gas exerting the pressure.15. The froth or foam that rises to the top in pouring an effervescent liquid, such as beer.16. The tip of an abscess, boil, or pimple, in which pus forms.17. A turning point; a crisis: bring matters to a head. See Synonyms at crisis.18. a. A projection, weight, or fixture at the end of an elongated object: the head of a pin; a head of land overlooking the harbor.b. The working end of a tool or implement: the head of a hammer.c. The part of an explosive device that carries the explosive; a warhead.d. The part of a stringed instrument where the strings are wound; a tuning head.e. A tuning machine.19. Anatomy a. The rounded proximal end of a long bone: the head of the femur.b. The end of a muscle that is attached to the less movable part of the skeleton.20. a. An attachment to or part of a machine that holds or contains the operative device.b. The magnetic head of a tape recorder or VCR.c. The device in a magnetic disk or tape drive that enables it to read data from and write data to the disk or tape.21. A rounded compact mass, as of leaves or buds: a head of cabbage.22. Botany A flower head.23. The uppermost part; the top: Place the appropriate name at the head

of each column.24. The end considered the most important: sat at the head of the table.25. Either end of an object, such as a drum, whose two ends are interchangeable.26. Nautical a. The forward part of a vessel.b. The top part or upper edge of a sail.27. A toilet, especially on a ship.28. A passage or gallery in a coal mine.29. Abbr. hd. Printing a. The top of a book or page.b. A headline or heading.c. A distinct topic or category: under the head of recent Spanish history.30. Headway; progress.31. Linguistics The word in a construction that has the same grammatical function as the construction as a whole and that determines relationships of concord to other parts of the construction or sentence in which the construction occurs.32. Vulgar Slang Oral sex.adj.1. Of, relating to, or intended for the head. Often used in combination: headshaking; headwrap.2. Foremost in rank or importance: the head librarian.3. Placed at the top or the front: the head name on the list.4. Slang Of, relating to, or for drugs or drug users.v. head·ed, head·ing, heads v.tr.1. To be in charge of; lead: The minister headed the committee.2. To be in the first or foremost position of: Collins heads the list of job candidates.3. To aim, point, or turn in a certain direction: headed the team of horses up the hill.4. To remove the head or top of.5. Sports To hit (a soccer ball) in the air with one's head.6. To provide with a head: head each column with a number; headed the flagpole with a golden ball.v.intr.1. To proceed or go in a certain direction: head for town.2. To form a head, as lettuce or cabbage.3. To originate, as a stream or river; rise.Phrasal Verb: head offTo block the progress or completion of; intercept: Try to head him off

before he gets home. The town headed off the attempt to build another mall.Idioms: have a big/swelled headTo be overly self-confident or conceited.head and shoulders aboveFar superior to: head and shoulders above her colleagues in analytical capability.head over heels1. Rolling, as in a somersault: tripped and fell head over heels.2. Completely; hopelessly: head over heels in love.keep (one's) headTo remain calm; remain in control of oneself.lose (one's) headTo lose one's poise or self-control.off/out of (one's) headInsane; crazy.on (one's) headAs one's responsibility or fault: If this project fails, it's on your head.over (one's) head1. Beyond one's comprehension.2. Beyond one's financial means.put heads togetherTo consult and plan together: Let's put our heads together and solve this problem.

head (hɛd)

npl head

1. (Anatomy) the upper or front part of the body in vertebrates, including man, that contains and protects the brain, eyes, mouth, and nose and ears when present.

2. (Anatomy) the corresponding part of an invertebrate animal

3. something resembling a head in form or function, such as the top of a tool

4. (Sociology)

a. the person commanding most authority within a group, organization, etc

b. (as modifier): head buyer.

c. (in combination): headmaster.

5. the position of leadership or command: at the head of his class.

6.

a. the most forward part of a thing; a part that juts out; front: the head of a queue.

b. (as modifier): head point.

7. the highest part of a thing; upper end: the head of the pass.

8. (Brewing) the froth on the top of a glass of beer

9. aptitude, intelligence, and emotions (esp in the phrases above or over one's head, have a head for, keep one's head, lose one's head, etc): she has a good head for figures; a wise old head.

10. a person or animal considered as a unit: the show was two pounds per head; six hundred head of cattle.

11. the head considered as a measure of length or height: he's a head taller than his mother.

12. (Botany) botany

a. a dense inflorescence such as that of the daisy and other composite plants

b. any other compact terminal part of a plant, such as the leaves of a cabbage or lettuce

13. a culmination or crisis (esp in the phrase bring or come to a head)

14. (Pathology) the pus-filled tip or central part of a pimple, boil, etc

15. the head considered as the part of the body on which hair grows densely: a fine head of hair.

16. (Physical Geography) the source or origin of a river or stream

17. (Physical Geography) (capital when part of name) a headland or promontory, esp a high one

18. (Currencies) the obverse of a coin, usually bearing a portrait of the head or a full figure of a monarch, deity, etc. Compare tail1

19. a main point or division of an argument, discourse, etc

20. (Journalism & Publishing) (often plural) the headline at the top of a newspaper article or the heading of a section within an article

21. (Nautical Terms) nautical

a. the front part of a ship or boat

b. (in sailing ships) the upper corner or edge of a sail

c. the top of any spar or derrick

d. any vertical timber cut to shape

e. (often plural) a slang word for lavatory

22. (Grammar) grammar another word for governor7

23. (Instruments) the taut membrane of a drum, tambourine, etc

24. (General Physics)

a. the height of the surface of liquid above a specific point, esp when considered or used as a measure of the pressure at that point: a head of four feet.

b. pressure of water, caused by height or velocity, measured in terms of a vertical column of water

c. any pressure: a head of steam in the boiler.

25. (Pharmacology)

a. a person who regularly takes drugs, esp LSD or cannabis b. (in combination): an acidhead; a pothead.

26. (Mining & Quarrying) mining a road driven into the coal face

27. a. the terminal point of a route b. (in combination): railhead.

28. (General Engineering) a device on a turning or boring machine, such as a lathe, that is equipped with one or more cutting tools held to the work by this device

29. (Automotive Engineering) See cylinder head

30. (Electronics) an electromagnet that can read, write, or erase information on a magnetic medium such as a magnetic tape, disk, or drum, used in computers, tape recorders, etc

31. (Education) short for headmaster, headmistress

32. (Horse Racing) a. the head of a horse considered as a narrow margin in the outcome of a race (in the phrase win by a head) b. any narrow margin of victory (in the phrase (win) by a head)

33. (Pathology) short for headache

34. (Curling) curling the stones lying in the house after all 16 have been played

35. (Bowls & Bowling) bowls the jack and the bowls that have been played considered together as a target area

36. (Rugby) against the head rugby from the opposing side's put-in to the scrum

37. bite someone's head off snap someone's head off to speak sharply and angrily to someone

38. a. to bring or be brought to a crisis: matters came to a head. b. (of a boil) to cause to be or be about to burst

39. get it into one's head to come to believe (an idea, esp a whimsical one): he got it into his head that the earth was flat.

40. give head to perform fellatio

41. give someone his head to allow a person greater freedom or responsibility

42. (Horse Racing) give a horse its head to allow a horse to gallop by lengthening the reins

43. go to one's head a. to make one dizzy or confused, as might an alcoholic drink b. to make one conceited: his success has gone to his head.

44. head and shoulders above greatly superior to

45. head over heels a. turning a complete somersault b. completely; utterly (esp in the phrase head over heels in love)

46. hold up one's head to be unashamed

47. keep one's head to remain calm

48. keep one's head above water to manage to survive a difficult experience

49. make head to make progress

50. make head or tail of (used with a negative) to attempt to understand (a problem, etc): he couldn't make head or tail of the case.

51. off one's head out of one's head insane or delirious

52. off the top of one's head without previous thought; impromptu

53. on one's head on one's own head at one's (own) risk or responsibility

54. one's head off loudly or excessively: the baby cried its head off.

55. over someone's head a. without a person in the obvious position being considered, esp for promotion: the graduate was promoted over the heads of several of his seniors. b. without consulting a person in the obvious position but referring to a higher authority: in making his complaint he went straight to the director, over the head of his immediate boss. c. beyond a person's comprehension

56. put their heads together to consult together

57. take it into one's head to conceive a notion, desire, or wish (to do something)

58. turn heads to be so beautiful, unusual, or impressive as to attract a lot of attention

59. turn something on its head stand something on its head to treat or present something in a completely new and different way: health care which has turned orthodox medicine on its head.

60. turn someone's head to make someone vain, conceited, etc

vb

61. (tr) to be at the front or top of: to head the field.

62. (often foll by: up) to be in the commanding or most important position

63. (often foll by for) to go or cause to go (towards): where are you heading?.

64. (Nautical Terms) to turn or steer (a vessel) as specified: to head into the wind.

65. (Soccer) soccer to propel (the ball) by striking it with the head

66. (tr) to provide with or be a head or heading: to head a letter; the quotation which heads chapter 6.

67. (Botany) (tr) to cut the top branches or shoots off (a tree or plant)

68. (intr) to form a head, as a boil or plant

69. (Physical Geography) (often foll by: in) (of streams, rivers, etc) to originate or rise in

70. (Games, other than specified) head them Austral to toss the coins in a game of two-up

head (hɛd) n.

1. the anterior or upper part of the vertebrate body, containing the skull with mouth, eyes, ears, nose, and brain.

2. the corresponding part of the body in invertebrates.

3. the head considered as the center of the intellect; mind; brain: a good head for mathematics.

4. the position or place of leadership, greatest authority, or honor.

5. a person to whom others are subordinate, as the director of an institution; leader or chief.

6. a person considered with reference to his or her mind, attributes, status, etc.: wise heads; crowned heads.

7. the part of anything that forms or is regarded as forming the top or upper end: head of a pin; head of a page.

8. the foremost part or front end of something or a forward projecting part: head of a procession.

9. the part of a weapon, tool, etc., used for striking: the head of a hammer.

10. a person or animal considered as one of a number, herd, or group: a dinner at $20 a head; ten head of cattle.

11. the approximate length of a horse's head, as indicating a margin of victory in a race.

12. a culminating point, usu. of a critical nature; crisis or climax: to bring matters to a head.

13. froth or foam at the top of a liquid: the head on beer.

14. a. any dense flower cluster or inflorescence. b. any other compact part of a plant, usu. at the top of the stem, as that composed of leaves in the cabbage.

15. the maturated part of an abscess, boil, etc.

16. a projecting point of a coast, esp. when high, as a cape, headland, or promontory.

17. Also, heads. the obverse of a coin, as bearing a head or other principal figure(opposed to tail).

18. one of the chief parts or points of a written or oral discourse.

19. something resembling a head in form or a representation of a head, as a piece of sculpture.

20. the source of a river or stream.

21. Slang. a. a habitual user of an illicit drug (often used in combination): an acid-head; a pothead. b. a fan or devotee (usu. used in combination): a punk-rock head; a chili head.

22. heads, alcohol produced during the initial fermentation.

23. headline.

24. a toilet or lavatory, esp. on a boat or ship.

25. a. the forepart of a vessel; bow. b. the upper edge of a quadrilateral sail. c. the upper corner of a jib-headed sail.

26. Gram. a. the member of an endocentric construction that can play the same grammatical role as the construction itself. b. the member of a

construction upon which another member depends and to which it is subordinate.

27. the stretched membrane covering the end of a drum or similar musical instrument.

28. a level or road driven into solid coal for proving or working a mine.

29. any of various devices on machine tools for holding, moving, indexing, or changing tools or work, as the headstock or turret of a lathe.

30. (loosely) the pressure exerted by confined fluid: a head of steam.

31. a. the vertical distance between two points in a liquid, as water, or some other fluid. b. the pressure differential resulting from this separation, expressed in terms of the vertical distance between the points.

32. any of the parts of a tape recorder that record, play back, or erase magnetic signals on audiotape or videotape.

adj.

33. first in rank or position; chief; leading; principal: a head official.

34. of or for the head (often used in combination): head covering; headgear.

35. situated at the top, front, or head of anything (often used in combination): headline; headboard.

36. moving or coming from a direction in front, as of a vessel: head tide.

37. Slang. of or pertaining to drugs, drug paraphernalia, or drug users.

v.t.

38. to go at the head of or in front of; lead: to head a list.

39. to outdo or excel: to head one's competitors in a field.

40. to be the head or chief of (sometimes fol. by up): to head a school.

41. to direct the course of; turn the head or front of in a specified direction: I'll head the boat for the shore.

42. to go around the head of (a stream).

43. to furnish or fit with a head.

44. to take the head off; decapitate; behead.

45. to get in front of in order to stop, turn aside, attack, etc.

46. headline (def. 4).

47. to propel (a soccer ball) by striking it with the head, esp. with the forehead.

v.i.

48. to move forward toward a point specified; go in a certain direction: to head toward town.

49. to form a head: Cabbage heads quickly.

50. (of a river or stream) to have the head or source where specified.

51. head off, to hinder the progress of; intercept.

Idioms:

1. come to a head,

a. to suppurate, as a boil.

b. to reach a crisis; culminate.

2. get one's head together, to get oneself under control; become sensible.

3. give someone his or her head, to allow someone freedom of choice.

4. go to one's head,

a. to overcome one with exhilaration, dizzyness, or intoxication.

b. to fill one with conceit.

5. hang or hide one's head, to manifest shame.

6. head and shoulders, by an impressively great amount: head and shoulders above the rest in talent.

7. head over heels,

a. headlong, as in a somersault.

b. intensely; completely: head over heels in love.

c. impulsively; carelessly: They plunged head over heels into the fighting.

8. head to head, in direct opposition or competition.

9. keep one's head, to remain calm and effective.

10. lay or put heads together, to meet in order to discuss, consult, or scheme.

11. lose one's head, to become uncontrolled or wildly excited.

12. make head(s) or tail(s) of, to understand or interpret to even a small extent (often used in the negative).

13. make heads roll, to dismiss numbers of employees or subordinates.

14. on one's head, as one's responsibility or fault.

15. out of one's head or mind,

a. insane; crazy.

b. delirious; irrational.

16. over one's head, beyond one's comprehension, ability, or resources.

17. turn someone's head,

a. to make someone smug or conceited.

b. to confuse someone.

[before 900; Middle English he(v)ed, Old English hēafod, c. Old Saxon hōbid, Old High German houbit, Old Norse haufuth; akin to Old Norse hǫfoth, Latin caput]

-head

a noun suffix of state or condition (godhead; maidenhead), occurring in words now mostly archaic or obsolete, many being superseded by forms in -hood.

[Middle English -hede, Old English *-hǣdu, akin to -hād -hood]

Head (hɛd) n.

Bessie, 1937–86, South African novelist.

10. Comment on the metaphorical extension of these terms:

a) warm –icy –frosty –cold

b) white –black –blue –yellow –red

c) see –hear –taste –touch

A metaphorical extension is the "extension of meaning in a new direction" through popular adoption of an original metaphorical comparison.

Metaphorical extension is almost a universal and natural process in any language undergone by every word. In general, it's not even perceived in everyday usage as meaning change. When it’s least obvious, users don't even see it as extending the meaning of a word. Consider the example of illuminate: it originally meant "to light up" something dim or dark, but has evolved to mean "to clarify", "to edify". After a while these new meanings seem so natural as to be integral parts of the word, where senses such as "to celebrate" and "to adorn a page with designs" seem like more obvious additions.

Temperature (touch)•A warm reception.•You're as cold as ice. ("As ice", however, is not a metaphor in this example)•An icy stare. (Submitted and demonstrated via phone by Barbara Casnig! :D)•Frozen with fear.

There are several emotion subtypes within the FEELING IS COLOR metaphor (Apresjan, 1997). For instance in English 'green' is associated with envy and jealousy as in 'He was green with envy when he saw their expensive new car' (OID, P.147) but in Russian 'yellow' is associated with envy as in ' pozeletet' ot zavisti '(cf. Apresjan, 1997) that means' to turn

yellow with envy ', but envy and jealousy does not have any color in Persian.

The Martinique-born French Frantz Fanon and African-American writers Langston Hughes ("That Word Black"), Maya Angelou, and Ralph Ellison, among others, wrote that negative symbolisms surrounding the word "black" outnumber positive ones. They argued that the good vs. bad dualism associated with white and black unconsciously frame prejudiced colloquialisms. In the 1970s the term black replaced Negro in the United States.

Seeing Red - being furious (it originates from the fact that bulls get angry and charge when they see anything red).

A red letter day - a special or lucky day

To get the red light to be told to stop

A red herring something irrelevant

Red tape - official bureacracy or formality (so-called because lawyers and Government offiicials tie their documents together with red tape)

To be caught red-handed - to be caught in the act

There were some red faces - there were some embarrassed people

Red sky at night, shepherds' delight, red sky in the morning, shepherds' warning a proverb, meaning If you see a red sky at night, the weather will be good next day, but a red sky in the morning foretells bad weatherHe is yellow - he is a coward

He is green with envy he is envious or jealous

The green-eyed dragon means jealousy (so you might say "he is suffering from the green eyed dragon")

To get the green light - to get the go-ahead (this comes from traffic lights)

He is green - he is a novice i.e. doesn't quite know what he is doing

To go green - to become ecologically aware (green issues are issues relating to conservation and saving the planet)

Be careful therefore, because if you say someone is green, it could mean either jealous or uninitiated, or ecologigally aware, depending on the context.In the pink - in flourishing good health or in a good situation

Your pinky - your little finger

Pink - relating to homosexuals as in "the pink economy" (deriving from being half-way between red and white)

Seeing the world through rose-tinted glasses - seeing things in an unrealistically benign way

To be purple with rage - To be very angry

Visibility

By making things visible, they become real. A visible thing is concrete and makes sense. We thus use the fact that something can be seen to call it into existence and give it meaning.

I see what you mean.When something is not visible, it is not here, not available for us to experience. We thus use lack of visibility to explain something that does not make sense. I don't see it that way.

Understanding

Light can be used to describe understanding, with increasing light indicating increasing understanding.

I don't see the value in that.

Connection

Other forms of touch, although lighter than a grasp also indicate some form of connection.

She touched many of the people with her moving speech.

Choice

Taste can be used to indicate that a good or bad choice has been made.

It was all in the best possible taste.

11. The words in the HOT-COLD domain aren’t always used literally. They don’t always refer to TEMPERATURE. Discuss the meanings of the expressions below:

a. a warm personality e. a scorching criticism b. a hot- tempered person f. a blistering attack c. a red-hot idea g. a luke-warm response d. an icy stare h. a frosty receptionMetaphors such as icy stare depict social exclusion using cold-related concepts; they are not to be taken literally and certainly do not imply reduced temperature. Social exclusion literally feels cold. The psychological experience of coldness not only aids understanding of social interaction, but also is an integral part of the experience of social exclusion."Warmth" is the most powerful personality trait in social judgment, and attachment theorists have stressed the importance of warm physical contact with caregivers during infancy for healthy relationships in adulthood.In the realm of social relations, people often use metaphors such as “she is cold and aloof” or “she is a warm person.” Temperature metaphors conveniently establish and explain what is meant, and often show a remarkable similarity in imagery across languages. In particular, people’s “social temperature “is central to the perception of relationships. These ideas are reminiscent of Asch‟ (1946) early work, which proposed psychological warmth as being the central dimension on which people judge one another (see also Fiske et al., 2007).But what may be the underlying cause for the strong metaphorical connections between warmth and social relations? In later work, Asch (1958) advanced that the metaphor of warmth may be related to the real, physical experience of warmth.In addition, subtle manipulations of physical warmth (as compared to coldness) lead to cognitions that form the basis for communal relations: People in physically warmer conditions use more verbs (indicative of social closeness; Semin & Fiedler, 1988), are more focused on relationships in their environment, and construe themselves as having greater psychological overlap with the experimenter (IJzerman & Semin, 2009). In other words, due to learning that physical warmth and affection go hand-in-hand, people seem to develop mental representations that include both abstract conceptions of affectionate feelings and the sensorimotor experience of physical warmth, such that when they are in a warm environment, they will interact as if they are psychologically closer to others.

12. Consider some idioms with HAND exemplifying these metonymies:

a) The hand stands for the activity.- Do they have anything to do with the matter in hand? Could you just concentrate on the job in hand?

sit on one’s hands (‘deliberately do nothing’)

put one’s hands in one’s pockets (‘deliberately do nothing’)

turn one’s hand to something (‘tackle some project’)

be able to do something with one hand behind one’s back (‘be able to do something very easily’)

join hands with somebody (‘cooperate with a person’)

b) The hand stands for control.- Put the matter in the hands of the lawyer. While their parents away, the children got out of hand giving the

baby sitter hard time. I want to take in hand in the new project.d) Control is holding in the hand.- During the student demonstration, things got out of hand and

several shop windows were broken.e) The hand stands for the person.- We need more hands.

a factory hand (‘a factory worker’)

from hand to hand (‘directly, from one person to another’)

all hands on deck (‘everybody ready for action, duty, etc.’)

13. Mention the type of metonymy you can identify in these idioms:

a) give somebody a big hand d) gain the upper handb) from hand to hand e) keep a strict hand upon a personc) keep one ’s hand(s) in f) an old handExemplify the idioms above in sentences of your own.

a) She got a big hand for singing so well. They always give the acrobats a big hand.

b) The book travelled from hand to hand until it got back to its owner.

c) Even if I'm no longer doing a particular aspect of my job that I used to do - eg. training, I occasionally like to take on a training job - just to 'keep my hand in' - to keep in touch, keep practiced, stay familiar with it, ensure that if I need it again one day, I can just jump back into it.

d) Government troops are gradually gaining the upper hand over the rebels.

e) Discipline and keep a strict hand upon them.f) She's an old hand at magazines, having trained on Cosmopolitan

before editing Company.

14. The noun length refers to the general dimension in which the adjectives long and short describe regions. Find such ‘abstract nouns’ for the following pairs of adjectives.

a. tall: short -height g. fast: slow-speed b. thick: thin -size h. clever: stupid-intelligence c. heavy: light -weight i. broad: narrow-wide d. wide: narrow-measure j. hot: cold-temperature e. old: young-age k. warm: cool-temperature f. far: near-distance

15. Sometimes verbs that express ANIMAL SOUNDS are used as metaphors for features of HUMAN SPEECH in English. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate sound term. Choose from this list: bark, hiss, grunt, snarl, twitter, squeal, purr, and growl:

1. My mother is so cute when she purrs about her grandchildren. 2. ‘Stop crying’, the police officer barked at the drug dealer. 3. The actress hissed her answer to the reporters. 4. The prisoner twitted his reply to the guard. 5. The sergeant barked his orders to the new soldiers.