3 Understanding Human Development Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Objective Distinguish between.

3Understanding

Human Development

Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.

© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

Objective

• Distinguish between growth and development.

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Understanding Human Development• Growth refers to physical changes• Stages of development are similar for

almost everyone



For Discussion

• What is the difference between growth and development?

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Objective

• Identify the main types of human development.

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Physical Development

• Physical development includes– gross-motor skills, such as walking and

throwing– fine-motor skills, such as picking up objects

and eating with a spoon



Cognitive Development

• Cognition involves– knowing– memorizing– sensing– organizing

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continued



Cognitive Development

• Cognitive development is also called intellectual development

• Cognitive skills increase gradually over time

• Connections between brain nerve cells is key to cognitive development

• Brain connections strengthen with experiences starting in infancy



Social-Emotional Development• Social-emotional development includes

– relationships– feelings– social skills– self-confidence and self-esteem– self-control

continued



Social-Emotional Development

• Challenges increase as development progresses

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Objective

• Develop examples that illustrate principles of development.




Principles of Human Development• Development is relatively orderly• Developing is a gradual, continual

process• Development is interrelated• Development varies among individuals



Development Is Relatively Orderly• Development occurs in a sequence of

steps• Predictable steps consistently follow

one after another• Teachers use this knowledge to design

appropriate learning strategies for their students’ age



For Discussion

• Give examples of how development occurs in predictable steps.




Development Is a Gradual, Continuous Process

• Developmental changes happen gradually

• They become apparent over time

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Development Is Interrelated• Acquiring new skills requires gains in

several areas– Physical development– Cognitive development– Social development– Emotional development



For Reflection

• As a teen, in what ways have you developed physically? cognitively? socially? emotionally?

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Development Varies Among Individuals• Many factors affect development• Each person’s progress is unique

– Different rates– Slightly different time schedules



Objectives• Define a developmental theory.• Apply developmental theories to

real-life situations.© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock



Theories of Development

• Researchers formulate developmental theories by– analyzing behavior and development– observing people– performing experiments– considering earlier research studies

continued



Theories of Development

• Developmental theories help teachers– understand what students are capable of

and why– get a broader picture than limited

experiences and observations provide

• Many developmental theories exist



Heredity Versus Environment• Nature (heredity)

versus nurture (environment)

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continued



Heredity Versus Environment• Both influence development• Researchers question how large a part

each plays in development• Genes affect

– biological factors– intellectual potential– environment a person seeks out

continued



Heredity Versus Environment

• Behaviors involve multiple genes affected by a variety of environmental factors

• No single gene determines behavior

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continued



Heredity Versus Environment• Environmental factors include

– family—often the greatest effect on development• Parenting techniques• Stimulating home environment

– peers—influence increases in later childhood and adolescence• Offer equal status, unlike adult-child

relationships

continued




– community—where a person lives can affect behavior and career expectations• Relationship with feelings of self-worth• Some offer more cultural opportunities

– media—often blamed for social problems• Also depends on how a person interprets the

message• Effects may not be immediately apparent

continued




– health—some diseases and illnesses interrupt normal development• Availability of health care is also a factor

– nutrition and physical activity—can affect physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development



For Reflection

• Which do you think has influenced your development more, heredity or environment?




Behaviorist Theories

• Behaviorism: behavior determined by forces in the environment beyond individuals’ control

• People’s thoughts, feeling, and actions depend on experience rather than genetics or free will

• Infants are “blank screens”



Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning• Classical conditioning—behaviors are

associated with responses– Pavlov rang bell when feeding dog– Eventually when Pavlov rang bell, dog

salivated even if no food was given

• Classical conditioning may occur without training



Skinner’s Operant Conditioning• Operant conditioning—people repeat

behaviors that have positive results• Reinforcement should be removed

gradually in unpredictable patterns• Negative reinforcement (punishment)

reduces unwanted behaviors



Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

• People of all ages observe and imitate others’ behavior

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continued



Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory• Reactions to rewards and punishments

are filtered by perceptions, thoughts, and motivation

• Each person’s response is based on personal reactions and the way the individual processes information



Piaget’s Cognitive Theory

• Four stages of cognitive development• At each stage, individuals incorporate

what they learn into skills developed in previous stages

• Children base their thinking on what they learn through their senses

continued



Piaget’s Cognitive Theory

Age Stage DescriptionInfancy(Birth to age 2)

Sensorimotor Learn through senses

Toddler(Ages 2 to 7)

Preoperational Communicate through language

Early childhood (Ages 7 to 11)

Concrete operational

Think logically, solve problems

Adolescence and adulthood (Age 12 and up)

Formal operational Think logically and abstractly, make predictions



Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory• Children are social beings• Develop through interactions with

parents, teachers, other students• Social interaction is critical to

cognitive development



Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory• Eight stages• At each stage, people face and must

successfully resolve a psychological or social conflict

• Unsuccessful resolution affects future stages of development

continued



Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Stage/Age Task

Infancy Trust versus mistrust

Toddler Autonomy versus shame and doubt

Early childhood Initiative versus guilt

Middle childhood Industry versus inferiority

Adolescence Identity versus role confusion

Young adulthood Intimacy versus isolation

Middle adulthood Generativity versus self-absorption

Older adulthood Integrity versus despair



For Reflection

• Which of Erikson’s stages have you already successfully completed? How do you know?




Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

• Everyone follows the same progression

• Not everyone attains the highest level

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continued



Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development• Preconventional morality—depends on

whether behavior will be punished or rewarded

• Conventional morality—motivated by society’s laws and rules

• Postconventional morality—decisions based on principles and motivated by integrity

continued



Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development• Kohlberg observed only men and boys,

no females• Researchers such as Carol Gilligan

believe women use ideas such as caring as a factor in making moral decisions



Objective

• Analyze how developmental theories impact teaching.




Which Theory Is Correct?

• Each theory is valid to some extent• Some theories may be more sound than

others• Conflict between theories leads to more

valid insights• Teachers can benefit from

understanding several approaches and applying them in the classroom



For Discussion

• Which theory discussed do you think would be most valuable to you as a teacher? Why?




Key Points• Principles of development help in

understanding how people change throughout life

• Researchers form developmental theories based on their observations and experiments

• Teachers use these theories to help promote their students’ development



Review• ____-____ skills depend on the

development of small muscles.Fine-motor• Name four basic principles of human

development.Development is relatively orderly; is a

gradual, continual process; is interrelated; varies among individuals

continued



Review• Which behaviorist developed a theory of

operant conditioning?B.F. Skinner• What are the four stages of Piaget’s

cognitive theory?sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete

operational, formal operational

3 Understanding Human Development Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Objective Distinguish between.

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