3750 Final

Mary-Catherine Ciuba6 December 2011

Phillip TomporowskiKINS 3750

How to Perform a Cartwheel on a Level Surface

I. Introduction

Motor skills are performed on a daily basis and are essential to daily task completion,

whether consciously or subconsciously. Motor skills are defined as skills for which the primary

determinants of success are the quality of movements that the performer produces and can be

conceptualized in two ways. First, a motor skill can be perceived as a task, for example

decorating a Christmas tree or swinging a golf club. Skills can be classified by task

organization, relative importance of motor and cognitive elements and level of environmental

predictability. Second, a motor skill could be viewed in terms of the proficiency a person

demonstrates when performing a movement. Skills in this concept are based on maximum

certainty of goal achievement, minimum energy expenditure and minimum movement time.

Two concepts also important when discussing motor skills are motor performance and

motor learning. Motor performance is always subjective to influencing factors and is known as

the observable performance of a voluntary action or motor skill. Motor learning is defined as the

changes associated with practice or experience in internal processes that determine a person’s

capability for producing a motor skill. The best way to assess motor learning is the observe for

changes in performance that occur systematically with additional practice sessions, defined by

implicit learning.

Coaches and teachers can assess the learning process and their pupil’s location in it with the

help of abilities and skills. Abilities are defined as a stable, enduring traits that are genetically

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determined. A skill shows a learner’s proficiency to perform a specific task or movement and

this level depends on the level of the learner’s ability for whatever activity they are learning.

Performing a cartwheel is a popular skill all ages strive to master and takes a great deal of

practice and coordination to master. It incorporates hand-eye coordination, accuracy,

coordination and technique from coaching to perform correctly and efficiently. Many children

learn this skill at a young age and due to the presence of a general motor program, they can

pull that motor program and perform cartwheels at any point in their lifetime. A general motor

program is a set of motor commands that is prestructured actions and defines a pattern of

movement instead of a specific movement, allowing variations to the pattern to meet various

environmental demands. Though a cartwheel is a serial action that requires many steps, muscle

activation and information processing, once the program is created the learner will be able to

perform the action on a variety of surfaces, levels and on command without any extra equipment

needed.

The main objective of performing a cartwheel is to balance on both hands with both feet

straight up in the air and then land with both feet on the ground facing 1800 from the stance you

originally started. The more vertical and upright with proper posture the learner is, the more

efficient the movement and the more power the learner will have to perform another flip after the

cartwheel. This movement is the gateway skill into the gymnastics and cheerleading sport; the

cartwheel teaches the learner the importance of balance, flexibility and practice through its

mastery. It is functional for this reason because the cartwheel can be used at any level, both 1

and 9 in gymnastics as well as in many cheerleading sideline and competition routines. Though

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it seems sports specific, cartwheels are fun skills to know and many people enjoy performing

cartwheels in their yards and are a fun action for people of all ages to perform.

One of the ways motor skill learning is explained by psychologists is through the

information-processing model. This model illustrates the learner as a computer, processing

information and storing it away. In this model, the performer deals with input, or available

information in the environment, in several ways and delivers an output, or response. The

main source of input for this skill would be a coach counting or knowing the choreography of a

dance or pass, signaling the learner to begin the cartwheel skill. At the sound of these stimuli,

the learner should begin to process the response. When learning this skill, the coach will use

eight-counts to count the athlete in. The coach will say “Five, six, seven, eight, one”, at which

point, the learner should begin the skill once hearing the word one. Because the learner will only

have a single stimulus, the learner will not be required to differentiate among many stimuli to

make a correct selection.

After a source of input is detected, the first portion of the information processing model is

activated: the stimulus identification stage. During this stage, a learner must perceive a

particular stimulus and analyze the surrounding environment through all sensory systems. The

response selection stage is the second stage of the information processing model where the

athlete decides which action should begin in reaction to the stimulus, if any. There is a

translation between the sensory input and several response options to help the learner decide

what is best for this situation. The third and final step in the information processing model is the

response programming stage. This stage encompasses a variety of processes in the brain and

to validate the original response selection, choose the correct body parts for action and prepares

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for a response. After this step, the information processing model is complete and an output of

either a motor behavior or action should be produced. In this case, the learner should follow the

general pattern of two feet on the ground, both feet in the air and two feet on the ground again,

though it does not mean that the cartwheel is perfectly performed. Output of any kind does not

always achieve the desired goal of the motor program and these subpar performances are an

important part of practice.

II. Who (Learner Characteristics)

Chandler Ciuba is a fourteen-year-old female who is an eighth grader in school and has

no previous experience with tumbling. She is a novice when it comes to tumbling and has no

previous experience or abilities with gymnastics or tumbling movements, though she understands

the basic concept of a cartwheel and sees her friends do them for fun. Chandler has previous

experience with movement from her participation in sports like soccer and cross-country

running. She is a mature young lady with an adequate attention span, arousal capabilities and a

superb memory bank. Chandler is able to focus on a given task in previous experiences and is

extremely attentive, which are both important assets to motor learning.

Chandler is also capable of processing information adequately and is aroused or

expresses an activation of her central nervous system above normal levels to learn how to

tumble. I think her ability to quickly process information and have a good memory will play to

her advantage, but her lack of flexibility and previous experience could hinder her ability to

perform this skill (I think she will succeed, but will take her longer than a younger, smaller

individual). In addition, Chandler is interested and therefore motivated in furthering her

tumbling career beyond that of this action and expresses interest in performing on her high

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school cheerleading squad next year, which requires some tumbling passes in order to be

competitive in the selection process. Overall, she has no debilitating conditions, illness or

disease that may inhibit her overall performance. Because of reasons previously stated, Chandler

has high achievement motivation towards doing a cartwheel because the flipping action is

interesting to her personally and she hopes to continue improving the skill as well as more

complex ones throughout her middle and high school career. Achievement motivation is the

direction and intensity of a person’s effort to reach a performance goal, either for personal

mastery or for demonstrating superior results in comparison to others performing the same task.

In her case, achievement motivation deals with both of these aspects. Chandler’s abilities will be

contributing factors aiding her in learning this skill.

At this point, Chandler is in the verbal cognitive stage of learning, where she understands the

basic techniques of performing a cartwheel and performing one is her primary goal. As for her

information processing capabilities, she has a few abilities and skills that should help her in

this learning experience. Information processing capabilities are factors that influence how an

individual responds to the learning process. Some of these capabilities are abilities while others

are skills. Chandler exhibits an adequate amount of abilities like stamina and trunk strength from

her running workouts with previous sports. She is open to this experience and a very kinesthetic

learner, so she will be eager to learn by example and trying the movements through space. She is

lean and muscular and should have the arm strength to support her body weight in the flip. For

her age, she is mature and motivated, which is impressive in a teenager to express at all. She has

had recreational and competitive experience, so she will not be as anxious about performing in

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front of an audience. From her workouts, her fitness level is moderate, which will aid in the

practice to come.

What (Task Characteristics)

Learning experiences, or situations when people make deliberate attempts to improve

their performance of a particular movement or action require many things. Some of these are

preparation, presentation, feedback and practice structures. The combination of these in the right

degrees is crucial and helps define the learning experience. These steps below are all important

information processing demands of the task.

The first step of the learning experience is known as the preparation phase and includes

several concepts of the motor learning process. This portion incorporates changes that are

associated in the process and the internal process of changing with experience determines

someone’s capability for producing this motor skill. During practice, the athlete needs to focus

and create target skills and target behaviors. Target skills are skills that a person wishes to

perform and may include balance and proprioception throughout the skill process. Target

behaviors are the actions that people must be able to produce to perform target skills successfully

performed in the target context. Examples of these behaviors are like visual focus on the mat,

proper hand and foot alignment, exceptional balance and coordination to perform the cartwheel.

There is also an environmental context to the skill as well and shows where the person wants to

perform that skill and the difficulties found there. In this case, Chandler will perform the skill on

a 2” blue foam mat during a competition routine in front of friends and family.

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Another important portion of the preparation phase is goal setting, which is defined as

the process of establishing targets for performance and is crucial to the preparation phase. The

three types of goals are outcome goals, performance goals and process goals. Outcome goals

are targets of performance that primarily focus on the end result of the activity and emphasize the

ability to safely and effectively perform a cartwheel, while utilizing the proper technique. The

difference in outcome goals is that they are concrete goals that focus on one aspect of the skill or

show if the skill was performed or not. Process goals focus on movement production process

and focus on minutiae that are indicative of the expertise and precision the athlete holds.

The second step in the learning experience is known as the presentation phase and

includes instructional assistance and planning on the learner’s part. One of the most important

parts of the presentation phase is the clarification of experience. The learner needs a coach or

teacher to tell him or her what is expected during the learning experience and alleviate any

concerns. This communication allows Chandler to share goals of her learning experience and

help motivate her to experience success and feel less threatened when beginning a new task.

Familiarizing Chandler with the environment and offering support will make her more willing to

take risks to improve her flipping ability. Attentional focus is also important to direct

information to the performer’s attention and incorporates several different types of focus.

External focus is a focus on information that is the consequence of the action being produced

and is applicable to the exercise mat. Internal focus is a focus on information associated with

the body’s movement in producing action and would apply to hand and foot coordination.

Narrow focus focuses on a small range of sources while broad focus is on a wide range of

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information sources, both of which are important to attentional control to help the learner

achieve the goal more efficiently.

The third step is feedback and is an important reason why instructors are vital to the

learning process. Because they know the correct elements of execution of a given task,

instructors are able to influence positively the learning experience. Information feedback, or

feedback that provides error-correction information, can be either descriptive or prescriptive.

Descriptive feedback describes errors made during the performance of a skill. Prescriptive

feedback not only describes errors made during performance of a skill, but also provides the

learner with some suggestions, which might benefit the learner. Parameter feedback, which

provides error information about the changeable surface features of movements, is used in later

stages of learning, though they can be extremely beneficial throughout the learning process.

Unlike the other three steps, the presentation structure is an important concept throughout

the learning experience. This concept can have either a positive or negative effect on the learner

and must be constantly considered. Like previously stated, Chandler knows she learns best

kinesthetically and therefore should learn in ways that are best for her. Personal traits and

characteristics must be taken into consideration while learning a new skill as well as the practice

type used. There are two types of practices: block practice and random practice. Blocked

practice uses the same practice or skill repeatedly and enhances immediate performance.

Random practice, on the other hand, requires a performance of a number of skills in a random

order and is more effective in the later stages of learning.

The process of teaching Chandler to perform a cartwheel needs a task analysis and

involves a series of steps. A task analysis shows a method of estimating the key components of a

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motor task. In the novice stage, or verbal cognitive stage of learning, only a few components

will be focused on in the task analysis and elements will be addressed more meticulously later

on.

Task Analysis

Takeoff:

1. Athlete will begin standing erect, with both arms extended above their head and

concentrating at the floor.

The athlete will put her hands straight up in the air, creating about a 1200 angle between

the right and left arm to the trunk of the body. The athlete’s palms should be facing

towards his or her right leg (the “lead leg”), which is pointed at a perpendicular angle to

the rest of the athlete’s body. The athlete will tumble to the right because he/she is most

likely right handed and this motion will feel the most comfortable. The stimulus will be

when the athlete is focused at the ground and the coach counts the athlete in by saying “5,

6, 7, 8, 1” , which helps the athlete realize when to begin and will begin performing the

skill on the 1 count. As a beginner, the athlete will be able to use five small prints to help

them understand hand and foot placement throughout the skill (seen below).

2. The athlete will begin to bring their hands towards the mat (both the dominant and non-

dominant hands) to match the markings on the mat.

By placing there hands on the markings appropriate to that hand, the learner should be in an

optimal position to jump over the hurdle effectively. This should place the athlete’s hands

far enough away from the feet so that the athlete does a complete revolution in the cartwheel.

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In addition, the learner’s hands should be close enough so that she does not have to stretch

extensively in order to push her legs over in the cartwheel.

3. As the athlete approaches the initial contact, the nondominant (trail) leg should begin to

lift off the ground, so that the lead leg is holding most of the body weight of the learner.

Initial Contact:

4. As the athlete is propelled laterally and towards the ground, the lead arm (right arm)

should make initial contact with the floor

5. The trail leg should not be bearing weight at this point and the lead leg is now flexed to

begin the flip motion.

Handstand:

6. The lead leg should push extend in a powerful contraction to help push the body above

both hands, which is a handstand skill in gymnastics.

Before beginning a cartwheel skill, a coach should hold the learner in a handstand that the

athlete kicks off the ground into so that they have a feeling for how the athlete feels

holding their body weight on their hands. They should be able to hold a handstand for

three seconds before beginning a cartwheel regimine.

7. The non-dominant hand (left hand) should now make contact with the floor, making the

body weight be focused completely on the hands.

8. The trunk, arms and legs should be extended, straight and tight in order to hold this

weight on their hands in this position.

Terminal Contact:

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9. The dominant hand (right hand) must then push off the ground and begin the leg’s

descent back to the ground.

10. The trunk should flex towards the contralateral side (or towards the side the body will

land, for a right handed person that is to the left).

11. The non-dominant leg is now leading for the remainder of the skill and the athlete’s non-

dominant leg makes contact with the ground again.

12. The dominant hand that pushed off should now be up in the air, bearing no weight.

Landing:

13. At the point, the athlete should make the dominant foot make contact with the ground and

the non-dominant hand pushes off and raises off the ground.

14. The athlete’s end position is exactly identical to the start position.

A cartwheel mat, typically used for beginners

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Takeoff Initial Contact Handstand Terminal Contact Landing

The progression of a cartwheel

Skills are organized into three categories, but can be a combination of the three. Discrete

skills are brief and have a well defined beginning and end, like kicking a soccer ball or throwing

a baseball. Serial skills incorproate several discrete actions connected in a sequence and the

order is crucial to success. Continuous skills unfold without a recognizable beginning and end

of an ongoing and repetitive fashion, like rowing or in-line skating. Cartwheeling is a discrete

task because it has a definite beginning, middle and end, but can also be considered a continuous

skill because it has a certain sequence of skills (like the takeoff and handstand) that are different

and the order is crucial.

Another way to classify skills is by the importance of motor and cognitive elements.

Cognitive skills are the primary determinant of success is the quality of the performer’s

decisions regarding what to do. These skills depend on the strategy required to dictate the

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movement rather than the actual movement itself. Motor skills, as previously stated, is the

primary determinant of success is the quality of movements. The act of performing a cartwheel

is a motor skill and the quality of movement determines the success of proficiency.

A third way to classify skills is by the level of environmental predictability. These skills are

divided into open skills and closed skills. Open skills are performed in unpredictable

environments and learners must adapt to their surroundings. Close skills are performed in an

environment that is predictable or stationary. Chandler’s cartwheel will be performed inside on

the same mat, so it is considered a closed skill because there are no environmental tendencies to

adapt for.

The cartwheel requires no objects to perform. The learner can wear shoes or not and do

not require any other objects to perform. The cartwheel can be modified and increase difficulty

by using only one hand on the ground, elbows on the ground or no hands on the ground. As far

as injuries go, there have been documented cases on broken bones, rashes from the floor and

few injuries to the head when performing flips like the cartwheel. However, with proper

technique and soft padding surfaces at the beginning of the learning stages should help Chandler

avoid injury.

Goals

Before beginning any practice session, it is important for the learner and instructor to

communicate about long term goals and focus on getting the learner to those points. Goal

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setting is known as the processing of establishing targets for performance and increase the

motivation of the learner while maximizing the effects of practice. While goal setting is a highly

individual matter, it causes the learner to be more committed to goal achievement, and she

usually will have a better understanding of the purpose of various learning activities. Research

indicates that the best way to implement goal setting is via use of the “CARS” strategy, whereas

goals are challenging, attainable, realistic, and specific. This ensures that goals are encouraging

to improvement, achievable given the conditions of learning, based on prior experience, and

measurable. When goals are satisfied, they can increase the quality of the learning experience.

Chandler’s first long-term goal is to learn the handstand skill first and master holding herself up

on her hands. She is in the process of learning that new skill and is developing consistency. In

addition, she wants to learn how to do a cartwheel with proper technique so that she may make

the varsity cheerleading squad next year and be able to do a cartwheel on command.

Where (Target Context)

When teaching a new skill, it is important to know the target context and environmental

context in which people want to be able to perform a skill. This will allow the learner to perform

in a more relevant setting and gain confidence and experience in her applicable environment.

She will practice and the United Cheerleading gym in Columbus, GA over thanksgiving break.

She will have the opportunity to practice on a variety of surfaces and will perform her final skill

on a 2” blue foam mat at this gym as well. This skill is considered to be in a recreational

context because Chandler is learning the skill for fun and to show off her new ability to flip. In

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the novice stage, she will have one on one instruction in the same building with limited crowd

noise and distractions.

III. When

a. Novice

There are three stages of learning that Chandler will progress through during the learning

experience: novice, intermediate and advanced. In this novice stage, most of the learning is done

in the verbal cognitive stage since the learner has no knowledge of doing a cartwheel. The

learner must begin to generate ideas about the movement and coordination to help understand the

process. In the preparation phase, Chandler must prepare for the first practice session at the

cheerleading gym and goals must be established so there will be a specific focus for both

Chandler and the instructor. She must work with the instructor to formulate outcome goals,

performance goals and process goals.

Preparation

Chandler’s outcome goal for this first novice stage is to do a cartwheel on a modified

cheese wedge mat without a spotter (picture below). Because of the different type of mat, this

modification of equipment will help Chandler flip more easily and be softer to help cushion her

probable falls. This goal focuses on the end result and can be compared to other’s performances,

so it is an adequate outcome goal. Chandler’s process goal for the beginner phase is to perform

the cartwheel with correct form throughout the skill. Since her process goal focuses on the

quality of movement, this goal is accurate for this context as well. She also must set a

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performance goal that focuses on improving some aspect of performance. Chandler’s

performance goal is to begin and land in a balanced position and not fall over while performing

the skill.

Cheese mat

Chandler will perform a cartwheel three times and the coach will grade her technique using a

check system. Each bullet is one point and the totals will be recorded here. If she completes the

cartwheel, the total will go under “Yes” and if not, “No”.

Process Measures

Takeoff:

_____ Hands facing towards dominant leg

_____ Dominant foot is facing towards the mat

_____ Flex dominant leg to 300 to begin

_____ Keep arms and legs in line with their torso

Initial Contact:

_____ Dominant hand and Non-dominant hand approach the floor and laterally flex the torso towards the floor

_____ Lift straight non-dominant leg off the ground and no longer bear weight

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_____ Dominant hand now touches the floor


Handstand:

_____ Dominant leg now contracts to push off

_____ Hold body weight completely on hands


Terminal Contact:

_____ Laterally flex to non-dominant side to continue flip

_____ Keep eyes on the floor to keep an awareness of where they are in space

_____ Non-dominant leg now touches the floor

_____ Dominant hand comes off the floor and is no longer bearing weight


Landing:

____ Maintain lateral flexion to finish skill

_____ Dominant leg now touches the floor

_____ Non-dominant hand comes off the floor and is no longer bearing weight

_____ Bring both arms above head to finish the skill


Outcome Measures

Cartwheel Done Yes No

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Trial 1Trial 2Trial 3

As far as target skills and target behaviors go, Chandler can form basic ones since she

is starting with no previous experience. Her target skills include things such as being in a

balanced position as hands and feet make and lose contact with the floor, proper posture and

staying in line during the flip and using core to stabilize the body throughout the skill. These

target skills are appropriate because these are skills she wishes to perform. Her target behaviors

is to perform a cartwheel on a cheese mat with no distractions and shows the environmental

context the target skill must be performed in, so it fits in this category as well.

The only modification of equipment in this stage is to use the cheese mat for comfort

and safety reasons, otherwise, the skill will be the same throughout all stages and over time she

will work on perfecting technique and achieving automaticity. Target context is also important

in the learning of a new skill and is the place where the skill will take place and its distractions

the learner must overcome. Chandler might encounter attention issues with loud noises and

conversations around her while practicing and learn to overcome them. By allowing Chandler

to set her own goals and have one on one coaching time, she should be motivated to work hard

and have motivation to achieve these goals. The motivation of the learner is so important in this

novice stage and the instructor must keep the learner engaged and focused while doing a session.

Her performance will be measured by the performance measures above and baseline

measurements should be taken at the first practice session to know if she has improved over

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time. The learner’s goals and performance aspects above assess progress that best indicate skill

level. Both must be considered to gain the most accurate conclusion to see if changes in

practice, experience and factors help or hinder Chandler’s achievement.

Presentation

During the first practice session, Chandler will start on the high end of the cheese mat

and attempt to perform the flip with a trained spotter helping her flip. The action will be

demonstrated to her as a presentation, make sure to answer any questions and clarify all

expectations and then she will attempt to reproduce it. All questions should be answered and

expectations clarified before Chandler performs the first flip. Once the learner sees and performs

the task for the first time, she will be motivated and confident in her performance because she is

doing well.

To manage arousal, the coach should give only positive reinforcement for trusting the

spotter and performing the skill again and again, even if she falls. Arousal is the level of CNS

activation and it is Chandler’s goal to have arousal in the optimal performance zone so she can

efficiently perform the cartwheel. The scariest part of the flip is putting your life in someone

else’s hands, which requires a lot of trust. She must focus attention at the floor and focus on her

movement and should also be praised for that and steered clear from distractions with the

coach’s help. Attentional focus can either limit or improve performance and its two

components are the direction and width of focus. Direction refers to an internal focus that is

associated with the body’s movement in producing action and external focus is associated with

information that is a consequence of the action being performed. It is most important that

Chandler directs her attention to internal focus cues during this novice stage of learning. If the

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learner continues to fall and is not able to land on her feet, instruction should be given to the

learner and then follow with a motivating statement to focus on the positive aspects of the

motivation, otherwise defined as instruction from the teacher.

Instructions are an important portion of this task because they will be given to the

learner both verbally and physically. Both types of instruction must be used by the coach

appropriately to help the learner understand how to reproduce the movement. Demonstration

may need to be given throughout the learning process in this area to help the learner know how

the cartwheel works. Instruction for this practice session will be visual and verbal and should be

given in small amounts to not overload the learner. Initial instruction will be placed in

Chandler’s short term memory and allow her to retrieve, rehearse, process and transfer

information during the practice time. The guidance portion of the instruction is crucial in the

novice stage. Guidance is a procedure used to direct learners through task performance in an

effort to reduce errors or fears and can be active or passive. Active guidance requires active

movement from the performer and preserves the relative timing and feel of the skill. Chandler

will gain this over time as she begins to perform a cartwheel on her own and intrinsic feedback

helps her correct the technique. Passive guidance is when the teacher moves for them and aids

the learner through the cartwheel. The physical rehearsal of the motor skill is always more

important than verbally expressing the flip. The majority of this practice time should be physical

rehearsal and only take water breaks at regular intervals or at signs of fatigue to help the learner

perform at optimal levels. Fatigue should be avoided and if the athlete becomes tired, they

might need a break as well as motivation to push through the pain. Another important rehearsal

mechanism is mental rehearsal. A great time for the coach to use this skill is during a water

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break every 15 minutes to avoid fatigue with the learner. At this time, the coach should question

her flipping and feeling hollow (or having a tight core) during the flip.

Feedback

It is important to give feedback to the learner throughout the process, but know to give

extrinsic or see if they can produce it intrinsically. Since she is a beginner, she will require

mostly extrinsic feedback but if she gives off evidence of intrinsic feedback, praise her for it

because it aids her to become more self-efficient. Intrinsic feedback arises from the individual

and is received naturally from the body moving through space from stretch receptors and

proprioreceptors to help the body move throughout the skill. Because it is so unfamiliar,

Chandler will begin to learn this and it will greatly increase in the intermediate phase. If I had to

make a ratio, the feedback should be 80% extrinsic and 20% intrinsic, so the coach is heavily

influential in this stage. Another important aspect of feedback to consider is precision.

Precision gives information about the direction and magnitude of error to the learner and allows

them to know exactly how incorrect the movement was. In the novice stage, the coach should

avoid using precision feedback unless it will help the learner perform the cartwheel, but at this

point the learner is not expected to have perfect form, so feedback on this one aspect is

unnecessary. The frequency feedback needs to be very present in this stage.

Practice Structure

Another important aspect of this stage is the practice schedule. She will practice one on

one with an appropriate coach for thirty minute privates three times a week. This stage will use

blocked practice, because only cartwheels and sometimes handstands for form work will be

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worked on during this time. Over time, we hope Chandler will form a general motor program

of how to do a cartwheel and will be able to move the skill to different terrains and mats in the

future. Over time, Chandler should form a schema, a set of rules relating the various outcomes

of a person’s actions to the parameters the person sets to produce those outcomes, especially with

cartwheeling on a cheese mat. Physical practice involves several parts, including

fractionalization, segmentation and simplification. Fractionalization allows the learner to

practice different parts of the skill at various times and put each part together to complete skill.

Segmentation is practiced when one part of a skill is practiced for a time, a second part is added

and then the two are practiced together. Simplification is a type of practice in which the

complexity of some element of the skill is reduced. Slow motion practice can also aid in

learning, but this is difficult to accomplish with this flip. In this stage, Chandler will strive to

create a general motor program to perform flips on gymnastics mats and schema to help her

realize which motions go where throughout the movement from practice.

Transfer will occur in this step because she has no previous experience doing a

cartwheel, so she is bound to use other experiences and apply them to a new task. Portions of the

motor programs from kicking in soccer and strides in cross country can help Chandler perform

these techniques at the beginning of this process. We hope for a positive transfer for her, where

she will learn quicker than a novice due to these experiences and hope she will excel.

Generalizations is the capacity of the schema to accommodate something new, which will be

used more in the intermediate stage than here. Since Chandler will be performing on the same

cheese mat throughout this stage, generalization is not needed quite yet.

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Between the novice and intermediate stages, a there should be a positive transfer and

should gain generalization while going into the next stage. The only difference in the two stages

is a mat change from the cheese mat to the 2” blue foam mat. Throughout this stage, positive

reinforcement should be used to verbally praise, clap and smile to encourage Chandler to

encourage this behavior and punishment should be avoided in this stage.

b. Intermediate

Preparation

Once Chandler is able to perform a cartwheel of a cheese mat and mastered all the basic

movements with the proper form and technique, she will advance to the intermediate stage of

learning. Moving to this stage indicates that Chandler has achieved all the previous goals of a

novice. Before beginning practice sessions in the intermediate stage, she must develop a new list

of goals to be achieved at this new level of training. Her outcome goal at this stage is to do the

cartwheel and keep arms and legs straight throughout the flip. Chandler’s performance goal is

to increase her score from the previous assessment portion. Lastly, the process goals is to

perfect proper technique and form while performing the cartwheel, like pointing her toes and

performing a dramatic landing.

Chandler’s target skills for the immediate stage of learning again include things such as

a balanced position throughout the flip, correct arm and leg position, correct core activation and

the speed of the overall flip. Her target behavior is the performing the cartwheel on the 2” blue

foam mat without falling during the flip.

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The equipment used during this stage changes from the fluffy cheese mat to a harder

2” blue foam core mat. This mat is used for competitive routines, so it is important for Chandler

to be able to perform the skill on the same floor that she will again in the future. The target

context is again in the United Cheerleading gym in Columbus, GA and is still focusing in the

same local area as the cheese mat. Chandler will be more likely to be motivated since the mat

changes and she is now performing a skill on a mature mat and is excited to step onto the

competitive floor and show her coach the skills she has mastered. Performance measures will

be used again to evaluate Chandler’s process (below). The process measures are modified

slightly to add keeping her appendages straight and focusing on only a slight bend in her elbows.

Each will give her a rating between one and thirty and the scores will be averaged between three

trials. For the outcome measures, Chandler will receive three points for doing a cartwheel and

zero for not successfully landing on her feet.

Process Measures

Takeoff:

_____ Arms straight

_____ Legs straight


_____ Dominant feet has toe pointed




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Initial Contact:




_____ Dominant arm remains straight


Handstand:



_____ Elbows slightly flexed

_____ Toes Pointed


Terminal Contact:





_____ Elbows still slightly flexed


Landing:



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_____ Point dominant leg’s toes



Outcome Measures

Cartwheel Done Yes NoTrial 1Trial 2Trial 3

Presentation

Because Chandler is now in the intermediate stage, more is expected of her and she

should now know the basic technique and form required to throw a cartwheel. Chandler is not

expected to have perfected the skill yet, but expectations should be clarified that the practices

are more serious and she should be able to focus and accomplish the goals above for this learning

stage. Because the learner is more comfortable with the task, her arousal levels should now be

at the optimal level and anxiety that the skill brings should be diminished. This change should

increase her performance and efficiency. Also, Chandler is able to focus solely on practices

while at the gym, a characteristic of the intermediate stage of learning. Due to the change in

floors, Chandler’s attentional focus must be shifted towards a external focus to account for this

new, tougher variable. She will continue to have narrow focus since doing a cartwheel is the

most relevant information presented at this time.

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Instruction can and should be more detailed than what the learner is accustomed to

because Chandler is more comfortable with this cartwheeling skill. She should be verbally

quizzed to repeat elements of proper technique in order to make sure Chandler is storing

information in her long term memory, insuring that the transfer is occurring. In addition to

instruction, the coach will provide a demonstration on the blue foam mat in order to show

proper technique in the physical form one more time. Active guidance in this form of

demonstration will help Chandler extrinsically and then help her intrinsically realize what

techniques are off and how to correct them during these practices. Verbal guidance is the only

guidance that should be provided during this stage to allow Chandler to become aware of

incorrect technique and be able to fix it actively instead of change passively.

Physical rehearsal is essential in this stage of learning and will allow Chandler the

repetition her body needs to feel comfortable with the correct body movements. Because the

skill cannot effectively be broken up into parts, she should stick with segmentation practice in

this practice. First, she will only focus on getting her hands on the ground with proper technique.

The blue foam mat is not angled, so this approach is different from previous experience on the

cheese mat. Fatigue can be avoided by again taking water breaks at regular intervals and allow

the learner to leave the mat, collect her thoughts and approach the skill again. Mental rehearsal

will again be carried out in this stage in the same fashion mentioned in the novice stage.

Feedback

Precise feedback in the intermediate stage helps progress Chandler to the automaticity of

movement because this stage focuses primarily on technique versus performance. She should

begin to rely on intrinsic feedback and grow tendencies for the athlete to know what proper

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technique truly feels like and develop a capability of self-correction. The instructor should

reduce the amount of feedback she gives Chandler during this stage and begin faded feedback.

Faded feedback illustrates beginning with lots of instructor feedback and decreasing comments

over time. Delayed feedback is another important type of feedback to this stage and provides

feedback several seconds after the movement, allowing the learner to detect errors on her own.

Again, frequency of feedback should be drastically reduced in this stage overall.

Practice Structure

As far as practice schedules are concerned, the intermediate stage should have longer

practices since attention is no longer an issue. The intermediate stage will have 1 hour long

sessions three times a week and this stage should last approximately two weeks in length. Again,

these practices will use blocked practices since she will only focus on throwing a cartwheel.

Although blocked practice has been shown to not benefit the learner in competition, this is not

the case in Chandler’s situation. The movements performed in practice will transfer directly into

the exact competitive setting with no loss of information. Chandler will develop a schema for

the new general motor program for cartwheels in her mind from the novice stage. Transfer

should be waning while generalizations waxing in order that the learner make strides towards

automaticity while practicing the skill.

c. Advanced

Presentation

Because Chandler has learned and retained all the information from the novice and

intermediate practice sessions, she is now in the advanced stages of learning. Chandler’s

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outcome goal in preparation for this stage of learning is to land on both feet using the 2” blue

foam mat and use exact technique, including pointing her toes and exact proper body placement

throughout the skill. Her performance goal is to perform a cartwheel more efficiently and with

better technique than the two previous stages. The learner’s process goal is to improve perform

and further perfect these techniques. The target skill is to execute correct technique to

effectively perform the cartwheel. Her target behavior is for Chandler to perform all the body

movement essential for throwing a cartwheel while keeping her core contracted and posture

erect. There is no modification of equipment from the intermediate stage because the same mat

and environment will be used again. This stage, like the previous one, mimics a real life

situation like competitive cheerleaders use daily. Her target context remains on this blue floor

in the same gym. Chandler’s motivation has continued to increase since the first practice

because of the improvements she sees on paper and feels while performing the skill.

Performance measures will incorporate previous scales and additional pointers are added to

assess a more precise technique. The same outcome measure scoring system will be used in the

advanced stage that has been introduced previously.

Process Measures

Takeoff:

_____ Arms straight

_____ Legs straight


_____ Dominant feet has toe pointed



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Initial Contact:




_____ Dominant arm remains straight


Handstand:



_____ Elbows slightly flexed

_____ Toes Pointed


Terminal Contact:





_____ Elbows still slightly flexed


Landing:

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_____ Point dominant leg’s toes



Outcome Measures

Cartwheel Done Yes NoTrial 1Trial 2Trial 3

Presentation

At this learning stage, there are high expectations for Chandler. Since she has already

performed in this environment and is completing the same skill, the only advancement seen in

this context is to perfect skill and improve automaticity. She should not have to be shown the

skill again as far as presentation goes and perfecting the technique is her expectation. She

should do a cartwheel with proper technique and form, allowing all the aspects of the assessment

receive high scores. Her arousal level should be the higher at this stage than the intermediate

because she is trying to be perfect instead of just perform the skill on this mat. To help her relax,

she should take deep breaths before performing a cartwheel. Chandler should focus her

attention on doing the cartwheel and making the motions automatic and require little to no

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mental concentration on the flipping, which allows concentration to be used to focus on proper

technique instead.

Instruction should be seldom used in this stage, with the exception of short phases to aid

Chandler while performing a cartwheel. Visual demonstration is not applicable at this stage

and guidance is no longer needed because Chandler is aware and able to perform correct body

movements and positions. Physical rehearsal will still be a portion of this practice and focus on

perfecting technique and increasing confidence to perform multiple cartwheels in a row. Fatigue

should be avoided with water breaks at regular intervals. Mental rehearsal can also be used

here to boost her confidence and make Chandler ready for the performance.

Feedback

Intrinsic feedback is the most important type of feedback that should be present at this

stage. Summary feedback also plays a role in this stage and informs the learner about each

attempt in the series at a later time. Precise feedback should also be given during breaks

between trials as a type of extrinsic feedback. Another type of beneficial feedback is videotape

feedback of the practice session, which allows the learner and instructor to watch movements

and point out errors together that they may have missed in practice sessions. This type of

feedback is a great way to identify and correct bad habits and allow the learner and instructor

realize their mistakes. Frequency of feedback should be limited to a bare minimum in this

stage.

Practice Schedule

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The practice schedule will again be set up in a blocked fashion and occur three times a

week with one hour sessions. The general motor program and schema from previous stages

will be implemented and perfected during these sessions. Chandler will continue to perform

cartwheels and feel like the motion is automated at this final point in the learning process. All

the transfer and generalizations of this skill should already have occurred, but the few

technique changes that do occur in this stage should be generalized and become a portion of the

schema through this practice.

IV. Summary

The information-processing model is extremely important when developing a learning

experience to teach a skill to a novice properly. Stimulus identification, response programming

and response selection with the environment and individual’s processing affects their output

while performing a skill. The stimulus (with the countdown) is the signal for Chandler to

mentally prepare for the cartwheel and decide to perform the flip. One decision is made and the

response is carried out. The output would optimally be performing the cartwheel correctly in

terms of efficiency and technique. This process shows how learners process information, store it

and retrieve it on a later date. It is essential to motor skills and helps athletes to decide what

action to take and how to perform under pressure. Knowing how to teaching athletes these skills

is a must for coaches and teachers and should be the bedrock of every learner’s education of any

skill, physical or not.

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3750 Final

Documents

general motor

slightly flexed

blue foam

united cheerleading

laterally

dominant hand

process measures

information