37? N8/4 Ao. 38<2£ BODY IMAGE AS MEDIATED BY AGE, SEX, AND RELATIONSHIP STATUS DISSERTATION Presented to the Graduate Council of the University of North Texas in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By Caren C. Cooper, B.A., M.A. Denton, Texas December, 1993
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37? N8/4
Ao. 38<2£
BODY IMAGE AS MEDIATED BY AGE, SEX,
AND RELATIONSHIP STATUS
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
University of North Texas in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
By
Caren C. Cooper, B.A., M.A.
Denton, Texas
December, 1993
37? N8/4
Ao. 38<2£
BODY IMAGE AS MEDIATED BY AGE, SEX,
AND RELATIONSHIP STATUS
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
University of North Texas in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
By
Caren C. Cooper, B.A., M.A.
Denton, Texas
December, 1993
Cooper, Caren C., Body Image as Mediated bv Age. Sex,
and Relationship Status. Doctor of Philosophy (Counseling
Psychology), December, 1993, 127 pp., 4 tables, 4
illustrations, references, 92 titles.
Traditionally, body image research has focused on young
women. However, there are indications of cultural shifts
which extend physical appearance pressures to both men and
women, as well as to middle-aged and older adults. Two
hundred and ten subjects were administered objective body
image measures including the Figure Rating Scale, the Body
Shape Questionnaire, and the Multidimensional Body-Self
Relations Questionnaire, as well as projective measures
including the Holtzman Inkblot Technique and the Draw-A-
Person. The NEO-Five Factor Inventory and the Social
Anxiety Subscale were also used to explore variables which
might covary with body image.
A 3 X 2 X 2 Multivariate Analysis of Covariance
(MANCOVA) was utilized with social desirability as the
covariate. Results revealed two strong multivariate main
effects for age and sex, as well as an interaction between
age and relationship status.
With regard to age, middle-aged and older adults
experienced greater body dissatisfaction, while younger
adults experienced greater body shape concern. Older adults
placed more importance on appearance and paid more attention
to their health and signs of illness, while younger subjects
placed more importance on appearance and fitness and were
more satisfied with their fitness level.
With respect to sex, women experienced greater body
dissatisfaction, more body shape concern, placed more
importance on physical appearance, and were more weight
focused than men. On the other hand, men placed more
importance on fitness and were more satisfied with their
appearance, fitness level, specific body areas, and health
status than women.
With regard to the age by relationship status
interaction, it was found that younger subjects tended to be
more insecure about their appearance if they were single,
while middle-aged and older subjects tended to be more
insecure about their appearance if they were involved in a
committed relationship.
The findings of the present investigation were
discussed in relation to possible contributing factors.
Directions for research were also suggested.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS v
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION 1
The Psychology of Physical Appearance Cultural Standards for Physical Appearance The Role of Body Image in Psychosocial
Development Body Image Disturbance: Eating Disorders
and Bodybuilding Gender and Body Image Age and Body Image Relationship Status and Body Image Statement of the Problem Hypotheses
II. METHOD 28
Subj ects Instruments Procedure Statistical Analyses
III. RESULTS 44
Supplementary Multivariate Analysis of Covariance for the Draw-A-Person
Exploratory Correlational Analyses
IV. DISCUSSION 86
Summary Limitations of the Study Implications
APPENDICES • 106
REFERENCES 116
111
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Descriptive Information for the Present Subject Sample 30
2. Observed and Adjusted Means for the Multivariate Analysis of Covariance 45
3. Observed and Adjusted Means for the Multivariate Analysis of Covariance for the Draw-A-Person 80
4. Correlations Among Primary, Objective Dependent Variables 85
IV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. Age group and mean penetration scores for single and involved subjects 112
2. Age group and mean human scores for single and involved subjects 113
3. Age group and mean extraversion scores for single and involved subjects 114
4. Age group and mean openness scores for single and involved subjects 115
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Every epoch has had different tolerances for weight and
body shape. It has only been within the twentieth century
that these tolerances have dramatically narrowed. Only a
century ago, people preferred being overweight as it
symbolized wealth and status (Schwartz, 1986; Seid, 1989).
In the early 1900s, the weight scale was invented and,
within a few years, people could be readily quantified at
the general store or in the privacy of their home. During
this period, the cultural tolerance for fat began to
tighten. In 1936, an estimated 100,000 people were taking
Dinitrophenol (a derivative of Benzine) for weight
reduction. In 1948, Dexedrine (an amphetamine) was the
recommended drug of choice for weight-reduction.
By the 1950s, the American culture's lack of tolerance
for fat was well-established as evidenced by the founding
and dramatic growth of weight control groups such as Weight
Watchers and Overeaters Anonymous, and the dramatic success
of Jack LaLanne's exercise television show (Schwartz, 1986).
The 1960s and 1970s witnessed the exponential growth of the
women's movement and a primacy began to be placed on a lean
and androgynous appearance (Schwartz, 1986; Wooley & Wooley,
1986). Fat came to symbolize the dependent caretaking woman
of past years (Wooley & Wooley, 1986).
The 1980s introduced an obsession with exercise (Seid,
1989) . Health clubs increased exponentially in numbers of
facilities and members (Seid, 1989). The 1980s also
introduced the formal diagnosis of anorexia nervosa and
bulimia nervosa (American Psychiatric Association [APA],
1980; 1987). These eating disorders afflict primarily women
and have been described as reaching epidemic proportions
(Barnett, 1986; Dickstein, 1989). Many researchers cite
this rapid growth as due to intense cultural pressures to be
lean and thin (Rodin, 1992). As Seid (1989) and Yates
(1991) explain, a person's body shape has come to be equated
with one's level of health, status, success, and self-
esteem.
The Psychology of Physical Appearance
According to Cash and Pruzinsky (1990), the past two
decades have witnessed the emergence of a psychology of
physical appearance. This psychology involves the study of
how a person's physical attributes and somatic self-
perceptions affect his or her life (Cash, 1990). The
psychology of physical appearance can be divided into two
areas of focus: (a) the concern with the external,
objective attributes of physical appearance and their
personal and social implications for a person's
psychological development and experience; and (b) the
concern with internal, subjective representations of
physical appearance and bodily experience. This latter area
is often referred to as body image (Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990).
Cash (1990) refers to these two areas of focus as the
social-image and self-image perspectives. Traditionally,
the social-image perspective has investigated the effects of
physical attractiveness on social perceptions, interpersonal
interactions, and human development. The self-image
perspective has involved the study of the physical self-
concept and body-image variables. Both the social and self-
images are heavily influenced by sociocultural norms, or
cultural standards, for physical appearance.
Cultural Standards for Physical Appearance
The image of one's body is an immediate and central way
to think of one's self. In American culture, the body has
come to represent a reflection of the self and as a result,
great emphasis is placed upon physical appearance (Fallon,
1990).
Body image is constantly evolving and continuously
modified by cultural trends in physical appearance (Cash,
1990). Within the American culture, these cultural trends
are primarily determined by mass media and have tremendous
influence on body image at both sociocultural and individual
levels (Myers & Biocca, 1992; Raphael & Lacey, 1992;
Sharkey, 1993; Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, & Ahrens, 1992).
Images portrayed in mass media are consensually adopted as
the cultural standard for physical appearance (Sharkey,
1993) .
These culturally bound and consensually validated
definitions of what is desirable and attractive play an
important part in the development of body image. Social
comparison theory states that, in the absence of an
objective standard of correctness, people will seek other
people as a means of evaluating themselves (Deaux &
Wrightsman, 1988). One's body image then includes his or
her perception of the cultural standard, the extent to which
he or she matches the standard, and the relative importance
that members of the cultural group and the individual place
on that match.
Often, physical appearance is the most readily
available information about a person and conveys basic
information about that person such as gender, race,
approximate age, and possibly socioeconomic status and
occupation. People tend to maintain assumptions and
attitudes about physical aesthetics and attributes and sort
people into a variety of cognitive schemas, consciously and
unconsciously (Cash, 1990). A schema is a cognitive
structure which contains a network of associations that
organize and guide an individual's perception. With respect
to physical appearance, for example, an attractive person
may be associated with intelligence and interpersonal skill.
Cognitive schemas often lead to appearance-cued
stereotyping. Research in this area focuses on a particular
social goodness stereotype of beauty. Dion, Berscheid, and
Walster (1982) discovered the existence of "what is
beautiful is good" and "what is ugly is bad" stereotypes.
Relative to less attractive counterparts, attractive females
and males are viewed in positive terms such as being
happier, more successful, smarter, more interesting, warmer,
more poised, and more sociable. A recent meta-analytic
review by Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, and Kennedy (1991)
found that regardless of the gender of the perceiver or the
perceived, the strongest components of the "beauty-is-good"
stereotype included social confidence (e.g., outgoing and
likable) and adjustment (e.g., happy and confident). Thus,
physical appearance affects the assumptions about and
reactions from the social environment.
The Role of Body Image in Psychosocial Development
In addition to sociocultural factors, developmental
factors have important effects on a person's body image.
The physical constitution of the developing person and the
person's cognitive and emotional appraisals of his or her
body have been variables of central importance in
developmental theory (Lerner & Jovanovic, 1990).
Within psychoanalytic theory, the stages of
psychosexual development involve bodily zones. The person's
emotional development hinges on external and internal means
through which appropriate stimulation is provided to these
bodily areas.
Freud assigned importance to body attitudes in his
developmental constructs (Fisher, 1986). He hypothesized
that body feelings are basic to ego formation, and his
theory links personality development to a process involving
the successive shifting of attention and energy investment,
in the growing child, from one body area to another (e.g.,
oral, anal, genital). He constructed a personality typology
that was linked with the degree to which persons continued
inappropriately to invest in certain major body zones.
Thus, the "oral character" was one who as an adult continued
to focus, like the young child, highly on the mouth; the
"anal character" focused on the anal sector of the body.
Freud's descriptions of the developing child were often
rich with body image implications (Fisher, 1986). He
commented on such phenomena as the child's learning to
distinguish events in his or her own body interior from
those outside; the sensations aroused in specific body areas
by socialization experiences (e.g., toilet training,
weaning); anxieties about potential body damage linked to
parental threats; confusion about body structure related to
the discovery of sex differences; and fantasies aroused by
the movement of materials in and out of orifices (Fisher,
1986).
Freud invented the idea that when growing children
observe or fantasize certain patterned events to be
occurring in their body, such patterns may become paradigms
for constructing images about what the world is like
(Fisher, 1986). For example, the sense of possessing an
overregulated anal sphincter may create an image of life as
a place in which regulation and control are dominant themes.
Throughout Freud's account of the developmental process, the
body as an experienced object is always prominent.
Similar to Freud, Erikson's developmental perspective
also involves a series of psychosocial conflicts which
reflect the intensity of investment in major body zones
(Fisher, 1986; Kaluger & Kaluger, 1984). Like Freud,
Erikson stressed that interaction with body zones establish
life precedents and expectations. However, his
developmental framework proposed fundamental life attitudes
which are associated with attitudes toward specific body
organ systems. For example, feelings of trust and distrust
are linked with early evolving images of the mouth.
Attitudes of autonomy and shame are linked with anal and
muscle images-v while initiative and guilt are associated
with images of the genitals.
In Piaget's developmental stage theory of cognition,
the body also plays a central role in the person's
development. In each of the six phases within the
sensorimotor stage of development, circular reactions
8
involving the body are elaborated in an increasingly more
cognitively complex manner (Fisher, 1986; Lerner &
Jovanovic, 1990). The body in action, moving in space and
reaching for objects, provides the framework for structuring
the world.
Piaget begins with the assumption that' infants have no
awareness of their own bodies, as such. The infant sees
body action or movement as the raw material of all
intellectual and perceptual adaptation. The body
interacting with objects leads to the organization of
schemas. During infancy, actions are overt and clearly
sensory-motor. Schemata are built up by motor repetition.
Circular reactions, behaviors that produce an event which
lead to repetition of behavior, permit schemata to become
solidly established.
According to Piaget, the child's earliest circular
reactions, primary circular reactions, are to his or her
body. Secondary circular reactions refer to the infant
actively experiencing the effects of his or her behaviors on
external objects (Sroufe, Cooper, & DeHart, 1992). As the
child develops, there is an internalization of these body
actions. This internalization involves the creation of
images that represent sensory-motor sequences. With time,
the images presumably become more schematic and abstract.
These images are rooted heavily in motor activity, that is,
in the movements of one's body (Fisher, 1986). Thus, in
both the psychoanalytic and Piagetian developmental
theories, the body, as a physical entity and as an object of
the person's emotions and knowledge, plays a central role in
the development of the person's affective and cognitive
processes.
Witkin regarded differentiation as a key dimension of
the body concept (Fisher, 1986). He assumed that the
achievement of a differentiated body concept is a
manifestation of the child's general progress toward
psychological differentiation. Witkin maintained that the
infant experiences self and body as a continuous body-field
matrix. Later, boundaries are formed between body and
environment, and some awareness is developed of the parts of
the body and the interrelation among them. While the
child's early conception of his or her body is relatively
global, it will become more articulated with age such that
there is an impression of the body as having definite
boundaries and of the parts within as being discrete yet
interrelated and joined in a definite structure.
Kohlberg did not directly address body image per se.
However, he developed a cognitive theory of sex role
development that is connected to how children perceive their
body attributes (Fisher, 1986). Kohlberg portrayed sex role
definition as arising from cognitive judgments made by
children about their own bodies and those of others such as
10
parents. That is, they develop ideas regarding what
attributes are associated with male versus female bodies.
According to Kohlberg, children learn to label their
bodies as male or female, and once they are certain of this
categorization, they begin to think and act in ways that are
congruent with it. They then value positively those objects
and acts consistent with their gender category. The task of
psychosexual differentiation is seen, then, as arising out
of the child's ability to learn that his or her body
possesses physical qualities that are labeled "boy" or
"girl." These qualities include structure, size, and
genital differences. Kohlberg traces children's ideas about
the differences in power and social roles of males and
females to deductions they make on the basis of what they
observe about their own bodies as compared with those of the
opposite sex. The perception of one's own body as being of
a certain sex represents, in Kohlberg's theory, a primary
step in becoming socialized and structuring a life role.
The role of the body in the person's psychological
development has also been stressed in developmental
perspectives that emphasize person-context interactions as
central in processes of change across the lifespan (Lerner &
Jovanovic, 1990). In developmental contextualism, the body
is seen as a key component of the person's organismic
individuality, which evokes differential reactions from
persons in the social context, and thus promoting feedback
11
to the person. The person's appraisal of his or her own
body is derived from others' reactions (social context) and
the person's cognitive and emotional developments involving
the body (Lerner & Jovanovic, 1990). Furthermore, these
processes contribute to each other; that is, how one thinks
and feels about one's body will influence one's social
relations which will, in turn, influence feedback from the
social context which will influence how one thinks and feels
about one's body. Thus, body image has a dual role of
product and producer in a person's psychosocial development
(Lerner & Jovanovic, 1990). Body image is a product of
social context and psychological development, and is a
producer of the interactions between these two.
Support for this dual role of body image can be seen in
the tests of the "goodness-of-fit" model of person-context
relations (Lerner & Jovanovic, 1990). The goodness-of-fit
model involves the degree to which a person "fits" or meets
the demands of the social context. The feedback between the
person and his/her context is circular. That is, the
person's physical characteristics influence reactions from
others in the social context and the context provides
feedback to the person, which influences the psychological
characteristics and development of that person.
With respect to body image and psychosocial
development, Lerner and Korn (1972) found that the body
images and self-concepts of overweight 5, 10, and 20-year
12
old males were more negative than those of peers with
average builds. Similarly, male and female late adolescents
who see their bodily characteristics as less interpersonally
attractive or less instrumentally effective have lower self-
esteem than late-adolescent males and females whose body
images are more favorable (Padin, Lerner & Spiro, 1981).
These data may be consistent with the idea noted above that
individual physical appearance leads to feedback from the
social context which, in turn, affects psychological
development.
The level of psychological adjustment that results from
the goodness-of-fit between a person and his or her
environment can be viewed on a continuum which ranges from
normal development to abnormal development. When a person
perceives a discrepancy between his or her physical
appearance and the cultural standard, then body image
disturbance develops. The degree of body image disturbance
may range from mildly to severely debilitating. At the
severe end of the continuum are those people who are
experiencing tremendous pressure to achieve the "ideal"
physical appearance and are willing to take extreme
measures. Two examples of this extreme are persons with
eating disorders and bodybuilders (Yates, 1991).
Body-Image Disturbance: Eating Disorders and Bodybuilders
Studies investigating the relationship between body
image and eating disorders comprise a large portion of the
13
research on body image. Eating disorders generally refer to
psychological disorders involving gross abnormalities in
eating, however, body-image disturbance is essentially what
distinguishes them from other psychological conditions that
occasionally involve eating abnormalities and weight loss
(Rosen, 1990).
The two predominant eating disorders, which affect
primarily women, are bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa.
Bulimia nervosa is often referred to as the "binge-purge"
syndrome and involves eating large quantities of food
followed by purgative behavior such as vomiting, laxatives
or other means (Cullari & Redmon, 1981; Rosen, 1990).
Anorexia nervosa is sometimes referred to as the "self-
starvation" syndrome due to weight reduction being achieved
by a drastic reduction in food intake (Bruch, 1985).
Although there is remarkable agreement that anorexia
and bulimia nervosa involve a pervasive disturbance of body
image, there is considerable variation in the specific body
image disturbance believed to be most characteristic of
these disorders. Several researchers propose that this is
due to the fact that body image is a multidimensional
phenomenon that involves perceptual, attitudinal, and
behavioral features (Cash & Brown, 1987; Garfinkel & Garner,
1982; Rosen, Saltzberg, & Srebnik, 1989; Thompson, 1990;
Williamson, 1990). It is important to note that normal
individuals may also have mild disturbance in their body
14
perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. The difference is in
degree, not kind.
With respect to disturbances in perception, individuals
with eating disorders tend to perceive themselves as
unrealistically overweight and as being grossly out of
proportion or protruding at certain body regions, such as
having excessively wide hips (Rosen, 1990). The perceptual
distortion of normal size is often evident by the
unrealistic standards that the person attempts to achieve.
Persons with eating disorders exhibit a mistrust or
disbelief in more conventional standards for comparing their
weight to normal. No matter what feedback the person may
receive about his or her size, the person with an eating
disorder relies on his or her own perceptions and feelings
of being too big (Rosen, 1990).
With regard to disturbances in attitudes, body
dissatisfaction can often be traced to particular body areas
such as the width of the hips or thighs or the protrusion of
the abdomen. Dissatisfaction is expressed in terms of
dislike for the body part, thoughts that the part appears
ugly or disgusting, and beliefs that the part is too fat or
lacking muscle tone (Rosen, 1990). While body
dissatisfaction does not distinguish adult eating disorder
subjects from other weight occupied women (Garner,
Garfinkel, & Olmsted, 1983; Wilson & Smith, 1989), they are
15
distinguished by the importance they place on weight and
shape for self-worth (Wilson & Smith, 1989).
With respect to disturbances in behavior, negative body
image can also be accompanied by a lifestyle that revolves
around the individual's physical self-consciousness (Rosen,
1990). This can include tendencies to avoid situations that
provoke concern about physical appearance such as avoiding
social situations where the person believes his or her body
will be scrutinized, wearing baggy clothes instead of more
revealing and tight fitting clothes, avoiding physical
intimacy, and eating less. Other habits such as frequent
weighing or inspection in the mirror are also typical.
Overall, body image disturbance contributes to the
development and maintenance of eating disorders (Fairburn &
Garner, 1986, 1988). Among young women in general, body
dissatisfaction was associated with problematic eating
attitudes and habits (Kiemle, Slade, & Dewey, 1987;
Striegel-Moore, McAvay, & Rodin, 1986; Wiedel & Dodd, 1983;
Wolf & Crowther, 1983; Zakin, 1989). Furthermore, body
dissatisfaction was a better predictor of bulimic eating
attitudes and behaviors in teenage girls than self-esteem,
depression, and social anxiety combined, which contribute
little unique variance after body dissatisfaction (Gross &
Rosen, 1988). Among women with bulimia nervosa, the
severity of eating and dieting symptoms is correlated with
16
body dissatisfaction (Post & Crowther, 1987; Ruderman &
Grace, 1988).
While women tend to feel pressured to achieve a lean
and thin body (Wooley & Wooley, 1986), men may feel
pressured to achieve a lean and muscular body (Allen, 1990;
Glassner, 1989). Most people go on a diet and/or exercise
regimen occasionally. However, only a small portion of the
population becomes anorectic/bulimic or bodybuilders.
Recent clinical observation and research suggest that some
groups of male athletes such as long distance runners
(Bloom, O'Toole, & Chang, 1984; Nudelman, Rosen, and
Leitenberg, 1988; Yates, Leehey, & Shisslak, 1983) and
bodybuilders (Cooper & Lane, 1991) may resemble females with
eating disorders in that both involve body image disturbance
and represent extreme pursuit of the ideal physical
appearance for their gender.
Coinciding with the eating disorders epidemic, the
1980s witnessed dramatic increases in the numbers of long
distance runners. Yates (1991) describes "obligatory"
runners as those persons who pursue running intensely and
their lives and thoughts revolve around the running
activity. They are encouraged and reinforced by their
increase in stamina, leanness, and muscularity. They are as
concerned about weight and body fat as they are about time
and distance (Yates, 1991). Long-distance runners rigidly
restrict their diet even when they are painfully lean and
17
frequently monitor their caloric expenditure and body fat
ratio.
Similar to long distance runners, the 1980s witnessed
tremendous growth in bodybuilding membership both nationally
and internationally. Bodybuilding is now the sixth largest
international sports federation (Yates, 1991). In contrast
to the goal of physical effectiveness for the runner, the
goal of the male bodybuilder is an ideal physical
appearance, which is more closely aligned with the goal of
females with eating disorders. Although increasing numbers
of men and women are bodybuilding, the majority are male,
especially at the competitive level. Bodybuilding is a
sport where the appearance of the body is essential and
involves the development of muscular hypertrophy, symmetry
and balance in muscular development, and presentation of
muscular development in the form of a posing routine (Fuchs
& Zaichowsky, 1983). It requires strenuous and extremely
disciplined training to achieve the ideal form and the sport
attracts males who wish to be recognized by the appearance
of their bodies (Yates, 1991). Klein (1985, 1987) noted
that male bodybuilders possess an unusual need for mirroring
and are obsessed with developing huge, striated muscles, and
an exceptionally lean appearance. Similar to case reports
of anorectics looking into the mirror and seeing themselves
as extremely overweight and "fat," there are case reports of
18
competition bodybuilders posing in the mirror and seeing
themselves as extremely underweight and "skinny."
To summarize, persons with eating disorders and
bodybuilders provide evidence of the intensity of
sociocultural pressure to achieve the ideal physical
appearance and represent the more extreme abnormal end of
the psychological adjustment continuum with respect to body
image (Yates, 1991). In these populations, body shape and
appearance is the all-encompassing goal and is pursued at
the expense of normal behavior routines and relationships.
These individuals are dissatisfied with their body image to
the extent that they work obsessively to achieve what they
perceive to be a better goodness-of-fit between person and
social environment. With respect to people who represent
the normal to mildly disturbed points on the adjustment
continuum, what are other factors that may influence body
image?
Gender and Body Image
In addition to sociocultural and developmental
influences on body image, there are other factors which may
have an impact on body image. One such factor is gender.
Most research on body image has focused on women, probably
due, in large part, to the fact that primarily women develop
eating disorders. Recently, however, researchers have begun
to explore body image issues with non-clinical samples of
women.
19
Historically, women have comprised the larger numbers
of dieters than men (Schwartz, 1986). Fallon and Rozin
(1988) found that 67% of the surveyed college women were
dieting at least some of the time, whereas, only 25% of
college men were dieting. Fallon (1990) reviewed the
literature and found replicated findings that women are more
dissatisfied with their weight and shape than men. Fallon
and Rozin (1986) investigated sex differences in body shape
perceptions and found that women are more likely than men to
describe themselves as overweight, worry about being or
becoming fat, and express greater concern with dieting and
body weight. A 1986 survey also revealed that women tend to
see themselves as overweight even if they are not. They are
less happy with their body shape, and diet more often than
men to achieve the thin ideal (Cash, Winstead, & Janda,
1986). According to Rozin and Fallon (1988), women tend to
equate their body image and self-worth more than men and
are, therefore, more likely to feel distressed about their
body image and put forth more effort to alter their shape.
While the pursuit and preoccupation with body image are
central to the female sex-role stereotype (Rodin,
Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1985), some researchers have
suggested that the extent of male body dissatisfaction has
been underestimated (Rodin, 1992). For example, ninety-five
percent of male subjects expressed dissatisfaction with some
aspect of their bodies, and seventy percent of undergraduate
20
men see a discrepancy between their own body and their ideal
body type, with their greatest dissatisfaction toward chest,
weight, waist, and height (Mishkind, Rodin, Silberstein, &
Striegel-Moore, 1986; Tucker, 1982). Drewnowski and Yee
(1987) found that although more women than men desired to
lose weight, more than half of the normal-weight college
males desired to lose weight. Of the male and female
subjects who wished to lose weight, both groups viewed
themselves as overweight and were dissatisfied with their
body shape. Haynes (1988) found that 85% of normal-weight
college males and females were not satisfied with their
bodies.
Allen (1990) contends that the pressure to achieve an .
ideal body image is being extended to men. According to
Allen (1990), men are adopting the same unrealistic
standards that have been tormenting women for years, and are
defining themselves more by their looks. Women are
pressured to be lean and thin, while men are pressured to be
lean and muscular. The intensity of body image pressures
for both women and men is evidenced by the record number of
dieting and exercise programs currently available, as well
as record number of female and male participants (Yates,
1991).
Age and Body Image
Traditionally, body image research has focused on
adolescent and young adult populations. However, like
21
gender, body image pressures appear to be no longer reserved
for the young, but for middle-aged and older persons as
well. Middle-aged and older people must come to terms with
the changes in their physical being (Atchley, 1988; Kaluger
& Kaluger, 1984). They must reckon with changes in hair
amount and color, skin changes (e.g., wrinkles and age
spots), decreased energy output, and changing body shape and
weight. Further, this coming to terms with one's bodily
appearance and perceptions must occur within a marketing
context which is placing increasing pressure on the middle-
aged and older person to obtain and maintain a particular
body shape (Allen, 1990). Wantz and Gay (1981) found that
social attitudes about appearance are one of the main
reasons middle-aged and older persons seek cosmetic surgery.
During the mid-life period, body image issues can be
particularly stressful for some persons. Levinson (1977)
believes that mid-life transition period spans four to six
years, reaching its culmination when a person is in the
early forties. About 80% of the Levinson subjects deemed
the mid-life transition as a time of moderate or severe
crisis. Some of the major body image-related experiences
during this period are the realization of bodily decline, a
recognition of one's mortality, and the sense of aging.
Riccio (1989) commented on the massive numbers of "baby
boomers" (aged 35-43) that are flooding the health clubs.
Rozin and Fallon (1988) found that men and women in their
22
forties and fifties shared similar levels of dissatisfaction
with body shape. Both judge their ideal to be significantly
thinner than their current shape. Riccio (1989) surveyed
this age group regarding aging issues. Results regarding
body dissatisfaction suggested that male and female subjects
were more bothered by their increasing waistlines. Allen
(1990) pointed out that the common spare tire of the middle-
aged male is no longer acceptable in the work arena.
Like middle-aged adults, older adults must contend with
body image issues, but at an even more profound level
(Kaluger & Kaluger, 1984). Ross et al. (1989) found that
healthy elderly persons are more conscious of their external
appearance than younger people. Van-Deusen, Harlowe, and
Baker (1989) found that elderly adults (aged 61+ years)
consistently perceived their body image less positively than
did those aged 60 or younger.
Given the age factor, it is important to note that
there may exist cohort differences in cultural standards
with respect to physical appearance. For example, what was
considered a thin body figure in the 1950s may be different
than the cultural definition of a thin body figure in the
1990s. As people age, they may employ the cultural standard
from past experience and/or they may compare their current
body shape to the body shape they "used to have." That is,
when they employ social comparison processes, they will be
using the cultural standard from their generation.
23
Relationship Status and Body Image
A potential influential factor on body image, in
addition to gender and age, that has not received attention
in the research literature is a person's relationship status
(i.e., single or involved in a committed relationship). In
the late nineteenth century, only 3.5% of marriages ended in
divorce (Saxton, 1990). Currently, according to the U.S.
National Center for Health Statistics, over 50% of marriages
are ending in divorce (Saxton, 1990). This trend alone
accounts for a significantly larger middle-aged and older
singles population re-entering the dating scene.
Dating for the middle-aged and older person can be a
particularly stressful process, especially for those persons
who separate or divorce after several years in a marriage or
committed relationship. They may feel increased pressure to
work diligently on their body shape, attempting to increase
their physical attractiveness. As found by Cash, Winstead,
and Janda (1986), health clubs are predominantly populated
by single persons who are seeking to increase their
attractiveness to others.
Persons involved in a committed relationship, on the
other hand, may be less motivated to commit to the time and
energy to alter their physical appearance. There may exist
within a committed relationship a level of comfort so that
pressures to pursue and maintain an ideal physical
appearance are minimized. That is, a committed relationship
24
may serve as a buffer against pressures for an ideal
physical appearance.
Statement of the Problem
Traditionally, research on body image has been
primarily focused on young, female adults. From the
preceding review of the literature, there appear to be
indications of a cultural shift which extends physical
appearance pressures to both men and women, as well as to
middle-aged and older adults. It is suspected that
relationship involvement may protect persons from these
pressures.
If, in fact, this cultural shift is occurring, there
are many potentially negative ramifications. With respect
to age, Allen (1990) contends that the American culture is
placing increasing importance on youth. There is the
perception that a youthful, healthy body correlates with
confidence, success, and power. Older persons tend to
receive more pessimistic evaluations from young individuals
(Rodin & Langer, 1980). Thus, aging persons are in a
predicament in that they live in a social environment which
places a high premium on physical appearance when their
bodies are physically declining. From a contextual
viewpoint, this could result in increased bias against older
adults, which, in turn, could lead to lowered self-esteem,
leading to further bias, etc.
25
This bias may be especially relevant to women. As a
person gets older, the numbers shift within one's cohort.
That is, there are more women than men (Atchley, 1988). For
women, signs of aging such as wrinkles and gray hair, tend
to be viewed negatively, while, for men, they tend to be
viewed positively (e.g., "distinguished"). Thus, if
cultural pressures for physical appearance extend to older
women, they may be put in a no win situation; that is, due
to physical aging signs and decreased numbers of men, the
possibilities for attracting a relationship partner are
significantly reduced. They are therefore victimized as
both older persons and as women.
With respect to gender, as Allen (1990) stated, men are
adopting the same unrealistic cultural expectations for
appearance that have plagued women for the past three
decades. This extension of unrealistic cultural standards
to men can be seen in the dramatic increases in middle-aged
men seeking cosmetic surgery (Wantz & Gay, 1981), increases
in the number of males with eating disorders such as
anorexia and bulimia nervosa, and, because of increasing
competition, discriminatory hiring/promotion practices due
to an appearance criterion being incorporated into the
workplace (Allen, 1990).
With respect to relationship status, there are
increasing numbers of single people who may feel more
pressure to obtain and maintain a particular body shape than
26
those people involved in committed relationships. If a
person is single and feels unable to conform to the cultural
standard for physical appearance, self-esteem may decrease,
which, in turn, could lead to fewer dating attempts, leading
to continued decreases in self-esteem, etc.
In addition to the effects of age, sex, and
relationship status, it was anticipated that there would be
an interaction among these factors. Specifically, it was
expected that young, single females would still experience
the most body concern and dissatisfaction as compared to
other groups. However, in light of indicators which suggest
that older and male individuals are experiencing increased
pressure to conform to ideal cultural standards for physical
appearance, it may be that the pressure on these groups is
approaching the intensity experienced by the young, female
population.
Hypotheses
From the present review of the literature, it appears
that body image is no longer an issue reserved for the
young, female, and single individual. It is suggested that
age, sex, and relationship status are mediating factors in
body image. Therefore, it was hypothesized that:
1. For the younger, middle-aged, and older groups,
there would be no differences in general body
dissatisfaction (Figure Rating Scale), amount of body shape
concern (Body Shape Questionnaire),
27
appearance/fitness/health/illness evaluation and
orientation, body areas satisfaction or weight attitudes
(Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire), body-
concept (Draw-A-Person), or body image-related variables as
measured by the Holtzman Inkblot Technique.
2. For male and female subjects, there would be no
differences on body image variables as measured by the
instruments delineated in the first hypothesis.
3. For single and involved subjects, there would be no
differences on body image variables as measured by the
instruments delineated in the first hypothesis.
4. Young, single, females would be higher on body
image variables as measured by the instruments delineated in
the first hypothesis in spite of the current extension of
the cultural standard for physical appearance to other
groups.
CHAPTER II
METHOD
Subj ects
Two hundred and ten adult subjects were recruited by
means of an announcement made to university classes, church
organizations, community organizations, and social clubs.
Specifically, subjects were asked to partipate in a body
image study.
To insure that subjects had been consistently exposed
to American mass media from birth through adulthood, all
subjects were born, raised, and had, thus far, lived their
adult years in the United States (US). All but four of the
subjects were white from mid-size to large metropolitan
areas throughout the US.
Subjects were divided into twelve groups based on three
factors: age, sex, and relationship status. Groups
consisted of younger single males (20) and females (20),
younger involved males (20) and females (19), middle-aged
single males (15) and females (16), middle-aged involved
males (15) and females (20), older single males (15) and
females (16), and older involved males (16) and females
(18).
The younger groups consisted of subjects who were 18 to
33 years of age, the middle-aged groups consisted of
28
29
subjects who were 39 to 55 years of age, and the older
groups consisted of subjects who were 60 and over (Levinson,
1986). Relationship status was dichotomized as single and
involved. Single status included those subjects who were
single, widowed, separated, and divorced. Involved status
included those subjects who were married or cohabitating
with their partner for at least three months.
Table 1 summarizes descriptive information regarding
the subject sample. The average age was approximately 45
years old, the average weight was approximately 165 pounds,
and most subjects rated their health as good or excellent.
Subjects had an average of three years of college and, of
those who were involved in a committed relationship (n =
108), subjects had been together for an average of 23 years.
Only those subjects who were at least 18 years of age,
US citizens, not currently in counseling/therapy, and not
pregnant were allowed to participate. Other exclusion
criteria included childbirth within the last six months, an
episode of major depression within the last year, or a
history of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, schizophrenia,
or physical trauma/impairment.
Dependent Measures
In the past, body image has been mistakenly understood
as a single, unidimensional construct. Cash and Pruzinsky
(1990) contend there is not an entity known as "The Body
Image." Body image actually refers to body images.
30
Table 1
Descriptive Information for the Present Subi ect Sample
Variable Mean SD Range
Democrraphic Characteristics:
Age 44.98 19.82 18-83
Weight 166.38 44.24 90-443
Health Status 1.82 .65 1-4
How Long in Relationship 22.72 18.24 1-56
Education 15.19 2.51 3-24
Primary. Obiective Measures:
FRSa:
Actual-Ideal Body
Dissatisfaction 10.78 1.31 7-16
Actual-Cultural Standard
Body Dissatisfaction 11.25 1.72 7-16
BSQb:
Body Shape Concern 75.72 31.02 35-169
MBSR0C:
Appearance Evaluation 3.20 .78 1-4.86
Appearance Orientation 3.62 .61 2.08-4.92
Fitness Evaluation 3.51 .86 1-5
Fitness Orientation 3.13 .58 1.85-4.62
Health Evaluation 3.77 .65 1.17-5
(table continues)
31
Variable Mean SD Range
Health Orientation 3.49 .60 2.13-5
Illness Orientation 1.98 .49 .75-3.13
Body Areas Satisfaction 3.18 .68 1-4.75
Weight Focus 2.38 .86 1-4.50
Primarv. Proiective Measures:
DAPd:
General Characteristics 17.74 2.12 14-24
Specific Characteristics 20.03 2.88 15-32
HITe:
Barrier 6.92 3.63 0-21
Penetration 7.99 4.26 0-22
Human 22.61 8.84 2-63
Animal 29.08 8.55 9-53
Anatomy 3.54 3.13 0-26
Sex .67 1.23 0-8
Color 13.98 7.99 0-54
Hostility 9.66 4.92 0-28
Secondary. Exploratory Measures:
NEO-FFIf:
Neuroticism 40.98 7.77 18-60
Extraversion 31.83 5.88 17-51
Openness 32.88 5.31 18-48
(table continues)
32
Variable Mean SD Range
SAS9:
Social Anxiety 10.96 3.18 6-23
Co-Variate:
SDSh:
Social Desirability 3.92 3.38 0-9
aFRS = Figure Rating Scale; bBSQ = Body Shape Questionnaire?
CMBSRQ = Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire;
dDAP = Draw-A-Person; eHIT = Holtzman Inkblot Technique;
fNEO-FFI = NEO Five-Factor Inventory; gSAS = Social Anxiety
Subscale; hSDS = Social Desirability Scale.
Theorists and researchers in the area continually point out
that body perception and experience is multidimensional. At
any given point in time, a person may simultaneously monitor
his or her body's attractiveness, body size/weight,
variations in the size of body parts, etc. Generally,
researchers and clinicians have focused on two aspects of A
appearance-related body image: a perceptual component
(e.g., a subject's perception of his or her body size), and
a subjective component (e.g., a subject's attitudes towards
his or her body size) (Cash & Brown, 1987).
33
Thus, given that body image is a multidimensional
construct, multiple objective and projective measures were
employed to ascertain various dimensions of body image.
Results from these instruments were of primary interest. In
addition to screening instruments to check for depression
level and social desirability response set,' measures of
personality adjustment were also utilized to explore
variables which might co-vary with dimensions of body image.
Results from these personality instruments were of secondary
importance.
Screening Measures
Beck Depression Inventory. The Beck Depression
Inventory (BDI; Beck, Ward, Mendelsohn, Mock, & Erbaugh,
1961) is a 21-item self-report inventory used to assess the
presence of depressive symptoms. The BDI was used as a
screening instrument. Those subjects demonstrating moderate
to severe depression (total BDI score of 19 or more) were
excluded from the subject pool. In the present study,
approximately 20 subjects were eliminated from the sample
due to moderate to severe levels of depression.
Social Desirability Scale. The Social Desirability
Scale (SDS; Crowne & Marlowe, 1964) was used as an empirical
check on the relationship between social desirability
response set and scores on other instruments. The SDS
consists of 10 questions to which the subject responded true
or false.
34
Primary. Objective Measures
Demographic Questionnaire. A demographic instrument
was used to obtain individual background information such as
age, sex, relationship status, education, height, weight,
and health status.
Figure Rating Scale. The Figure Rating Scale (FRS;
Fallon & Rozin, 1985) was used to obtain a general
perceptual index of body dissatisfaction. The FRS involves
subjects selecting from nine figures of various sizes,
ranging from very thin to very large figures. Subjects were
asked to choose the figure they thought reflected their
current and ideal body size (actual-ideal). The discrepancy
between these two perceptions was taken as an indication of
level of body dissatisfaction.
In order to assess for cohort differences in the
perception of cultural standards, subjects were also asked
to choose the figure they thought reflected the cultural
ideal. The discrepancy between the subject's perception of
current body size and the cultural standard (actual-cultural
standard) was then used as an additional index of body
dissatisfaction. High scores on either index indicate
greater body dissatisfaction.
Test-retest reliability for a two-week period for six
different ratings ranges from .55 to .71 for males and .60
to .92 for females (Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990).
35
Body Shape Questionnaire. The Body Shape Questionnaire
(BSQ; Cooper, Taylor, Cooper, & Fairburn, 1987) is a self-
report questionnaire used to assess the amount of concern
about body shape. There are 34 items to which subjects
indicate the frequency with which they react in a particular
way to events, ranging from never (1) to always (6). From
these items, a total BSQ score was obtained. High scores
indicate greater body concern.
Concurrent and discriminant validity have been shown to
be good (Cooper, Taylor, Cooper, & Fairburn, 1987) and
internal consistency is .93 for females (Cash & Pruzinsky,
1990).
Multidimensional Bodv-Self Relations Questionnaire.
The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire
(MBSRQ; Cash, 1990) is a self-report questionnaire used to
assess several subjective aspects of body image and weight-
related variables (Cash & Brown, 1990). The MBSRQ was
developed and normed from a national body-image survey (Cash
et al., 1985, 1986). The 69-item MBSRQ consists of three
components: (a) the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire
subscales (short form; 54 items), (b) the Body Areas
Satisfaction Scale (BASS; 9 items), and (c) the weight
attitude scales (6 items).
Using a 5-point response format ranging from definitely
disagree (1) to definitely agree (5), the BSRQ consists of
three somatic domains: appearance, fitness, and health.
36
Within each of these somatic domains are items comprising
two composite subscales: (a) evaluation——the extent of
liking, attainment, and satisfaction, and (b) orientation—
the degree of importance of, and attention paid to, the
domain, as well as behaviors related to maintaining or
improving facets of the domain. The six separate scores
plus one additional facet, Illness Orientation from the
BSRQ, was used in the present study. High scores indicate
increased satisfaction with appearance (Appearance
Evaluation), increased importance placed on appearance
(Appearance Orientation), increased satisfaction with
fitness level (Fitness Evaluation), increased attention paid
to fitness (Fitness Orientation), increased satisfaction
with health status (Health Evaluation), increased importance
placed on health status (Health Orientation), and increased
attention paid to signs of illness (Illness Orientation).
The BASS is a 9-item version of the 25-item Body Parts
Satisfaction Scale (Berscheid, Walster, & Bohrnstedt, 1973),
constructed largely on the basis of Bohrnstedt's (1977)
factor analysis of the original instrument and Cash et al.'s
(1985, 1986) survey research. The BASS items are used to
assess satisfaction with face, hair, lower torso, midtorso,
upper torso, muscle tone, weight, and overall appearance.
Each item is rated on a 5-point scale from very dissatisfied
(1) to very satisfied (5). The average of the items results
in a composite body satisfaction index, with Cronbach's
37
alphas of .79 and .78 for males and females, respectively
(Cash & Brown, 1989). High scores indicate increased
satisfaction with specific body areas.
The final six items of the MBSRQ pertain to weight-
related attitudes. These include statements used to assess
such aspects as fat anxiety, weight vigilance, self-
classified weight, current dieting, and eating restraint.
As with the other sections of the MBSRQ, each item is rated
on a 5-point scale. Scores from each item were used in the
present study. High scores indicate increased weight focus.
For the MBSRQ, internal consistency ranges from .75 to
.91, with mean Cronbach's alpha of .83. Test-retest
reliability after a two-week period ranges from .78 to .94
(Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990).
Primary. Projective Measures
Draw-A-Person. The Draw-A-Person (DAP; Machover, 1952)
is a projective drawing technique which was used to provide
a qualitative measure of a subject's perception of his or
her body-concept (Oster & Gould, 1987). The body-image
projection hypothesis, which assumes that the same sex
figure drawn^is related to the person's internal view of his
or her body, is the most fundamental premise of human figure
drawing (Kahili, 1984).
Dougherty, Cook, and Coppin (1991) developed a scoring
system for the DAP. They grouped 29 criteria into two
sections: general characteristics and specific
38
characteristics. There are 14 general characteristics which
include shading (anxiety), detail (obsessiveness), and body
distortions. There are 15 specific characteristics which
include trunk, breast, and legs, which are body areas
frequently cited by men and women as unsatisfactory (Rodin,
1992).
Subjects were asked to draw both male and female
figures; however, the DAP scores were derived from the same
sex figure drawn. Interrater reliability was established ^t I
.88. High scores indicate a more negative body concept at a
general and/or specific level.
Holtzman Inkblot Technique. The Holtzman Inkblot
Technique (HIT; Holtzman, 1961) is a projective inkblot test
which was used to assess several relevant aspects of body
image and personality (Form A): Barrier, Penetration,
Human, Animal, Anatomy, Sex, Color and Hostility. The first
two variables, Barrier and Penetration, are theoretically
interrelated with each other and directly related to body
image.
The Barrier concept involves the degree of definiteness
of the body image boundary (Hill, 1972). The body image
boundary can be thought of as a shell that is unconsciously
created to defend against anxiety about interacting with the
social environment. If a person experiences high levels of
body anxiety and dissatisfaction, then it is expected they
will also exhibit high Barrier or body image boundary.
39
The Penetration concept refers to the vulnerability of
the body image boundary (Hill, 1972). If individuals feel
insecure and/or inadequate with regard to their bodies
(Penetration), they are more susceptible to body anxiety and
dissatisfaction. The more vulnerability experienced, the
more barrier required to defend against anxiety. Thus,
Barrier and Penetration are related in that if Penetration
is high, then Barrier is high and vice-versa. High scores
on these two variables indicate more body image boundary
(Barrier) and increased vulnerability of the body image
boundary (Penetration).
The other six HIT variables may have a possible
influence on body image. Human and Animal variables are
used to assess the salience of interpersonal relationships.
If individuals are more focused on interpersonal
relationships, they may be more susceptible to body concern
and dissatisfaction. Anatomy and Sex variables assess
aspects of subjects' body focus. If one is focused on his
or her body, he or she may be more focused on body shape and
weight. Color and Hostility variables are used to assess
aspects of subjects' emotional activity. If one is higher
in emotionality, he or she may be more likely to experience
body anxiety and dissatisfaction. High scores on these six
variables indicate higher interpersonal relationship
salience (higher Human and lower Animal), increased body
40
focus (Anatomy and Sex), increased emotionality (Color), and
higher levels of anger (Hostility).
The reliability of the HIT has been established and the
split-half reliability coefficients in the high eighties and
low nineties exist for most variables for immediate and
delayed intrasubject stability (Hill, 1972). Interscorer
consistency has been established with a median value of all
correlations at .86 (Hill, 1972).
Secondary Measures
NEO Five-Factor Inventory. The NEO Five-Factor
Inventory (NEO-FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1985) is a shortened
version of the NEO Personality Inventory which is designed
to measure five personality factors: Neuroticism (N),
Extraversion (E), Openness to Experience (0), Agreeableness
(A), and Conscientiousness (C). Subjects respond to items
on a 5-point scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to
strongly agree (5).
For the purposes of the present investigation, scales
N, E, and 0 were of primary interest. Scale N refers to
neuroticism, negative affectivity, or nervousness. Neurotic
individuals tend to experience chronic distressing emotions
such as fear, guilt, and frustration and, thus, are possibly
more prone to body concern and dissatisfaction. Scale E is
used to assesses extraversion, warmth, and energy level. If
subjects are more extraverted and outwardly focused, they
may more vulnerable to body concern. Scale O refers to
41
openness to experience or originality. Open individuals
tend to be imaginative, aesthetically sensitive,
intellectually curious, and attitudinally liberal and, thus,
possibly less bound to cultural norms regarding body image.
High scores on the N, E, and 0 variables indicate increased
levels of negative affectivity, extraversion, and openness
to new experience, respectively.
Social Anxiety Subscale. The Self-Consciousness Scale
(SCS-R; Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975; Scheier & Carver,
1985) is a self-report measure of dispositional self-
attention processes. Of its three subscales, the Social
Anxiety Subscale (SAS) was used to assess level of social
discomfort. The SAS has six items which use a 3-point
Likert scale ranging from a little like me (1) to a lot like
me (3) .
If a person experiences increased social anxiety, he or
she may experience more body anxiety. High scores on the
SAS indicate high levels of discomfort in social settings.
Procedure
Having been recruited via other means, prospective
subjects were contacted by phone and screened with regard to
previously stated exclusion criteria. If eligible for
participation, subjects were briefed regarding the process
of participation and any questions by the participant
addressed. If the subject was willing to participate, an
appointment time was scheduled.
42
At the time of his or her appointment, each subject was
provided with a consent form which was read and signed by
the person prior to participation. Each was then
administered the two projective techniques (the DAP and HIT)
and then provided with a packet containing the Demographic
Questionnaire, BDI, SDS, FRS, MBSRQ, BSQ, NEO-FFI, and SAS.
After the subject had completed the questionnaire packet, he
or she was given the opportunity to ask any remaining
questions regarding the study.
Statistical Analyses
In the present investigation, there were three
independent variables: age (younger, middle-aged, and
older), sex (male and female), and relationship status
(single and involved). Dependent variables included primary
measures of body image as derived from the FRS, MBSRQ, BSQ,
HIT, and DAP, as well as secondary measures of personality
adjustment (NEO-FFI and SAS).
Statistical analyses included a 3 X 2 X 2 Multivariate
Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) with social desirability as
the covariate. Significant multivariate results were
obtained, thus post-hoc tests were conducted at the
univariate level. For a multivariate main effect for age
and an interaction of age by relationship status, simple
effects tests were conducted.
Due to a substantial number of DAP drawings which were
unscoreable, a separate MANCOVA was conducted for the DAP
43
with social desirability as the covariate. Significant
multivariate results were obtained, thus post-hoc tests were
carried out at the univariate level. For a multivariate
main effect for age, simple effects tests were conducted.
In addition, exploratory correlational analyses between
demographic and dependent variables, as well as among the
dependent variables were also conducted.
CHAPTER III
RESULTS
Four main hypotheses were tested utilizing a 3 X 2 X 2
Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) with social
desirability serving as the covariate. Primary dependent
measures included the Figure Rating Scale (FRS), the Body
Shape Questionnaire (BSQ), the Multidimensional Body-Self
Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ), and the Holtzman Inkblot
Technique (HIT). Secondary, exploratory dependent measures
included the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) and the
Social Anxiety Subscale (SAS). Table 2 summarizes the
results of this procedure. The minimum cell size was 10 and
cell size ranged from 10 to 21, with an average of 16
subjects per cell.
Hypothesis 1 predicted that, regardless of age group
membership, there would be no differences on body image
variables as measured by the FRS, BSQ, MBSRQ and the HIT.
Results of a 3 (younger, middle-aged, and older) X 2 (male
and female) X 2 (single and involved) MANCOVA failed to
support this hypothesis. In fact, there was a strong,
multivariate main effect for age (F = 5.18, df = 48,308, p <
. 000) .
44
45
Table 2
Observed and Adjusted Means for Multivariate Analysis of
Covariance
Variable
Observed Adjusted
Mean SD Mean
Primary. Objective Measures:
FRS:
Actual-Ideal
Younger
Single
Male 9.71
Female 10.79
Involved
Male 10.28
Female 11.26
Middle-Aged
Single
Male 10.71
Female 11.00
Involved
Male 10.75
1.19
.79
1.27
1.63
.99
.97
1.29
9.65
10.76
10.22
11.19
10.75
11.10
10.78
(table continues)
46
Variable
Observed Adjusted
Mean SD Mean
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Actual-Cultural Standard
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
1 1 . 4 5 1 . 0 5 1 1 . 5 2
10.60
11.00
1 0 . 5 3
1 1 . 1 4
9 . 7 1
11.16
1 0 . 3 8
1 1 . 4 2
1.08
1.28
1 . 5 5
. 8 6
1 . 5 9
1.02
1.61
2 . 0 9
1 0 . 5 6
1 1 . 0 7
1 0 . 5 0
11.12
9 . 6 6
1 1 . 1 3
1 0 . 3 4
1 1 . 3 6
1 1 . 1 4 1.10 1 1 . 1 7
(table continues)
47
Variable
Observed Adjusted
Mean SD Mean
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
BSfi:
Body Shape Concern
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
1 1 . 5 0
1 0 . 9 2
12.10
10.60
1 2 . 3 3
1 0 . 6 7
1 2 . 5 0
6 6 . 1 0
1 0 5 . 1 1
6 6 . 3 9
1 . 4 6
1 . 5 6
. 9 1
1.08
1 . 7 8
1.88
1 . 4 5
1 1 . 5 8
1 0 . 9 4
12.16
1 0 . 5 7
1 2 . 3 9
1 0 . 6 4
1 2 . 4 9
2 0 . 0 3 6 6 . 2 6
3 4 . 8 8 1 0 5 . 1 9
2 5 . 3 8 6 6 . 5 3
(table continues)
48
Variable
Observed Adjusted
Mean SD Mean
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
9 2 . 5 8 3 4 . 5 6 9 2 . 7 7
5 4 . 4 3
8 7 . 8 8
5 4 . 5 8
9 1 . 2 0
4 6 . 5 0
7 6 . 3 3
6 3 . 8 0
7 4 . 3 6
2 2 . 8 0
2 5 . 1 5
1 7 . 9 1
3 2 . 0 1
1 7 . 1 1
2 5 . 6 0
2 7 . 2 0
2 3 . 2 5
5 4 . 3 3
8 7 . 6 1
5 4 . 1 0
9 1 . 0 0
4 6 . 6 0
7 6 . 1 4
6 3 . 9 0
7 4 . 4 0
(table continues^
49
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
MBSRO:
Appearance Evaluation
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
3 . 5 6
3 . 2 0
3 . 5 6
3 . 1 1
3 . 2 9
2 . 9 9
3 . 4 5
2 . 9 8
. 63
. 9 0
. 7 4
. 9 5
. 33
. 83
. 6 3
.87
3 . 5 6
3 . 2 0
3 . 5 5
3 . 1 1
3 . 2 9
3 . 0 0
3 . 4 6
2 . 9 9
3 . 7 0 . 69 3 . 7 0
(table continues)
50
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Appearance Orientation
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
2 . 8 5
2 . 9 8
2 . 6 8
3 . 6 6
4 . 1 3
3 . 2 9
3 . 6 3
3 . 0 9
3 . 7 9
3 . 2 6
3 . 6 3
. 9 2
. 69
. 72
.61
. 37
. 7 4
. 5 8
. 7 2
. 5 2
. 5 3
. 4 4
2 . 8 5
2 . 9 8
2 . 6 8
3 . 6 6
4 . 1 3
3 . 2 9
3 . 6 4
3 . 0 9
3 . 7 9
3 . 2 6
3 . 6 3
(table continues)
51
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adj usted
Mean
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Fitness Evaluation
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
3 . 7 8
3 . 9 1
3 . 5 6
3 . 7 1
4 . 1 7
3 . 9 1
4 . 0 9
3 . 3 5
. 5 5
. 7 2
. 38
. 5 8
.66
.82
. 6 8
. 8 4
3 . 7 9
3 . 9 0
3 . 5 6
3 . 7 1
4 . 2 1
3 . 9 3
4 . 1 2
3 . 3 9
3 . 8 1
3 . 3 3
.28
. 8 5
3 . 7 9
3 . 2 8
(table continues)
52
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Fitness Orientation
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
3.61
3.18
3.20
2.72
3.36
2 .60
3 . 66
3.37
3.51
2 . 8 8
.87
.83
.65
. 66
.57
1.00
.41
.54
.54
.57
3.60
3.15
3.22
2 . 6 8
3.37
2 . 6 0
3.66
3.37
3.51
2 . 8 8
(table continues^
53
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Health Evaluation
Younger
Single
Male
Female
3 . 0 9
3 . 0 2
2 . 9 9
2 . 7 4
3 . 1 7
2 . 8 7
3 . 0 5
2 . 8 7
53
61
.32
,56
34
48
,53
,50
3 . 0 9
3 . 0 2
2 . 9 9
2 . 7 4
3 . 1 7
2 . 8 7
3 . 0 5
2 . 8 7
3 . 9 6
3 . 6 9
. 5 9
. 8 0
3 . 9 7
3 . 7 0
(table continues)
54
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
3 . 9 5
3 . 4 3
4 . 0 2
3 . 5 3
3 . 8 9
3 . 7 7
3 . 9 0
3 . 3 1
3 . 6 6
3 . 9 2
. 5 1
. 6 7
. 32
.47
. 3 8
. 7 8
. 7 6
.87
. 6 5
. 5 8
3 . 9 6
3 . 4 4
4 . 0 2
3 . 5 2
3 . 8 8
3 . 7 6
3 . 9 1
3 . 3 0
3 . 6 6
3 . 9 2
(table continues)
55
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Health Orientation
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
3 . 3 4
3 . 4 5
3 . 1 9
3 . 2 7
3 . 3 7
3 . 4 4
3 . 3 8
3 . 5 8
. 63
. 5 0
. 7 2
. 5 5
. 5 2
. 83
. 4 9
. 6 7
3 . 3 5
3 . 4 6
3 . 2 0
3 . 2 8
3 . 3 6
3 . 4 3
3 . 3 7
3 . 5 7
3 . 6 0
4 . 0 4
. 3 6
. 5 8
3 . 6 0
4 . 0 3
(table continues)
56
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Involved
Male
Female
Illness Orientation
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
3 . 6 3
3 . 5 7
1 . 9 6
1 . 9 1
1 . 6 7
1 . 9 7
2 . 0 4
2 . 0 8
1 . 8 9
1.86
. 5 3
. 43
,53
.61
,55
,43
. 32
.37
. 42
. 4 2
3 . 6 3
3 . 5 7
1 . 9 7
1 . 9 1
1.68
1 . 9 8
2 . 0 3
2 . 0 6
1.88
1 . 8 4
(table continues^
57
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Body Areas Satisfaction
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
1 . 9 0
2 . 4 6
2 . 2 2
2 . 0 7
3 . 4 0
3 . 2 6
3 . 4 8
2 . 9 5
,42
,46
,42
,60
. 63
. 67
. 5 5
. 6 9
1 . 9 1
2 . 4 5
2 . 2 2
2 . 0 7
3 . 4 1
3 . 2 6
3 . 4 8
2 . 9 6
3 . 2 4
3 . 1 3
. 48
.61
3 . 2 4
3 . 1 2
(table continues)
58
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Weight Focus
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
3 . 0 0
3 . 0 1
3 . 4 8
2 . 8 2
3 . 3 8
3 . 1 8
2 . 0 2
2 . 9 6
1 . 8 3
2.61
.84
68
55
74
59
70
. 7 2
. 9 5
. 7 1
. 9 3
3 . 0 0
3 . 0 1
3 . 4 8
2 . 8 2
3 . 3 9
3 . 1 8
2 . 0 3
2 . 9 6
1 . 8 4
2.61
(table continues)
59
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
1 . 9 3
2 . 7 2
2 . 0 6
2 . 8 0
2 . 1 3
2 . 4 8
2 . 3 2
2 . 3 6
,85
,99
. 8 8
.77
,59
82
,83
,74
1 . 9 3
2 . 7 1
2 . 0 6
2 . 8 0
2 . 1 3
2 . 4 8
2 . 3 2
2 . 3 6
(table continues)
60
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Primary. Projective Measures;
HIT:
Barrier
Younger
Single
Male 7.33
Female 10.37
Involved
Male 6.78
Female 8.32
Middle-Aged
Single
Male 4.79
Female 7.00
Involved
Male 6.08
Female 8.00
2.92
4.15
3.00
3.43
1.81
2.88
3.55
3.55
7.32
10.36
6.77
8.30
4.79
7.02
6.09
8.01
(table continues^
61
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adj usted
Mean
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Penetration
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
5 . 7 0
6 . 6 7
5 . 6 7
5 . 0 7
9 . 3 3
1 1 . 5 8
9 . 1 7
8.21
3 . 4 3
4 . 7 0
3 . 6 0
3 . 2 9
4 . 5 0
5 . 4 7
3 . 1 7
3 . 6 0
5 . 6 9
6 . 6 8
5 . 6 6
5 . 0 7
9 . 4 0
11.61
9 . 2 3
8 . 2 9
6 . 0 0
6 . 7 5
4 . 1 1
3 . 3 2
6 . 0 0
6 . 6 4
Ctable continues)
62
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Older
Involved
Male
Female
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Human
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
8 . 2 5
7 . 6 0
5 . 3 0
4 . 3 3
8 . 5 3
6 . 8 6
2 1 . 4 3
2 3 . 0 0
2 3 . 3 3
2 9 . 1 6
3 . 6 2
2 . 8 2
3 . 8 6
4 . 4 6
3 . 8 5
4 . 0 9
8 . 3 5
5 . 2 4
7 . 2 2
9 . 4 9
8 . 2 2
7 . 5 2
5 . 3 4
4 . 2 5
8 . 5 8
6.88
2 1 . 4 0
2 2 . 9 9
2 3 . 3 1
2 9 . 1 3
(table continues)
63
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Animal
Younger
Single
Male
Female
2 3 . 9 3
2 2 . 9 4
1 8 . 7 5
2 2 . 8 5
21.20
2 1 . 8 3
1 9 . 8 0
1 8 . 0 7
2 9 . 1 9
2 8 . 2 6
12.28
7 . 6 6
6 . 4 4
7 . 1 9
8.12
1 4 . 0 3
9 . 2 9
6 . 9 0
1 0 . 0 3
4 . 6 1
2 3 . 9 4
2 2 . 9 8
1 8 . 7 6
2 2 . 8 8
2 1 . 1 9
21.86
1 9 . 7 9
18.06
2 9 . 1 0
2 8 . 2 2
(table continues)
64
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
2 9 . 6 7
2 7 . 0 0
3 0 . 4 3
2 4 . 9 4
3 1 . 0 0
2 8 . 4 0
2 9 . 2 0
2 9 . 7 5
3 1 . 4 0
3 1 . 5 7
8 . 4 2
7 . 8 5
5 . 9 7
7 . 6 8
6 . 3 5
6 . 5 6
1 1 . 4 6
7 . 0 9
1 2 . 3 9
7 . 6 1
2 9 . 5 8
2 6 . 8 9
3 0 . 4 3
2 5 . 0 9
3 1 . 0 4
2 8 . 5 1
2 9 . 1 5
2 9 . 8 6
3 1 . 3 4
3 1 . 5 4
(table continues!
65
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Anatomy
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
2 . 5 2
2 . 8 4
4 . 4 4
2 . 4 7
2 . 5 0
4 . 3 8
4 . 2 5
3 . 5 0
2 . 4 8
1.86
2 . 9 4
2 . 0 4
2 . 1 4
3 . 1 0
2 . 7 7
2 . 9 1
2 . 5 4
2 . 8 5
4 . 4 6
2 . 4 9
2 . 4 9
4 . 3 5
4 . 2 4
3 . 4 8
3 . 6 0
2 . 9 2
2 . 7 6
3 . 4 5
3 . 6 1
2 . 9 0
(table continues)
66
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Involved
Male
Female
Sexual
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
4 . 0 0
3 . 2 1
. 52
. 4 2
. 8 3
. 9 5
.14
.94
1.08
. 9 0
3 . 0 2
2 . 2 6
. 7 5
. 7 7
1 . 0 4
2.01
. 3 6
1 . 3 4
1 . 6 8
1 . 8 3
4 . 0 1
3 . 2 2
.57
. 4 5
.88
1.01
.11
.86
1 .06
. 8 4
(table continues)
67
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Color
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
. 4 0
. 33
. 4 0
. 2 9
1 6 . 1 4
1 6 . 8 4
1 3 . 3 3
1 5 . 9 5
9 . 4 3
1 9 . 0 6
1 . 2 7
. 6 5
. 8 3
.61
9 . 3 8
7 . 2 0
6.61
11.18
4 . 7 0
9 . 6 0
. 43
.27
. 4 3
. 3 0
1 6 . 1 4
1 6 . 8 4
1 3 . 3 4
1 5 . 9 5
9 . 4 3
1 9 . 0 6
(table continues)
68
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Hostility
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
1 3 . 3 3
16.00
1 1 . 7 0
8 . 8 3
9 . 8 7
1 3 . 5 7
9 . 4 8
7 . 6 3
9 . 0 0
8 . 8 9
7 . 5 1
7 . 8 5
4 . 7 6
4 . 9 7
6 . 6 0
4 . 2 9
4 . 7 3
3 . 8 2
3 . 0 3
3 . 8 6
1 3 . 3 3
16.00
1 1 . 7 0
8 . 8 3
9 . 8 7
1 3 . 5 7
9 . 4 8
7 . 6 3
9 . 0 0
8 . 9 0
(table continues)
69
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
1 0 . 7 9
1 0 . 5 0
1 0 . 7 5
8 . 8 0
9 . 3 0
8 . 4 2
1 2 . 8 7
9 . 2 9
4 . 1 0
4 . 4 7
5 . 2 8
4 . 2 8
8 . 2 3
5 . 5 7
4 . 1 4
5 . 2 5
1 0 . 7 9
1 0 . 5 0
1 0 . 7 5
8 . 8 0
9 . 3 0
8 . 4 2
1 2 . 8 7
9 . 2 9
(table continues)
70
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Secondary. Objective Measures:
NEO-FFI:
Neuroticism
Younger
Single
Male 37.95
Female 37.32
Involved
Male 40.83
Female 36.84
Middle-Aged
Single
Male 44.43
Female 38.81
Involved
Male 45.17
Female 41.25
8.25
7.41
6.88
8.80
6.26
5.67
6.19
9.86
37.95
37.31
40.83
36.83
44.43
38.82
45.17
41.26
(table continues)
71
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adj usted
Mean
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Extraversion
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
4 4 . 1 0
4 2 . 0 8
4 3 . 7 3
4 3 . 0 0
3 0 . 9 5
2 5 . 5 3
3 2 . 5 0
3 3 . 0 5
1 0 . 7 8
7 . 6 3
3 . 9 4
5 . 0 5
5 . 4 4
5 . 9 3
4 . 5 8
5 . 8 7
4 4 . 1 0
4 2 . 0 9
4 3 . 7 3
4 3 . 0 0
3 1 . 0 3
2 5 . 5 6
3 2 . 5 6
3 3 . 1 4
3 1 . 5 7
3 2 . 6 9
6.21
5 . 4 4
3 1 . 5 3
3 2 . 5 7
(table continues)
72
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Openness
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
3 1 . 6 7
3 1 . 9 5
3 4 . 7 0
3 4 . 3 3
3 3 . 0 7
3 3 . 3 6
3 2 . 1 0
2 8 . 7 9
3 4 . 0 0
3 3 . 4 7
4 . 6 4
6 . 7 4
7 . 0 7
4 . 2 7
5 . 2 0
4 . 4 0
5 . 9 8
5 . 5 4
4 . 6 4
4 . 4 0
3 1 . 6 3
3 1 . 8 7
3 4 . 7 4
3 4 . 2 5
3 3 . 1 1
3 3 . 3 8
3 2 . 2 2
2 8 . 8 5
3 4 . 1 0
3 3 . 6 1
(table continues^
73
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
SAS:
Social Anxiety
Younger
Single
Male
3 5 . 7 9
3 2 . 3 8
3 2 . 2 5
2 8 . 5 5
3 8 . 3 0
3 4 . 6 7
3 4 . 0 0
3 6 . 7 9
1 1 . 5 2
2 .86
4 . 9 7
3 . 3 1
5 . 3 7
4 . 1 9
5 . 1 6
4 . 4 6
4 . 6 9
3 5 . 7 2
3 2 . 1 8
3 2 . 2 0
2 8 . 4 1
3 8 . 3 7
3 4 . 5 3
3 4 . 0 7
3 6 . 8 2
3 . 6 1 1 1 . 6 1
(table continues)
74
Variable
Observed Adjusted
Mean SD Mean
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
* Male
Female
1 1 . 3 2
1 0 . 8 3
1 1 . 9 5
1 0 . 0 0
1 0 . 1 3
1 0 . 0 0
1 0 . 9 0
10.20
1 1 . 5 0
1 0 . 4 7
1 1 . 7 1
3 . 8 3
2 . 6 8
2 . 8 0
2.11
3 . 2 6
2 . 1 7
3 . 1 1
3 . 2 9
2 . 9 7
2 . 9 5
2 . 7 0
1 1 . 3 6
1 0 . 9 1
1 2 . 0 4
9 . 9 5
10.00
10.00
10.80
1 0 . 2 5
1 1 . 4 0
1 0 . 5 2
1 1 . 7 4
75
Contrary to prediction, differences were found among
subjects of different ages on primary and secondary
measures. Post-hoc univariate analyses with regard to age
produced 15 significant effects. With respect to objective
body image measures, middle-aged subjects experienced more
actual-ideal body dissatisfaction, followed by older
subjects, with younger subjects experiencing less body
dissatisfaction as measured by the FRS (F = 3.71, df =
2,177, p < .026). When the discrepancy between subjects'
actual body size versus the cultural standard was taken into
consideration, older and middle-aged subjects experienced
more body dissatisfaction, with younger subjects again
experiencing less body dissatisfaction (F = 6.87, df =
2,177, p < .001). In contrast, younger subjects exhibited
more body shape concern as measured by the BSQ than middle-
aged and older subjects (F = 6.45, df = 2,177, p < .002).
The MBSRQ revealed older and younger subjects were
higher in appearance orientation than middle-aged subjects
(F = 4.24, df = 2,177, p < .016). Younger subjects showed a
higher fitness evaluation, followed by middle-aged subjects,
with older subjects showing lower fitness evaluation (F =
23.16, df = 2,177, p < .000). Younger subjects were higher
in fitness orientation than middle-aged and older subjects
(F = 11.58, df = 2,177, p < .000). Older subjects were
higher in health orientation (F = 6.45, df = 2,177, p <
76
.002) and illness orientation (F = 5.13, df = 2,177, e <
.007) than middle-aged subjects and younger subjects.
With regard to the projective measure, the HIT, younger
subjects were higher on barrier (F = 8.10, df = 2,177, E <
.000), and penetration (F = 12.04, df - 2,177, E < .000),
than middle-aged and older subjects. Younger subjects were
higher on human (F = 3.16, df = 2,177, E < .045) than
middle-aged and older subjects. Younger and middle-aged
subjects were higher on color (F = 5.47, df 2, 177, E <
.005) than older subjects.
With regard to the secondary exploratory measure, the
NEO-FFI, older and middle-aged subjects were higher in
neuroticism (F = 7.87, df = 2,177, E < .001) than younger
subjects. Older subjects were higher in extraversion (F =
5.16, df = 2,177, E < .007) than middle-aged subjects and
younger subjects. Further, older subjects were higher in
openness than younger and middle-aged subjects (F = 11.19,
df = 2,177, E < .000) .
Hypothesis 2 predicted that, regardless of sex, there
would be no differences on body image variables as measured
by the FRS, BSQ, MBSRQ, and the HIT. Results from the 3 X 2
X 2 MANCOVA fail to support this hypothesis. As with age,
there was a strong, multivariate main effect for sex (F =
7.23, df = 24,154, £ < .000).
Contrary to prediction, differences were found among
male and female subjects on primary and secondary measures.
77
Post-hoc univariate analyses with regard to sex produced 15
significant effects. With respect to objective body image
measures, female subjects experienced more actual-ideal body
dissatisfaction (F = 16.14, df = 1,177, p < .000) and more
actual-cultural standard body dissatisfaction than male
subjects (F = 32.80, df = 1,177, £ < .000) as measured by
the FRS. Similarly, female subjects exhibited more body
shape concern as measured by the BSQ than male subjects (F =
51.65, df = 1,177, p < .000).
The MBSRQ revealed male subjects were higher in
appearance evaluation (F = 15.08, df = 1,177, p < .000),
fitness evaluation (F = 23.25, df = 1,177, p < .000),
fitness orientation (F = 13.91, df = 1,177, p < .000),
health evaluation (F = 9.44, df = 1,177, p < .002), and
higher in body areas satisfaction (F = 7.87, df = 1,177, p <
.006) than female subjects. On the other hand, female
subjects were higher in appearance orientation (F = 17.33,
df = 1,177, p < .000) and weight focus (F = 23.39, df =
1,177, p < .000) than male subjects.
With regard to the projective measure, the HIT, females
were higher on color (F = 5.61, df = 1,177, p < .019) and
barrier (F = 8.78, df = 1,177, p < .003) than male subjects.
Male subjects had higher hostility scores than female
subjects (F = 4.22, df = 1,177, p < .041).
With respect to the secondary exploratory measure, the
NEO-FFI, male subjects were higher in neuroticism (F = 6.17,
78
df = 1,177, £ < .014) and openness (F = 7.93, df = 1,177, E <
.005) than female subjects.
Hypothesis 3 predicted that, regardless of relationship
status, there would be no differences on body image variables
as measured by the FRS, BSQ, MBSRQ, and the HIT. Results
from the 3 X 2 X 2 MANCOVA produced no main effect for
relationship status (F = .91, df = 24,154, E < .588). Thus,
hypothesis 3 was supported.
Hypothesis 4 predicted a three-way interaction such that
young, single females would experience the most body concern
and dissatisfaction relative to other groups. Results from
the 3 X 2 X 2 MANCOVA did not yield a three-way interaction,
thus failing to support hypothesis 4. However, an age by sex
interaction was found (F = 1.62, df = 48,308, £ < .009)
although post-hoc univariate analyses produced no significant
effects. Due to the shared variance among primary dependent
measures, this interaction most likely occurred as an
artifact of such relationships. For example, the correlation
between the BSQ and the Weight Attitudes Scale of the MBSRQ
was .70 and the correlation between the FRS and the BSQ was
.53.
The 3 X 2 X 2 MANCOVA also produced a significant age by
relationship status interaction (F = 2.47, df = 48,308, e <
.000). Post-hoc univariate analyses yielded significant
effects for four variables. The projective measure, the HIT,
revealed two significant effects. As shown in Figure 1 (See
79
Appendix C), for younger subjects, penetration scores were
higher for single subjects. However, for middle-aged and
older subjects, penetration scores were higher for involved
subjects (F = 5.92, df = 2,177, E < .003). As shown in
Figure 2 (See Appendix C), for younger subjects, human scores
were higher for involved subjects. However, for middle-aged
and older subjects, human scores were higher for single
subjects (F = 3.33, df = 2,177, g < .038).
With regard to the secondary exploratory measure, the
NEO-FFI, two significant effects were found. As shown in
Figures 3 and 4, respectively (See Appendix C), for younger
subjects, extraversion (F = 5.15, df = 2,177, p < .007) and
openness to new experience (F = 9.08, df = 2,177, p < .000)
were higher for involved subjects. However, for middle-aged
and older subjects, extraversion and openness to new
experience were higher for single subjects.
Supplementary Analyses
In a supplementary analysis, DAP variables were analyzed
utilizing a 3 X 2 X 2 MANCOVA with social desirability
serving as the covariate. DAP variables were analyzed
separately due to a substantial number of subjects who drew
heads only which were unscoreable and thus considered missing
data. Cell sizes ranged from 9 to 21 with an average cell
size of 15. Table 3 summarizes the results of this
procedure.
80
Table 3
Observed and Adjusted Means for Multivariate Analysis of
Covariance for the Draw-A-Person
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Draw-A-Person:
General
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
17.89
16.67
18.00
17.21
17.30
17.33
18.17
17.42
1.82
2.01
1.93
2.01
1.25
1.76
2.13
2.12
17.93
16.68
18.02
17.25
17.29
17.27
18.12
17.39
(table continues^
81
Variable
Observed
Mean SD
Adjusted
Mean
Older
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Specific
Younger
Single
Male
Female
Involved
Male
Female
Middle-Aged
Single
Male
Female
1 8 . 9 1
1 8 . 2 2
1 8 . 9 3
1 7 . 8 6
2 0 . 7 4
1 9 . 3 8
1 9 . 7 3
1 9 . 1 6
2 . 5 9
2 . 3 9
2 . 7 9
2 . 0 3
1 . 9 7
2 . 9 0
2 . 8 7
2 . 1 4
1 8 . 9 3
1 8 . 2 0
1 8 . 9 6
1 7 . 8 7
2 0 . 7 5
1 9 . 3 9
1 9 . 7 4
1 9 . 1 7
1 7 . 5 4
2 0 . 2 7
1 . 9 8
2 . 4 6
1 7 . 5 3
2 0 . 2 5
(table continues)
82
Observed Adj usted
Variable Mean SD Mean
Involved
Male 20.25 1.82 20.24
Female 18.95 1.84 18.94
Older
Single
Male 21.18 4.58 21.19
Female 21.00 2.60 20.99
Involved
Male 21.57 3.76 21.58
Female 21.93 3.27 21.93
Results of the 3 X 2 X 2 MANCOVA produced two
significant main effects. A multivariate main effect was
found for age (F = 4.67, df = 4,334, jd < .001) and sex (F =
3.27, df = 2,167, E < .040).
With regard to the age main effect, post-hoc univariate
analyses yielded significant effects for General (F = 3.95,
df = 2,168, p < .021) and Specific (F = 8.62, df = 2,168, p
< .000) DAP variables such that older subjects exhibited a
more negative body concept at a global and specific level
than middle-aged and younger subjects. With respect to the
83
sex main effect, post-hoc univariate analyses produced a
significant effect for the General DAP variables (£ = 5.75,
df = 1,168, p < .018) such that male subjects showed a more
negative body concept at a global level than female
subj ects.
Exploratory Correlational Analyses
Exploratory correlational analyses were conducted to
examine the relationships between demographic variables and
both primary and secondary dependent variables. Demographic
variables included age, sex, relationship status, education,
health status, and exercise. Few significant correlations
were found. Sex and health status accounted for all but one
significant correlation above r = .30, p < .01.
Sex was negatively correlated with fitness evaluation
as measured by the MBSRQ (r = .31) and positively correlated
with actual-cultural standard body dissatisfaction (FRS, r =
.38, p < .01), weight focus (MBSRQ, r = .35, p < .01) and
body shape concern (BSQ, r = .49, p < .01). Health was also
positively correlated with actual-cultural standard body
dissatisfaction (FRS, r = .35, p < .01) and negatively
correlated with five MBSRQ variables including appearance
evaluation (r = .35, p < .01), fitness orientation (r = .31,
E < .01), health evaluation (r = .50, p < .01), health
orientation (r = .31, p < .01), and body areas satisfaction
(r = .40, p < .01).
84
Exploratory correlational analyses were also conducted
to examine the relationships among dependent measures. For
the DAP, HIT, NEO-FFI, and the SAS, there were few
significant correlations. The few that were found were less
than r = .03. Most significant correlations were found
among the primary, objective body image measures: the FRS,
BSQ, and the MBSRQ. Table 4 summarizes these results.
85
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CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION
To date, the majority of body image research has
focused on young women. Moreover, a large proportion of
these studies have focused on clinical populations such as
women with anorexia and/or bulimia nervosa. The purpose of
the present study was to explore potential influences of
age, sex, and relationship status on body image in a more
comprehensive manner using a nonclinical subject sample.
Hypothesis 1 predicted that, regardless of age group
membership, there would be no differences on body image
measures. Results suggest that subjects do differ with
regard to body image as a function of age.
More specifically, results from the FRS indicated that
middle-aged subjects saw a greater discrepancy between their
actual and ideal body size than older and younger subjects,
while older and middle-aged subjects saw a greater
discrepancy between their actual body size and the cultural
standard for body size than younger subjects. These
findings are consistent with those of Rozin and Fallon
(1988) who found that middle-aged adults were dissatisfied
with their body shape and weight and with those of Van-
Deusen, Harlowe, and Baker (1989) who found that older
86
87
adults perceive their appearance less positively than
younger adults.
Interestingly, however, while middle-aged and older
adults were more dissatisfied with their appearance, younger
subjects exhibited greater body shape concern (BSQ) than
middle-aged and older subjects. This could reflect the mass
media relentlessly targeting younger audiences (Andersen &
DiDomenico, 1992). This increased level of body concern
could also be reflective of one reason why eating disorders
are much more prevalent in younger groups (Rosen, 1990).
Older adults then are more dissatisfied with their
appearance, but are less concerned about it, while younger
adults are less dissatisfied with their appearance, but are
more anxious about it. It could be that older adults,
although more dissatisfied with their appearance, feel less
able to alter their appearance to meet such unrealistic and
young cultural standards and therefore, worry less about
appearance. Older adults could also feel less attractive
due to cultural stereotypes which equate older age with less
attractiveness (Rodin & Langer, 1980; Sharkey, 1993).
Results from the MBSRQ indicated that older and younger
subjects placed more importance on appearance than middle-
aged subjects. Older adults also paid more attention to
health and signs of illness than younger and middle-aged
subjects. In a culture which places tremendous emphasis on
appearance and health, older adults are likely to be more
88
sensitive to the discrepancy between themselves and young
cultural standards.
In addition to appearance, younger subjects placed more
importance on fitness and were more satisfied with their
fitness level than middle-aged and older subjects. These
results are consistent with findings which indicate that
people's activity levels differ with age (Gordon & Galtz,
1976). The findings that middle-aged and older adults place
less importance on fitness and are less satisfied with their
fitness level may contribute to the increased body
dissatisfaction reported by these two age groups.
Results from the HIT show that younger subjects were
higher in body image boundary and vulnerability to body
image boundary disturbance than middle-age and older
subjects. These results indicate that younger subjects feel
more insecure about their body image, and as a result, must
utilize defenses to cope with the resulting anxiety. Thus,
young adults are more concerned with their appearance, but
are also more likely to feel insecure about their
appearance.
It was suspected that subjects higher in emotionality
and interpersonal relationship salience would also be higher
in body concern and dissatisfaction. Parallel findings
indicated that younger subjects were higher in emotionality
and interpersonal relationship salience and also higher in
body concern. However, little relationship was found
89
between body concern and emotionality (r = .04) and
interpersonal relationship salience (r = .08). Middle-aged
subjects were also higher in emotionality than older
subjects and also higher in body dissatisfaction. However,
little relationship was found between body dissatisfaction
and emotionality (r = -.05).
Results from the NEO-FFI indicated that older and
middle-aged subjects were higher in negative affectivity
than younger subjects, while older subjects were higher in
extraversion and openness than middle-aged and younger
subjects. It was suspected that subjects higher in negative
affectivity and extraversion might be more likely to
experience body concern and dissatisfaction, while subjects
higher in openness would be less bound to cultural norms and
experience less body concern and dissatisfaction. Parallel
findings indicated that older and middle-aged subjects were
higher in negative affectivity and also higher in body
dissatisfaction. However, correlational analyses indicated
nonsignficant relationships between body dissatisfaction and
negative affectivity (r = -.24). In addition, while only
older subjects who were suspected to be higher in
extraversion who were also expected to be higher in body
dissatisfaction, no relationship was found (r = -.12),
despite age differences in each construct. However, a
relationship was supported between extraversion and several
MBSRQ variables, in that older subjects higher in
90
extraversion were less satisfied with their level of fitness
(r = -.29, £ < .05) and health status (r = -.28, p < *05)
and placed less importance on fitness (r = -.44, p < .01).
It was also found that older subjects were more open
and experienced less body concern. Little relationship was
found, however, between openness and body Concern (r =
-.05) .
Hypothesis 2 predicted that, regardless of gender,
subjects would not differ on body image measures. Results
suggest that subjects do differ with regard to body image as
a function of sex.
Specifically, results from the FRS indicate female
subjects saw a greater discrepancy between their actual body
size and their ideal/cultural standard body size than male
subjects. Female subjects also exhibited more concern about
their body shape than male subjects. These results, which
indicate women experience greater body dissatisfaction and
more body shape concern than men, are consistent with the
majority of research findings to date (Cash, Winstead, &
Janda, 1986; Fallon, 1990; Fallon & Rozin, 1986) and may
reflect the fact that women are bombarded with over ten
times as many advertisements and articles promoting thinness
and/or weight loss (Andersen & DiDomenico, 1992).
Results from the MBSRQ indicate male subjects placed
more importance on fitness and were more satisfied with
their appearance, fitness level, specific body areas, and
91
health status than female subjects. On the other hand,
female subjects placed more importance on physical
appearance and were more weight focused than male subjects.
Due to men placing increased emphasis on fitness and
experiencing a higher fitness level, they may have fewer
weight problems and thus, are less concerned and
dissatisfied with their body. These findings also suggest
that men evaluate themselves more favorably, while women pay
more attention to their physical appearance and, in
particular, weight. Consistent with these findings,
Andersen and DiDomenico (1992) found that mass media targets
body shape change for men and weight loss for women. In
addition, McDonald and Thompson (1992) found that men's
motivation for exercise is more fitness-related, while
women's motivation for exercise is more weight- and tone-
related.
Results from the HIT showed that female subjects were
higher in body image boundary and emotionality than male
subjects, while male subjects exhibited more hostility than
female subjects. The finding that women are more defensive
when it comes to their physical appearance makes sense,
given the degree of body concern and dissatisfaction
exhibited and the intensity with which mass media targets
women (Andersen & DiDomenico, 1992).
As previously stated, it was suspected that subjects
higher in emotionality would be higher in body concern and
92
dissatisfaction. Results indicated that female subjects
were higher in emotionality and also higher in body concern
and dissatisfaction. However, little relationship between
emotionality and body concern (r = .02) and dissatisfaction
(r < -.06) was found.
It was expected that subjects higher in hostility would
be higher in body concern and dissatisfaction. Results
suggested an inverse relationship between these two such
that male subjects were higher in anger and reported lower
body concern and dissatisfaction than females, however, no
significant relationship was found between hostility and
body concern (r = -.04) and dissatisfaction (r = -.08).
Results from the NEO-FFI indicated that male subjects
were higher in negative affectivity and more open to new
experience than female subjects. It was suspected that
subjects higher in negative affectivity would report more
body concern and dissatisfaction, while subjects higher in
openness would report less body concern and dissatisfaction.
As was the case with hostility, results indicated that male
subjects were higher in negative affectivity and reported
less body concern and dissatisfaction. This inverse
relationship is partially supported by a correlation of -.42
(E < .01) for body concern. Given this inverse
relationship, it may be that, for men, negative affect
serves as a buffer to body image concern. Interestingly,
acknowledging negative affect is frequently cited as a
93
troublesome issue in therapy with female anorectic and/or
bulimic clients (Bruch, 1985; Garfinkel & Garner, 1982).
As was suspected, male subjects were higher in openness
and reported less body concern and dissatisfaction. Little
relationship, however, was found between openness and body
concern (r = -.09) and dissatisfaction (r = .05).
Hypothesis 3 predicted that subjects would not differ
on body image measures as a function of relationship status.
Results supported this hypothesis suggesting that
relationship status alone exerts little influence on body
image. It was suspected that being involved in a committed
relationship might serve as a buffer against body image
concern and dissatisfaction. However, it was found that
whether a person is single or involved in a committed
relationship had little influence on body image. This could
be due to the fact that the distinction between single and
involved relationships is not as clear-cut as it once was
(Saxton, 1990). Relationships are highly individualized
experiences. Consequently, using an arbitrarily determined
dichotomous classification to explore potential influences
of relationship status on body image may not be able to tap
the potential complexities involved.
Hypothesis 4 predicted that young, single females would
experience higher body image concern and dissatisfaction
relative to other groups. Results failed to support this
94
hypothesis. However, an age by relationship status
interaction was found.
Interestingly, post-hoc analyses produced no
significant effects for objective body image measures.
However, results from the HIT indicated that younger
subjects felt more insecure about their appearance if they
were single while middle-aged and older subjects felt more
insecure about their appearance if they were involved in a
committed relationship. It appears that for younger
subjects, the stress of dating may increase body image
issues for the single person, while a relationship may
provide a buffer to body image stress for the involved
person. Middle-aged and older involved subjects, who
reported higher levels of body dissatisfaction, may feel
more pressure to maintain a certain body size and shape in
order to maintain their partner's interest.
For younger subjects, interpersonal relationship
salience was higher for involved subjects. However, for
middle-aged and older subjects, interpersonal relationship
salience was higher for single subjects. In spite of the
significant interaction, little relationship was found
between interpersonal relationship salience and body concern
and dissatisfaction (r < .18).
Results from the NEO-FFI indicated that for younger
subjects, extraversion and openness to new experience were
higher for involved subjects. However, for middle-aged and
95
older subjects, extraversion and openness to new experience
were higher for single subjects. In spite of the
significant interaction with respect to extraversion and
openness, no significant correlations were found between
extraversion and openness and body concern and
dissatisfaction (r < .26).
For the DAP, in spite of a significant amount of
missing data, a separate supplementary analysis yielded the
same two main effects: age and sex. With respect to age,
older subjects exhibited a more negative body concept at a
global and specific level than middle-aged and younger
subjects. These results are consistent with current
findings which suggest that older adults are more
dissatisfied with their physical appearance than younger
adults. For example, Van-Deusen, Harlow, and Baker (1989)
found that older adults view their physical appearance more
negatively than younger adults.
With respect to sex, males exhibited a more negative
body concept at a global level than females. Given the
literature, these results are somewhat surprising as it was
expected that female subjects would more likely exhibit a
negative body concept. Given earlier findings that men
experienced higher levels of projectively assessed hostility
and negative affectivity, it could be that men consciously
report being less concerned and dissatisfied with their
96
appearance, when they are unconsciously experiencing anger
and frustration resulting in a negative body concept.
Summary
To summarize the findings of the present study, age and
sex have a substantial influence on body image. Age has a
significant influence on body image such that older and
middle-aged adults are more dissatisfied with their
appearance, while younger adults feel more anxious about
their appearance. Older adults place more importance on
appearance and attend more to their health and signs of
illness, while younger adults place more importance on
appearance and fitness and are more satisfied with their
level of fitness.
Sex was also found to have a significant influence on
body image such that women reported more concern and
dissatisfaction with their appearance, placed more
importance on appearance, and were more weight focused.
Men, on the other hand, placed more importance on fitness
and evaluate themselves more favorably in terms of
appearance, fitness level, and health status. At an
unconscious level, however, men experienced a more negative
body image than women.
The interaction of age and relationship status was also
found to exert an influence on body image, in that
insecurity about appearance was higher for younger single
subjects and middle-aged and older involved subjects.
97
Limitations of the Study
With regard to the sample in this study, there are
several issues to consider. First, there may have been a
selective sampling issue. Subjects were asked to
participate in a body image study; thus, they knew the topic
being investigated in advance and may have elected to
participate based on personal interest and/or curiosity
about the topic.
Second, subjects were predominantly white and all were
United States (US) citizens from birth to adulthood, thus
generalization of these results are limited to white native-
born US citizens. Third, although all subjects were US
citizens, their particular region of origin (e.g., the
northwestern or northeastern region of the US) was not taken
into consideration. Subjects represented the full spectrum
of national regions.
A fourth and somewhat troublesome sampling issue
involved the difficulty of accessing single, middle-aged and
older male subjects. As stated in the literature review,
older, single women significantly outnumber older, single
men (Atchley, 1988). In addition to accessing these two
groups, it was also consistently observed that the single,
middle-aged and older male subjects tended to be more
guarded during interviews than other groups. For example,
single, middle-aged and older male subjects accounted for
the majority of "head only" drawings which reflect some
98
level of defensiveness and a detachment from affect with a
heavy reliance on intellectualization. Since "head only"
drawings are unscoreable according to the Dougherty, Cook,
and Coppin scoring system, a significant amount of missing
data and reduced cell size was accounted for by these two
groups.
In terms of instruments used in this study, there are
some issues which warrant discussion. First, the Body Shape
Questionnaire (BSQ) is somewhat biased in that it is
oriented towards persons who are concerned about becoming
overweight. For example, several questions are stated in
terms of fear of gaining weight (e.g., "Have you been afraid
that you might become fat?"). Some people, however, want to
gain weight and may have difficulty doing so. "Feeling
skinny" can be a body image issue of equal importance which
is not addressed by the BSQ.
Second, the Holtzman Inkblot Technique (HIT) consists
of 45 inkblot cards to which the subject provides one
response per card. Although the HIT lends itself more
easily to research, the cognitive task required and the
number of cards seem to frustrate and fatigue several older
subjects. Their frustration and fatigue could also
represent defensiveness due to the fact that the HIT is a
somewhat unstructured task and triggers emotional reactions.
Regardless of the reason, older subjects' frustration and
99
fatigue undoubtedly had an impact on their responses,
particularly on the last half of the cards.
Third, subjects were administered the projective
instruments first so as to obtain purer responses. These
were followed by a questionnaire packet in which the number
of questionnaires seem to overwhelm and fatigue some
subjects, particularly older subjects. As previously
stated, fatigue may have influenced subjects' responses.
In terms of methodological concerns, relationship
status might have been operationalized in a more effective
way. For example, rather than requiring cohabitation, it
might have been more useful to define "involved" to include
anyone who has been dating the same partner for six months
or longer.
Another methodological concern involves the fact that
this was a cross-sectional study. While age differences
were found, cohort effects could be confounding results.
For example, it was found that younger adults were more
concerned about appearance than older adults. Younger
adults live in a culture where appearance receives
tremendous emphasis and they are therefore socialized to be
highly concerned about appearance. Older adults, on the
other hand, may have grown up in a time when less emphasis
was placed on appearance and the cultural standards for
physical appearance were not so extreme. Thus, it may be
100
that older persons were socialized to be less concerned
about appearance.
Implications
The purpose of the present study was to explore
potential influences of age, sex, and relationship status on
body image. Results indicate that age and'sex exert
considerable influence on body image, while relationship
status combined with age has some influence on body image.
With regard to age, the findings of this study have
important ramifications. First, the acknowledgement that
body image issues do exist for middle-age and older adults,
not just younger adults. Second, middle-aged and older
subjects feel less attractive. Middle-aged and older
subjects are living in a cultural context which places a
high value on physical appearance and in which stereotypes
of beauty belong to the younger population. This can result
in lowered self-esteem for middle-aged and older people,
leaving these groups feelings unattractive, inadequate, and
devalued.
While middle-aged and older groups feel less
attractive, younger persons worry more about physical
appearance. What happens when a young, adult cohort, which
already obsesses about physical appearance to such a high
degree, encounters aging and the inevitable physical decline
that goes with it? Will they experience even more feelings
101
of unattractiveness, inadequacy, and devaluation than the
current middle-aged and older sample?
Marketing and advertising campaigns certainly reflect
these findings. Printed advertisements geared toward
younger audiences more often employ full body pictures of
young adults, while advertisements geared toward middle-aged
audiences more often show chemical agents (e.g., anti-aging
creams) with which to fight aging and thus, rejection
(Sharkey, 1993).
With regard to sex, results from the present study
have important ramifications for women and men. First,
although not to the extent that women exhibit, body image
issues do exist for men. The difference may be that, at a
conscious level, men do not evaluate themselves as harshly
as women. At an unconscious level, however, men may feel
more negative about their bodies and express more negative
affect (e.g., hostility) than women.
Women, on the other hand, consciously acknowledge body
image issues. This may be due to the fear of becoming
overweight and the pursuit of thinness being more strongly
socialized in females (Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore,
1985). Women are socialized from an early age and at many
levels to worry excessively about their appearance and to
critically compare themselves with the unrealistic cultural
standards for attractiveness presented in the onslaught of
mass media. In fact, body concern and dissatisfaction might
102
be thought of as a normative experience for women (Rodin,
Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1985).
Regardless of age or sex, body dissatisfaction in this
sample is due in large part to people comparing themselves
with thinner cultural standards. Modal responses from the
FRS reflect this tendency. Of nine figures, with figure 1
representing the thinnest option from which to choose,
subjects most frequently selected figures 4-5 as their
actual body size, figures 3-4 as their ideal body size,
while figures 2-3 were selected as representative of the
cultural standard for physical appearance.
With regard to relationship status combined with age
influences, the implications are more complex. It appears
that involvement in a relationship serves as a buffer
against body image issues for younger people. On the other
hand, involvement increases body image issues for middle-
aged and older persons. With cultural stereotypes which
dictate that younger is more attractive, it may be that
middle-aged and older persons are feeling less attractive
and potentially worrying about their ability to keep their
partner's interest. Another possible hypothesis is that
middle-aged and older adults are more sensitive to the
possibility of losing a partner and then having to re-enter
the dating scene.
The findings of the present investigation may be useful
for the therapist working with adult populations. First,
103
these results provide normative information with which to
educate adult clients of all ages and represent both genders
who may be struggling with body image issues. Second, the
findings of this study may help to validate and normalize
body image issues. For example, a newly divorced middle-
aged person may feel less aberrant knowing that middle-aged
persons are often dissatisfied with their appearance.
Third, information from this study is also important to
convey to the general public in that it sensitizes people to
the reality of body image issues which exist across the
lifespan and for both sexes.
With regard to directions for future research, there
are several considerations which warrant discussion. The
present study explored the effects of age, sex, and
relationship status on body image. These three variables
are merely three of numerous potential variables which may
influence body image. The following are a few possibilities
which may add to the knowledge base regarding determinants
of body image.
It is important to note that subjects in the current
study represented several metropolitan areas of the United
States. It can be speculated that persons from different
regions of the country might differ with respect to body
image. Furthermore, given that mass media is more
concentrated in metropolitan areas, people from metropolitan
areas might differ from people from rural areas with regard
104
to body image. Further investigation is needed to explore
these possibilities.
It is also important for future research to take into
account a person's sexual orientation. According to
Glassner (1989), homosexual men contend with intense
cultural pressures with regard to physical appearance
(Glassner, 1989). On the other hand, homosexual women
report less concern with weight and appearance and are more
satisfied with their bodies than heterosexual women (Herzog,
Newman, Yeh, & Warshaw, 1992).
Another line of inquiry would be to take into
consideration a person's racial/ethnic background with
regard to body image. Most body image research has employed
Eurocentric norms which may not provide an accurate and/or
complete picture of body image for non-white racial/ethnic
groups. For example, Cash and Bond (1992) found that for
African-American women, skin color dissatisfaction was
related to body dissatisfaction.
It might also be important to take into account racial
membership and their stage of racial identity development.
For example, "during the immersion stage of racial identity
development, people immerse themselves in their respective
culture completely and reject the norms of Euro-American
culture (Helms, 1990; Sue & Sue, 1990). Thus, with respect
to body image, persons in the immersion stage of racial
identity development might identify with a different
105
cultural norm for physical appearance than the typical Euro-
American standards in the United States.
In conclusion, the findings of the present study
confirm the reality that body image issues exist across the
lifespan and for both genders. Due, in large part, to
media-driven cultural standards for physical appearance,
there are tremendous numbers of people who are feeling less
attractive and devalued because they do not "match" the
cultural standard presented in the media. This is an
atrocity and it is hoped that the findings of current study
and future research in this area will bring these issues to
light so that change can be effected and people of different
shapes and sizes, ages and gender can feel better about
their physical appearance and themselves.
APPENDIX A
CONSENT FORM
106
107
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS RESEARCH PARTICIPANT
CONSENT FORM
I, , agree to participate in a study regarding body image in adults. The purpose of this study is to examine people's perceptions of their physical appearance.
As a participant, I understand that my involvement in this research project is completely voluntary. I understand that I will be asked to respond to questionnaires relating to my perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors.
I have been informed that any information obtained in this study will be recorded with a code number that will only allow the project director, Caren Cooper, to determine my identity. At the conclusion of this study, the key that relates my name with my assigned code number will be destroyed. Under this condition, I agree that any information obtained from this research may be used in any way thought best for publication or education.
I understand that there is no personal risk or discomfort directly involved with this research. I understand that I am free to withdraw my consent and discontinue participation in this study at any time.
If I have any questions or problems that arise in connection with my participation in this study, I should contact Caren Cooper, project director, at (817) 565-2671.
Research Participant Date
Project Director Date
THIS PROJECT HAS BEEN REVIEWED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS COMMITTEE FOR THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN SUBJECTS (Phone: 817/565-3940).
APPENDIX B
DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE
108
109
SUBJECT t:
1. Age:
2. Sex: (1) Male (2) Female
3. Marital/Relationship Status: (1) Single (2) Committed Relationship (living with partner
at least 3 months, but not legally married) (3) Married (How long? ) (4) Separated (5) Divorced (6) Widowed
4. Number of Children:
5. How many years of formal education have you completed? (Circle)
U M H 7 8 9 10 H 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Grade School High School College Graduate School
6. Height: inches
7. Do you consider yourself too short? (1) Yes (2) No
If yes, how much? inches
8. Do you consider yourself too tall? (1) Yes (2) No
If yes, how much? inches
9. Height: pounds
10. Have you lost or gained weight within the last month? "(1) Yes (2) No
If yes, how much? pounds
11. Would you like to lose weight? (1) Yes (2) No
If yes, how much? pounds
12. Would you like to gain weight? (1) Yes (2) No
If yes, how much? pounds
110
13. Do you smoke? (1) More than one pack of cigarettes per day (2) Regularly, but less that one pack per day (3) Occasionally (4) Never
14. How would you rate your health compared to other people your age?
(1) Excellent (2) Good (3) Pair (4) Poor
15. How often do you exercise? (1) 1-2 times per week (2) 3-5 times per week (3) Everyday (4) Once every two weeks (5) Once a month (6) Less than once a month
Briefly describe exercise activities:
16. Are you a member of any club(s) or organization(s)? (1) Yes (2) No
If yes, which ones?
APPENDIX C
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