4. Drama - about
4.Drama- about
Theater iswhatwewatchonstage.Dramaisthescriptweread,thatwhichtheactorsperform,thetextthattheplaywright creates.
Dramaisliteraturethatactorsperform,butithasmanysimilaritiestopoetryandprose.TheplaysofMolièreandShakespeare,forexample,arewritteninverse.TheSpanishplaywrightAntonioBueroVallejohasdeepsymbolismthatcoldbefoundinmanypoemsandnovels.Theuseoflanguageandliterarydevices isfundamentaltoallthreeliterarygenres.
Eventhoughtheaterisamimesis,animitationofreallife,actorsperform(enact)onstageandinterpretthedrama.Theseinterpretationsmayvaryaccordingtotheactoranddirectoroftheplay,butthestagedirections(instructionsinthetextofaplaytoguideactorsintheirperformanceanddirectorsintheiroverseeing)aremoreexplicitinwhattheywanttohappenonstage.
4.1.Drama- plot
Thegeneralstructureoftheplot isthesameaswithshortstoryandthenovel:exposition,development, crisisanddenouement, aswehaveseenbefore.
Theexposition,whenthingsareestablishedinthebeginning,iscrucialtotheentireplay.Herewediscoverthebackgroundinformation:• Setting(placeandtime)• Eventsthathavealready
occurredimportanttotheplot
• Informationaboutthecharacters
Thiscanbedonethoughanarratorthattellsusinformationthathappenedbeforetheplays,thoughthedialogueofthecharacters,viaflashbacks,thoughtsorothermeansofstagedirection.
Thedevelopment(risingaction)oftheplot,isthelongestpartoftheplotandthemostimportantbecausetheysetuptheseriesofeventsthatleadtotheclimax.
Theseeventsarenotsupposedtobepredictableandcomplicationsarisethatmaketheplayinteresting.Sometimesnewinformation ispresentedorthereisaplanthatfails,buttheseelementsshouldcreateacrisis thatwillpushthedevelopment toapointofconfrontation.
Thispointofconfrontationistheclimax,whenthecrisisreachesitshighpoint.Thisiswherethingsarerevealed,understood,oractionsaretakenthatchangethecourseofevents.Thisculminationofeventschangesthemaincharacter’sfate.Ifit’satragedy,whatwasgoingwellturnsfortheworse;itit’sacomedy,thingsusuallyturnforthebetter.
Aftertheclimax,thereistheresolution,forgoodorbad,dependingonwhattypeofplayitis.Themid-stageofthisprocessisoftencalledthefallingaction,whenthetensionsbetween theprotagonistandtheantagonistsettle,withonewinningovertheother.
Andthefinalstageisthedenouement(untying)ofevents,wheretheconflictsfindtheirresolution.Here,readerscanexperienceasenseofcatharsis,orreleaseofemotionsandtension.
Asmentioned,inthecrisisthereisaturnofevents:intheresolutioninacomedytheprotagonisthasahappyendingandtheantagonistmaybecome“good”;inatragedy,theprotagonist(s)maydieorsufferloss.
Toseeexamples ofthis,thinkaboutthecomedy AMidsummerNight’sDreaminwhichtheloversareunitedintheendandtheenemiesreconcile.Nowthinkaboutatragedy,RomeoandJuliet,inwhichthetwoprotagonistsdieattheendoftheplay.
4.2.Drama- characters
Inregardstothecharactersofdrama,asinthenovelandtheshortstory,wehavetheprotagonist andtheantagonist.Thatpersonmightbeindividualist orrepresentative ofalargergrouporactions.
Traditional charactersaresupposedtoactwithintherestrictionsoftheirsocialclass(decorum).
Wealsohavefoilcharacters,whichserveasacontrasttomaketheprotagonist’scharacteristicsstandout.
Wealsohavethestockcharactersforthebackground,thosethatfulfillastereotypicalorarchetypicalroleandthatareknownfortheirflatnessandlackofdevelopment.
Wealsohaveanarrator,whichcanbeembeddedinthebackgroundtoserveasacommunicatorbetweentheactionandtheaudience.Inolderplays,particularlytheGreektradition,thismightserveasthechorus.
4.3.Drama- theme
Inregardstothethemeofplay,thereareuniversalobjects,regardlessofthetimeandspaceofthedrama(setting),withwhichweasspectators/readerscanidentify.Werecognizecharacters likeourselves,andtheiroutcomecouldbeawarningorapredictionofourownfutureactions.
4.4.1.Drama– typesofplays:comedy
Thetraditionofcomedy istoentertaintheaudienceandseeahappyending.Thereislowcomedy,whichhighlydependsonactionandishumorousandfarcical withsometimesvulgarhumor,andhighcomedy,whichhasamoresophisticatedplotandlanguage,withadialoguethatinvolveswitand“polite”interactions.
Thereareseveraltypesofcomedies.Theromanticcomedy involvesloveandahappyending.ThisiscommoninShakespeareandintheElizabethantradition,likeintheaforementionedAMidsummerNight’sDream.
Thereisthecomedyofmanners,whichdealswithupper-classsociety,like,forexampledandies,jealousy,frivolity,etc.AnexampleofthisisTheConsciousLovers,byRichardSteele,characterizedbyexaggerationandmelodramaticeffect.
Thereisalsothetragicomedy,acrossbetween tragedyandcomedythatcontainselementsofboth.Itcanbetragedywithsomecomicrelief,forexample,oratragedywithahappyending.AnexampleofthisisAntonChekov’sTheCherryOrchard.
Thesentimentalcomedyhasbothsentimentaltragedyandcomedy,andischaracterizedbyinteractionsofextremeemotionalexpressionandpity.AnexampleofthisisBenJohnson’sEveryManinHisHumor,aplayofsuspicionsandsuppositions.
4.4.2.Drama– typesofplays:satire
Satireisanacross-the-boardmodethatcanbeseenindrama,poetry,fictionandnon-fiction.Itisaliterarymodethatuseshumor,ridiculeandironytoexpose,criticizeordenounceevil,stupidityandvicesofpeople,institutionsorbeliefs,usuallyinpoliticsorothercontemporaryissues.Intheliterarygenreofdrama,thiswouldcorrespondtohighcomedy.
Satire usesirony,parody,hyperbole,understatement,sarcasm,wit,inversionandotherliterarytechniques.Let’srunthroughthesecharacteristics(somewehavealreadyseen):• Irony – usingopposite
languagetocreateeffect(ex- WWIwasthe“wartoendallwars”)
• Parody – anexaggeratedimitationofawriter,artistorgenreforcomicoutcome(ex– DonQuixoteisaparodyofthechivalricnovels)
• Hyperbole –exaggeration(ex– “Ihaveamillionthingstodotoday”)
• Understatement –presenting somethingassmallerorlessimportantthanitis(ex– describingagunshotwoundasa“scratch”.
• Sarcasm – mockingwithirony(ex– "Whereistheflood?”Ifsomeonewearspantsthataretooshort.)
• Wit – mentalsharpnessandinventiveness
• Inversion (anastrophe)– thenormalorderofwordsisreversed toattainadesiredmeteroreffect(ex– “Toclass,Iwillgo”).
AnexampleofamodernsatirethatiseasilyunderstoodisBertV.Royal’sDogSeesGod:ConfessionsofaTeenageBlockhead.Thenamealonesaysalot,butit’sasatireofthefamousPeanutscharactersbyCharlesM.Schulz,showingthecharactershowtheyarewhentheygrowup.Youcanimaginehowsomeofthesecharacteristicsofsatirecomealiveinthisplay.
4.4.3.Drama– typesofplays:tragedy
Atragedy ischaracterizedbyaseriesoftragiceventsandanunhappyending,andtheprotagonistusuallysuffersordiesasaresult.Soundsdepressing,butithasanulteriorfunction.Atragedy,asAristotledefinedit,shouldprovokeanemotionalresponseintheaudience(reader),oneofcompassion,forexample,tocreateacatharsis.
Inatragedythetragichero istraditionallyanobleanduprightfigurethathasatragicflaw(alsocalledhamartia)whichisoftenhubris(personalpride)oralackofjudgment,whichleadstoaculminatingcatastrophe.
Althoughtheendingistragicandseeminglydepressing,theprotagonistisredeemedinsomeway,andtheaudiencelearnsfromhis/herfaults,thusrestoringordertoanyuniversalconceptof“good”or“truth”.
ThetragediesstemfromtheGreektradition,mostknownwithAeschylus,SophoclesandEuripides.PerhapsthemostknowninOedipusRex bySophocles.
Ofcourse,tragedieshavebeenwritteneversince.WilliamShakespearewellknownforsomeofhistragedies,especiallyRomeoandJuliet,HamletandMacbeth.PerhapsthemostpopularmoderntragedyisDeathofaSalesman byArthurMiller.
4.4.4.Drama– typesofplays:historicaldrama
Thehistoricaldramaisadramaaboutafamoushistoricalfigureorevent.Shakespearewrotemanyofthese,likeKingLearandHenryV.
SinceShakespeareantimestherehavebeenmanyhistoricaldramas,butmany,ifnotmost,arenationalisticandbiased.
4.4.5.Drama– typesofplays:moderndrama
Withmoderndramaweseeawholenewtypeofplaythatinvolvescientific,social,psychologicalandartisticelementspreviouslyundeveloped inWesternthought.Thistypeofdramaemergedtowardtheendofthe19th centuryandevolvedwellintothe20thcentury.
SomemodernplaywrightsthatpertaintothistypeofgenreareTennesseeWilliams,HenrikIbsen,GeorgeBernardShaw,WilliamButlerYeats,SamuelBeckett,OscarWilde,Jean-PaulSartre,EugèneIonesco,FernandoArrabalyFedericoGarcíaLorca,tonameafew.
Moderndramastretchedthelimitsofthoughtandexpressiontotrytodefinereality,orgiveitnewmeaning.AnemphasisonRealism,likewithIbsen,strovetoseektruthordenouncerealities.Naturalism,whichstemmedfromrealism,showsframesoflifethoroughpredominatelya“scientific”observationofthevicesofthelowerclass.
Herearesomeexamplesofmoremodernpopularworks
thatIsuggestyourread(partialinternational
selection):
TennesseeWilliamsAStreetcarNamedDesire
Henrik IbsenADoll’sHouse
GeorgeBernardShawManandSuperman
SamuelBeckettWaitingforGodot
OscarWildeTheImportanceofBeing
Earnest
Jean-PaulSartreNoExit
Eugène IonescoTheRhinoceros
FedericoGarcía LorcaBloodWedding
ArthurMillerDeathofaSalesman
Withtheavant-gardemovementandfin-de-sièclerestructuringofWesternthought,thereismuchmoreabstractionandexpressionistthought(thinkofcomparingittohowpaintingdevelopedatthesametime).
Historically,thinkabouthowFreud,Darwin,Einstein,MarxandNietzschetoredownthepillarsoftraditionalWesternthoughtandleftusblazingthroughtherubbleofpost-industrialurbanism.Howwouldyoureact?
4.4.6. Avant-garde connections
Sigmund Freud – 1900
Charles Darwin – 1859
Albert Einstein – 1920
Karl Marx – 1867
Nietzsche - 1886
PSYCHOLOGICAL experiments – T.S. Elliot
EXISTENTAL thought – Albert Camus, Samuel Beckett
SOCIALIST literature – John Steinbeck and George Orwell
SOLIPSISM – César Vallejo, Samuel Beckett
EXPERIMENTAL – André Breton, David Foster Wallace
SYMBOLIC thought – Charles Baudelaire and William Butler Yeats