Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area 3-1 3. REVIEW OF WORK ON GEOLOGY AND LAND INSTABILITY CONCERNING THE STUDY AREA 3.1 INTRODUCTION Documentation and investigation of landslides in the Wollongong area has been dated back to 7 January 1879 (Illawarra Mercury, see Appendix 2), and 27 May 1889 (Shellshear 1890). The area was, no doubt, experiencing natural land instability for many thousands of years prior to 1879. However, it is only since the late 1800’s that geological and other investigation has been undertaken consequent to colonial settlement of the area and the development of roads and rail communication with Sydney. The aim of this chapter is to present a background of the study area including its geomorphology, climate, geology and recent work on land instability. 3.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND CLIMATE The district comprises four Terrain Patterns following the Pattern-Unit-Component- Evaluation (PUCE) terrain analysis system (Finlayson, 1984). These four terrain patterns are; the highland Hawkesbury Sandstone plateau areas to the west of the escarpment, the near vertical sandstone cliff lines and their lower slopes which together comprise the escarpment, the coastal plain, and the generally north flowing drainage channels of the Hacking River in the northern section of the study area. The highland plateau to the west of the escarpment is the eastern margin of the Woronora Plateau (Herbert and Helby, 1980). The plateau area typically comprises gently undulating slopes, locally underlain primarily by the Hawkesbury Sandstone, variably incised (sometimes deeply) by drainage channels. The elevation of the plateau areas and hence the top of the escarpment ranges from approximately 50m near Garie Beach in the north to around 450m near the top of Macquarie Pass in the south. The escarpment generally comprises an upper vertical cliff line up to 50m in height, below which very steep slopes develop into terraced and faceted slopes which end on the coastal plain which is bounded by the ocean. The lower slopes of the escarpment have been variably incised by drainage lines such that they now comprise a series of spurs and valleys trending near perpendicular to the escarpment. The slopes of the escarpment below the cliff lines are almost completely covered by temperate climate slope debris deposits of colluvium of variable depth often reaching 10m deep.
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Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-1
3. REVIEW OF WORK ON GEOLOGY AND LAND INSTABILITY
CONCERNING THE STUDY AREA
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Documentation and investigation of landslides in the Wollongong area has been dated
back to 7 January 1879 (Illawarra Mercury, see Appendix 2), and 27 May 1889
(Shellshear 1890). The area was, no doubt, experiencing natural land instability for
many thousands of years prior to 1879. However, it is only since the late 1800’s that
geological and other investigation has been undertaken consequent to colonial
settlement of the area and the development of roads and rail communication with
Sydney. The aim of this chapter is to present a background of the study area including
its geomorphology, climate, geology and recent work on land instability.
3.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND CLIMATE
The district comprises four Terrain Patterns following the Pattern-Unit-Component-
Evaluation (PUCE) terrain analysis system (Finlayson, 1984). These four terrain
patterns are; the highland Hawkesbury Sandstone plateau areas to the west of the
escarpment, the near vertical sandstone cliff lines and their lower slopes which together
comprise the escarpment, the coastal plain, and the generally north flowing drainage
channels of the Hacking River in the northern section of the study area.
The highland plateau to the west of the escarpment is the eastern margin of the
Woronora Plateau (Herbert and Helby, 1980). The plateau area typically comprises
gently undulating slopes, locally underlain primarily by the Hawkesbury Sandstone,
variably incised (sometimes deeply) by drainage channels. The elevation of the plateau
areas and hence the top of the escarpment ranges from approximately 50m near Garie
Beach in the north to around 450m near the top of Macquarie Pass in the south.
The escarpment generally comprises an upper vertical cliff line up to 50m in
height, below which very steep slopes develop into terraced and faceted slopes which
end on the coastal plain which is bounded by the ocean. The lower slopes of the
escarpment have been variably incised by drainage lines such that they now comprise a
series of spurs and valleys trending near perpendicular to the escarpment. The slopes of
the escarpment below the cliff lines are almost completely covered by temperate climate
slope debris deposits of colluvium of variable depth often reaching 10m deep.
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-2
Exposures of bedrock are very limited due to the colluvium and forest cover. The
geological processes which characterise the downslope movement of these slope debris
deposits, or colluvium, are many and may be broadly referred to as land instability.
These processes associated with erosion and transportation of debris which in turn lead
to the development of the colluvial slopes probably date back to the early Quaternary
period (1.65 million years ago), and possibly even to the Tertiary period (starting 66.5
million years ago).
The coastal plain extends south from Coledale and Austinmer including
Wollongong and Lake Illawarra to Kiama. The coastal plain is widest at Macquarie
Pass, where it is 16km across. Here, the flow of the Macquarie River has exploited
relative weaknesses within the geological sequence and accelerated scarp retreat has
occurred.
Wollongong experiences a cool temperate climate with an annual average
rainfall of approximately 1200mm at the level of the coastal plain. The orographic effect
of the escarpment on rainfall is quite pronounced, as shown in Figure 3.1. The annual
rainfall is closer to 1600mm on the higher ground immediately to the west of the
escarpment south of Bulli, and approximately 1500mm on the intermediate to upper
Rainfall represents an important natural hazard affecting the Wollongong City
Council (WCC) area. Whilst the average annual rainfall is approximately 1200mm,
there are many intense rainstorms. In one instance, at Wongawilli, a rainfall of 803mm
was recorded over 48 hours to 9.00am on 18th February 1984 (Shepherd and
Colquhoun, 1985) These extreme rainfall events often trigger landslides and other types
of slope instability particularly if antecedent rainfall is significant (see section 3.11).
Mount Kiera Scout Camp in 1950 recorded an annual rainfall of approximately
3000mm. Young’s 1976 map of maximum annual rainfall, Figure 3.1 (a) shows a peak
of 3500mm around Helensburgh.
With such high levels of rainfall the flooding and associated scouring of local
watercourses is another hazard affecting the WCC area. Scouring and slumping of
adjacent land along the creek banks is a common problem. In most cases the instability
of banks is only localised. However, long-term effects can be significant. Instances of
instability of this type have been included in the land instability mapping phase of this
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-3
Figure 3.1. Rainfall contours for the Illawarra; (a) Maximum annual rainfall, period unknown (Young1976), (b) Annual average rainfall 1931-1960 (Young 1976), (c) Average annual rainfall Bureau ofMeteorology records (Ghobadi 1994)
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-4
project.
The natural vegetation on the escarpment comprises Eucalypt forest and
rainforest.
3.3 A BRIEF HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN THE
ILLAWARRA
The geology of the Sydney Basin, and in particular the northern Illawarra, has been
researched and documented in considerable detail. Volumes have been written
regarding the tectonic setting, structural geology and stratigraphy of the area. Coal was
first reported in the Illawarra by survivors of the grounding of the boat named the
Sydney Cove, on the south coast of New South Wales in 1797. The survivors made a
fire with loose coal found on the beach at Clifton.
James Dwight Dana, of the U.S. Exploring Expedition from 1838-1842, and the
Reverend W. B. Clarke conducted geological mapping and compiled field rock
descriptions of the rock formations between the Hunter River Valley in the north and the
Shoalhaven River in the south (Viola and Margolis 1985). In the first recorded
geological map of the Illawarra (Figure 3.2), Dana distinguishes three major
sedimentary units which he and Clarke called the Sydney Sandstone Formation, the
Coal Formation, and the Wollongong Sandstone Formation. The rock formations were
correlated from the Illawarra, through Sydney and north to the Hunter River Valley
district. From careful examination of the fossils in the lower sandstone and coal
formations, Dana was able to show that these two lower formations were of Permian
age, with the upper Sydney Sandstone also of Permian age, or slightly younger. Whilst
he noted the area was not a region of active volcanoes, he did record the presence of
basalt layers between sandstone beds south of Wollongong, and noted the heat alteration
effects on the underlying sandstone and its irregular surface. From this he deduced the
basalts were flows, not intrusions. This work was a remarkable pioneering achievement,
given that the expedition was in New South Wales for only three months during the
period late November 1839 to February 1840, and Clarke stayed only eight months
longer.
The first coal mine in the Illawarra, at Mount Keira, opened in 1849. Thus began
a long association between geologists and the Illawarra area. Following several progress
reports, Harper (1915) wrote the report “Geology and Mineral Resources of the
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-5
Figure 3.2. Dana’s Geological Map of the District of the Illawarra dated 1848 (Viola and Margolis, 1985)Yellow represents the ‘Sydney Sandstone Formation’, Purple the ‘Coal Formation’, Red the ‘WollongongSandstone Formation’ and brown is ‘Basalt’.
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-6
Southern Coalfield” in which he described the structure and stratigraphy of the area,
including details of some of the coal seams. Hanlon (1938, 1952 and 1956) discussed
the geology of the southern coalfield and reviewed the stratigraphic nomenclature.
Hanlon identified and described many of the individual geological units and his
nomenclature is still used today.
Numerous other workers have contributed since the comprehensive works of
Hanlon. Bowman (1972 a and b, and 1974), presented several detailed discussions on
stratigraphy, stratigraphic nomenclature, structural geology, petrology and geological
maps at various scales, 1:6336, 1:25000 and 1:50000. Bowmans work remains the
definitive Wollongong geology. Some problems of scale and accuracy associated with
his mapping work are discussed in section 3.9. After Bowman, more workers have
added to the geological knowledge of the area (Adamson 1974, Herbert and Helby 1980,
Chestnut 1981, Sherwin and Holmes 1986, to name only a few).
3.4 REGIONAL AND STRUCTURAL SETTING
The study area is situated within the geological feature known as the Sydney Basin. The
Sydney Basin is the southern part of the larger Sydney-Gunnedah-Bowen Basin, a major
geologically defined, structurally controlled continental margin sedimentary basin, as
shown in Figure 3.3. The larger basin extends north from Bateman’s Bay, to central
coastal Queensland. The sedimentary sequences included within the Sydney Basin range
in age from Carboniferous to Triassic. In the southern areas of the Sydney Basin,
including the study area, Carboniferous age sediments are absent. Here the Permian to
Triassic age sedimentary sequences lie directly over the subsided Palaeozoic basement
which is comprised of Lachlan Fold Belt sequences. Cessation of deposition within the
basin probably occurred in the Late Jurassic, as remnants of Early Jurassic deposits have
been recorded where they collapsed into Jurassic volcanic breccia pipes, known as
diatremes (Herbert and Helby 1980).
In New South Wales, the Sydney-Bowen Basin is bounded to the south and west
by the Lachlan Fold Belt, to the northeast by the New England Fold Belt (Herbert and
Helby 1980). The east and southeastern extent was terminated at the outer edge of the
then Gondwanaland continental shelf (after Veevers et al., 1991). The structural
definition of the Sydney Basin evolved as deposition proceeded, with the final definitive
movements taking place in the Late Triassic. Veevers et al (1991) have shown that the
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-7
existing east coast of Australia developed approximately 84 million years ago with the
onset of sea floor spreading and the consequent opening of the Tasman Sea in the Late
Figure 3.3. Regional Structural Geology of the study area (Herbert and Helby, 1980). (a) Extent ofPermian sedimentation over eastern Australia; (b) Sydney-Gunnedah-Bowen Basin within New SouthWales; (c) Structural subdivisions within the Sydney Basin.
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-8
Cretaceous. The uplift and erosion of the Sydney Basin sequence is thought to have
commenced in relation to this Late Cretaceous event (Ghobadi 1994). Extensive
warping occurred in Tertiary time (Herbert and Helby 1980).
The sedimentary sequence was deposited in a relatively stable tectonic basinal
environment, hence the sequence is largely conformable and remains essentially
horizontal to the present day. However, clear field and regional evidence exists of some
synsedimentary structuring. In the field, locally, such evidence includes micro faulting
with variable sequence thickness on either side of the fault. Mapping at various scales,
including work undertaken by coal mining companies shows some large scale faulting,
with occasional throws up to 60m or so, which are laterally continuous up to several
kilometres or more, with diminishing throws indicated vertically by field mapping. In
addition regional mapping (ACIRL 1989) clearly demonstrates the presence of minor
folding. This structuring is the result of tectonic movement both during and after
deposition (Herbert and Helby 1980, Branagan et al 1988).
3.5 LOCAL GEOLOGY
The study area lies on the south eastern margin of the Sydney Basin, as shown in Figure
3.3. The geological bedrock sequence of the Illawarra district is essentially flat lying
with a low angle dip, generally less than five degrees, towards the northwest. This
gentle northwesterly dip, whilst superimposed by relatively minor syn-depositional and
post-depositional structuring (folding and faulting) is a result of the relative position of
the district on the southeastern flanks of the Sydney Basin. Normal faulting within the
Illawarra area is common, although the fault throws infrequently exceed 10 metres.
Only seven laterally extensive faults, mapped during coal extraction from the Bulli and
Wongawilli coal seams, have throws in excess of 20m, namely the Metropolitan Fault
1:100,000 Wollongong - Port Hacking Geological SeriesSheet 9029-9129 NSW Department Of Mineral Resources 1985
1:50,000 * Wollongong Geological SeriesSheet 9029-11& 9028-1&1V NSW Department of Mines 1974
1:25,000 *Geology & Natural Slope Stability in the City of
Greater Wollongong, in Records of the Geological Survey of New South Wales Volume 14, Part 2
1972
1:25,000 Maps of the Coal Seam Structures in the Southern
Coalfield of NSW Australian Coal Industry Research Laboratories Ltd
1989
1:6336Geology Sheets - City of Greater Wollongong.
Geological Survey of New South Wales, Plans 5250-5286, 5545 a thesis by H. Bowman
1972
Table 3.1. Commercially available Geology Maps showing the Wollongong Area.
* Maps based on Bowmans 1:6336 Mapping
With the exception of some of these latter larger scale maps, the previously
available geological mapping has been carried out and presented at such small scales as
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-25
to make it of limited use for specific, individual, geotechnical site investigations. In such
investigations it is not only essential to know the regional geological context, but it is
also of paramount importance to know which geological formations underlie the land in
question. Such knowledge prior to the commencement of site investigations allows
ready familiarisation with other local sites in similar geological settings, and a more
focused field investigation at the outset of site works than would otherwise be possible.
Therefore, accurate maps covering the whole study area are vitally important.
3.9 BOWMANS MAPPING
Bowmans 1:6336 mapping Geology and Land Instability of the City of Greater
Wollongong (1972a) has been the basis for a lot of subsequent geological mapping in
the Illawarra area. Together with his stratigraphic and structural descriptions (Bowman,
1972 and 1974), Bowmans work still remains the definitive Wollongong Geology.
While Bowmans mapping work was outstanding for the time, the use of poor quality
topographic and cadastral base maps (the best and most detailed available at the time),
have limited its life and practical application.
His mapping work was shown on 1:6336 Illawarra Planning Authority (IPA)
sheets whereby it was found that the contour information was inaccurate (Bowman
1972a, p. 161). At that time, the work proceeded on the basis of these maps since these
map sheets were the only ones available showing the required detail. The project was
intended as a regional survey such that the results of detailed site investigations may be
placed in their regional context.
Bowmans 1:6336 set of maps comprised one index sheet and two map series,
one geology and one of land instability zoning, each set comprising 17 maps. Each map
was approximately 1.2m by 0.9m in size. The quality of base detail available on the
maps was variable, ranging from some which had no contours and no cadastre, to others
with detailed cadastre and some contour information, as shown in Figures 3.5 and 3.6.
Few geology maps contained any cadastral detail, and only some of the land stability
zoning maps contained cadastral detail. In addition, the scale, at 1:6336 is difficult to
convert, via photocopying etc, to the current metric scales.
As noted above, the IPA sheets contained some inaccurate contour information.
This included imprecisely located contour lines, and topographic and road mismatches
of adjacent map sheets along boundaries of up to several centimetres. These problems
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-26
were understandable, and insurmountable at the time. However, such inaccuracies are
Figure 3.5 Portion of Bowmans original scale 1:6336 Geology maps. Scarborough Sheet. Only spatialreference is limited cadastre of main roads and the coastline.
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-27
Figure 3.6 Portion of Bowmans original scale 1:6336 Land Stability maps. Scarborough Sheet. The top ofthe escarpment crosses the upper left side of this segment, and Buttenshaw Drive diagonally crosses thepage.
unacceptable and unjustified today. Transferring Bowmans geology onto the more
recent Central Mapping Authority 1:4000 scale maps, as is shown on Figure 3.7, clearly
highlights these problems. While this technique is possible, and is an often repeated
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-28
process in many organisations, there is no guarantee of achieving sufficient precision.
The resulting ‘maps’ require considerable interpretation and often the conclusions
drawn can be misleading. For example, in this relatively simple sedimentary basin
sequence where the bedrock is essentially flat lying, it is expected that bedrock outcrops
and/or subcrops approximately follow the contour form. However, the maps shown in
Figure 3.7 suggest that the bedrock dips steeply across some valleys and spurs. The
basic problem is that ground contours have been incorrectly positioned on the original
IPA sheets. The result shows the maps produced by Bowman are, in places, quite
inaccurate. Bowman (1972a) recognised this during his own field work, and even stated
so in his text.
In 1972, Bowman published his mapping (geology and land instability) at a scale
of 1:25000, and then in 1974, the New South Wales Geological Survey (for whom
Bowman worked), published three 1:50000 sheets including the Wollongong sheet.
3.10 PREVIOUS LAND INSTABILITY WORK OF NOTE IN THE WCC
AREA
3.10.1 New South Wales Government Department of Mines
3.10.1.1 A report by Harper (1935)
Mr. L. F. Harper was one of the NSW government geologists over the period including
1910 to 1935. He was involved in the geological survey of the southern coal field, and
during that time published several papers regarding geology in the annual reports of the
department. In 1935 he reported briefly to the department on slope instability and land
movements towards the coast at Stanwell Park and Thirroul. This report was of a
general nature, was not published and did not contain any maps.
3.10.1.2 Some reports by Hanlon (1942 and 1958)
Hanlon followed in Harpers footsteps becoming one of the government geologists, at
intervals, over the period 1938 to 1958, and was similarly involved in the geological
survey of the southern coal field. Hanlon also published numerous geological accounts
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-29
Figure 3.7 Portion of Bowmans Geology maps enlarged and superimposed onto a 1:4000 scaleorthophotograph map of the Balgownie area. A clear lack of correlation between the geology and contourlines is visible.
of the area, which still remain essential reading for any geologist working in the area.
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-30
Maps showing areas of slope instability in the Wollongong district appeared in 1942
when Hanlon first prepared plans of the area from Stanwell Park to Coledale. These
maps indicated zones of instability affecting the railway and the main road. In 1958,
Hanlon gave a presidential address on Geology and Transport with special reference to
Landslides on the Near South Coast of New South Wales. This report set a new high
standard locally for specifically documenting land instability. The report identified
specific sites, discussed some in detail, and included photographs of several problem
areas, including Lawrence Hargrave Drive just north of the Clifton Hotel (an area
known as Clifton Hill).
3.10.1.3 Some reports by Adamson (1960 and 1962)
At the request of the Town Clerk of the City of Greater Wollongong, the Geological
Survey of New South Wales carried out an investigation of a landslide located at the
southern intersection of Seafoam Avenue and Phillip Street, Thirroul. Following these
investigations, Adamson prepared two reports summarising the findings of the
Geological Survey (Adamson, 1960 and 1962). The landslide was active in 1950 and
1951, during the years 1959 to 1964, and again during the wet years between 1988 and
1990. The landslide has destroyed 5 houses and damaged a further 6 houses, including
the grounds and some buildings within Thirroul Public School. Adamson (1962)
prepared a detailed site plan of the landslide, clearly identifying areas of ground
disturbance and damage caused by the landslide. The locality diagram from his site plan
is shown as Figure 3.8. Bowman (1972), discussed below, carried out some
investigations into this landslide. In 1997, the site remains dormant and sterilised for
development, and no remedial works have been designed or installed. Plate 3.1 is an
oblique aerial view of the site.
3.10.1.4 A report by Chesnut and Crawford (1971)
Concerns associated with a proposed 2000 acre development of the Camp Creek -
Lilyvale area east of Helensburgh initiated this report on the slope stability within the
Otford Valley. This report was of a general nature and although several geological
hazards were noted, “...no real problems of land stability...” were identified or
anticipated.
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-31
Figure 3.8. Locality diagram of the Seafoam Avenue/Thirroul Public School Landslide, Adamson 1962.
Plate 3.1. December 1997 vertical aerial view of the Seafoam Avenue and Thirroul Public schoollandslide. The vacant lots which used to be occupied by houses that were destroyed by the landslide are
clearly visible.
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-32
3.10.1.5 Report by Bowman (1972) and his maps of geology and land instability
As noted previously, Bowman (1972), prepared 16 land instability sheets at a scale of
1:6336 to accompany his geology sheets. Bowmans land instability maps distinguished
six stability zones, summarised in Table 3.2. The tabulated description of each zone
presented by Bowman, and shown here as Table 3.2, does differ slightly from the zones
description within his papers (Bowman, March 1972 and December 1972). Bowmans
zoning considered the following factors and a little associated data;
• the natural strength of rocks,
• geological subcrop location,
• air photograph interpretation,
• slopes that are likely to fail because of topographic location, and
• ground slope
Bowmans work was commissioned by the Wollongong City Council to assist
with town planning. The council adopted Bowmans work and started using his land
stability maps as a guide for assessing slope stability aspects of development
applications.
Zone DescriptionStable land No landslip problems
Stable land with areas of minor slope instability
Normally moderately level land which is underlain by soil which is unstable in unsuitable topographic positions
Less stable Most of the land may be safely utilised although some areas are unsuitable. Generally more topographically elevated than land in the categories above
Moderately unstable Thorough investigation required before development. Generally topographically high - relief land underlain by potentially unstable material
Topographically unstable Topographically unstable for development owing to steep slope and/or topographic position and nature of soil
Essentially unstable Essentially unstable land. Best left undeveloped. Some areas may be developed after detailed site evaluation (includes known slip areas)
Table 3.2. Bowmans Stability of Natural Slopes in the Wollongong area.
The zone described as “essentially unstable” included known ‘slump’ areas. No
other guidelines or details were provided regarding the source of information which
contributed to the classification of an area as “essentially unstable”.
Several case study investigations were reported, notably the Thirroul Public
school, Cope Place, Bulli and a site on the slopes of Mount Nebo. The landslide which
affected the Thirroul Public has been discussed above (Adamson 1960 and 1962).
Bowman examined the relationship between rainfall and landslide movement at
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-33
Thirroul Public School during the 20 year period from 1950 to 1970. Bowman
concluded that rainfalls exceeding 430mm in 1 month invariably caused landslide
movement. This interesting area of research is discussed in more detail in section 3.11,
and Chapter 8.
Pitsis (1992) noted the presence of numerous large scale areas of instability
within the zone identified by Bowman as “Less stable” in the Stanwell Park to Clifton
areas (sheets E12 and F12 herein). Bowman describes this zone “less stable, most of the
land may be safely utilised, although some areas are unsuitable”. Moreover, Bowmans
zone “Less stable land” and even his zone “Stable land” overlap large areas of known
instability on the geologically controlled terraces between Austinmer and Clifton. These
observations during recent studies highlight some significant errors in Bowmans work.
The technique of zoning he used is not clear and may have contributed to the errors as
much as limitations to careful, detailed observation and invalid interpretation of field
evidence.
Contour maps in use at that time were inadequate for the task. In addition, with
the benefit of 25 years of hindsight, one can comment that the significance of the
geotechnical setting of Wombarra and Stanwell Park Claystones terraces was not
appreciated by Bowman. Certainly, he did not have the experience of the wet years of
1974, 1975, 1981 and of the 1988-1990 wet period and therefore, the experience of
observing the landslides which occurred during these wet years.
3.10.2 Research work of Young (1976)
Young (1976) differentiated two groups of slope debris deposits which she collectively
called ‘taluvium’, noting their composition is transitional between coarse rocky talus
and fine colluvium. The two groups distinguished were defined as;
• Type M, bouldery, strongly mottled relict deposits mantling the lower spurs
of the escarpment, and
• Type U, less mottled and presently forming masses on the benches higher up
the escarpment.
Young considered two properties of the deposits, clay content and plasticity
indices and concluded these did not differ significantly between the two groups. In both
groups, these parameters and the angle of natural slopes suggested that the taluvium is
unstable in the long term at gradients above 10° -12°. With an increase in annual rainfall
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-34
on the upper escarpment slopes, combined with a rise to the south of the unstable strata,
Young concluded that instability is more likely on the higher steeper slopes of the
escarpment.
Young (1976) considered how the colluvium deposits may have been formed
and suggested that these deposits were developed during much wetter climates in the
geological past.
With three case studies, Young demonstrated the close relationship between
marginal natural stability in the mid escarpment slopes and urban development. An
extensive stereographic aerial photograph interpretation was also conducted whereby
154 sites were identified on photographs taken in 1951, 1963, 1966 and 1974. Some
sites were identified repeatedly on consecutive photographs. Young initially marked the
sites (general location only) on 1957 (variously amended during the 1960’s) Illawarra
Planning Authority cadastral-topographic base maps (pers com, Young 1996),
reproduced at a scale of approximately 12 chains to the inch. In Young’s thesis, the sites
were marked by numbers only, according to a tabulated site list on a small scale sketch
map. The tabulated site list included the air photograph reference and brief description.
The sites were not all field checked, and hence it is not possible to conclude that all the
areas of ground disturbance identified by Young, were the result of land instability.
3.10.3 Golder Associates 1983 unpublished report for the Wollongong City
Council
Golder Associates (1983), prepared a report for the WCC entitled “Guide to suspect
Landslip Areas, Stanwell Park to Dapto”. In this report, different areas were marked
with the following descriptions;
• recorded past or recent landslip areas,
• suspect past or potential future landslip,
• no apparent past movement and no likelihood of future movement.
Twenty three 1:8000 WCC building allotment plans were marked up
accordingly. The maps were prepared from Golder’s in-house records, a list of councils
problem areas, and a street by street inspection by Golder Associates geotechnical
engineer, Mr. R. Amaral.
The copy of the maps reviewed by the writer were reduced to a scale of
approximately 1:11000, a scale which makes the transfer of information from one map
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
3-35
to another quite difficult. The quality of the cadastral base maps was excellent.
However, the work was conducted in early 1983, so the cadastre is now 14 years old,
and in parts has changed considerably. In addition, there are no contours and no geology
is marked. None the less, the slips are clearly marked, and the maps are very useful.
These maps proved to be a significant improvement over previous land instability
mapping in the area. The marked land slip areas were incorporated into the WCC’s
internal hazard maps. Many of the slips identified in Golders work have been included
in the Geotechnical Landscape maps and land instability database produced during this
research project.
A consistent problem with all the land instability mapping work that has been
completed so far, is the lack of detail provided about each recorded case of land
instability. As Golder’s provided perhaps the most extensive coverage of land instability
up to that time, this lack of reference detail regarding each slip site became most
apparent. The first attempt to rectify this in specific localities came with Pitsis’ 1992
work (see section 3.10.5).
3.10.4 Coffey Partners International 1985 report for the WCC
Coffey Partners International (CPI) in 1985, completed a geotechnical report concerning
the Coledale area on behalf of the WCC. The main results of this study were presented
on two plans at a scale of 1:4000. Sheet 1 shows areas of known or inferred instability,
major topographic features and underlying geology while Sheet 2 shows a land
instability zoning of the area.
The geological mapping undertaken by CPI was based on Bowmans work,
although it was found that unacceptable inaccuracies existed (CPI 1985, page 5) when
enlarging and overlaying Bowmans maps onto the 1:4000 base maps. A revised geology
was shown, incorporating the use of sharp slope breaks as indicated by contours that
were assumed to mark the top of the Scarborough and Coalcliff sandstones, mine adits
assumed to lie on the outcrop of the Bulli seam, and assuming uniform horizontal
bedding and interval thicknesses.
The land instability mapping undertaken by CPI was based on;
• aerial photograph interpretation (1966, 1977 and 1985 photography),
• areas of known or inferred instability, and
• a limited walk-over survey in April 1985.
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Most of the areas of instability identified during the CPI study have been
included in the Geotechnical Landscape maps and land instability database prepared as
part of this research project.
This CPI report distinguished five principal zones with several subgroups, as
summarised in Table 3.3. The zoning scheme also outlined the likely forms of instability
expected within each zone, the suitability of the zone for residential development and
recommendations for development constraints. The zones were delineated on the basis
of ground slope, underlying geology, slope form and potential for instability.
Whilst this work was adopted by council in their town planning department, the
zoning as presented has not been directly applied by the WCC. However, some of the
slip areas identified have been added to the WCC’s internal landslip hazards maps.
Zone Stability Conditions
Zone I essentially stable (none found within study area). Detailed investigation of land within other zones may enable them to be reclassified as zone 1
Zone II most of the area has been apparently stable recently, but is potentially unstable Some areas identified on aerial photographs show some signs of recent instability
Zone III Potentially unstable bench area. Adjacent parts already affected by instability. This shows that a high potential exists for similar instability to develop
Zone IIIu Existing instability, bench area. Areas already affected by instability in historical past or as interpreted from aerial photographs
Zone IVa Potential instability - slopes mostly steeper than about 25º, forms a steeper slope area between adjacent bench area. Located on Scarborough Sandstone
Zone IVbPotential instability - slopes mostly steeper than about 25º, forms a steeper slope area
between the bench area above the flatter slopes below Located on or below the Coalcliff Sandstone
Zone V Potential instability - steep talus slopes. Located beneath the Hawkesbury sandstone cliff line on steep active slopes.
Zone VaPotential instability - bench area. Located on Stanwell Park Claystone and it has been
apparently stable recently, but may be affected by large scale instability from above and possible instability associated with the Scarborough Sandstone below
Table 3.3. Description of five principal zones of land instability in the Coledale study, Coffey PartnersInternational (1985).
3.10.5 Paper by Hutton, Ferguson and Jones, (1990)
This paper briefly describes several types of landslip that have been prominent during
the few years prior to 1990 and especially movement associated with the heavy rains
experienced by the Illawarra in late April, 1988. The paper reports on the cliff areas to
the north of Clifton that are traversed by Lawrence Hargrave Drive, and several areas on
Bulli Pass. The paper also provides a cursory discussion as to the causes of each of the
different types of landslip. Three types of mass movement are reported to be common;
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a) rock falls, b) mud flows and, c) earth flows (slumping).
A rock fall in 1987 is discussed where an estimated 400 to 500 tonnes of rock
broke away from the cliff face after heavy rains. The rock fall blocked the road for
several days. The rock fall developed in the Scarborough Sandstone, immediately above
the Wombarra Claystone, which is weathering more rapidly.
The locations and salient features of numerous mud flows and slumps near Bulli
Pass and Lawrence Hargrave Drive, Clifton, are discussed. However, no individual site
plans were included in the report and the information is mostly of a general nature.
3.10.6 Research work of Pitsis, (1992)
In 1992, whilst employed by the State Railway Authority (SRA) Geotechnical Services
as their Senior Geotechnical Engineer, Pitsis submitted his Master of Engineering
Science thesis to the University of New South Wales. His work included;
• detailed 1:4000 scale field-based mapping of both geology and land
instability within the Stanwell Park to Clifton area (two 1:4000 scale CMA
map sheets, E12 and F12 of the WCC Index),
• summary 1:25000 scale mapping of geology, with known and possible areas
of land instability in the Stanwell Park to Wollongong area,
• a cross-referenced tabulated summary of the 53 landslides mapped on the
1:4000 scale sheets, and a brief summary of the other 111 known sites
included on the 1:25000 map sheet. In total, Pitsis identified 164 sites,
• limited discussion of case studies of seven prominent railway landslides with
some engineering details. Pitsis presented some detailed information gathered
during extensive RSA geotechnical investigations, and, in some cases, during
the installation of extensive subsurface remedial works.
Pitsis’s work set a new high standard in Australia for documentation of land
instability. His mapping, and cross referencing of each mapped site of land instability
with a tabulated text-based summary is an important step toward gaining a wider and
better understanding of land instability within the region. Hence, Pitsis’s work was
adopted as part of the basis for the mapping component of this research project. In
particular, his site numbering was adopted, and although extended as discussed in
chapter 5, this present research project accepts Pitsis’s work without reservation.
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3.10.7 Research work of Ghobadi (1996)
Ghobadi worked on the geological engineering factors influencing the stability of slopes
and cliff lines in the northern Illawarra region, and included a literature review of
general problems of, and strategies for assessing slope stability. His field study area
encompassed the area between Coledale and Stanwell Park, although his work was
concentrated within the rugged coastal cliffs traversed by Lawrence Hargrave Drive
between Clifton in the south and the Coalcliff terrace in the north.
Ghobadi mapped several landslide sites and relied on some existing borehole
data and existing geology maps. The sites mapped include; the Clifton Earth Slump, the
Moronga Park Earth Slump, the Southern Amphitheatre Complex Landslide, the
Northern Amphitheatre Complex Landslide, the Jetty Rock Slump, the Harbour Slump
and the Coalcliff Slump. He carried out numerous index property tests on rocks and
seventy five direct shear tests on colluvium samples obtained from fifteen locations
within five landslide sites between Clifton and Stanwell Park.
3.10.8 Other local geotechnical investigations
There are nine geotechnical engineering firms (most of them are branch offices of
Sydney based firms) advertising in the 1996 Wollongong Yellow Pages telephone
directory and a lot of geotechnical engineering work is being done locally. A significant
proportion of this work does include the assessment and treatment of land instability. A
limited amount of this information has been made available to the author during the
course of this project by Longmac Associates, Coffey Partners International, Golder
Associates and individuals who commissioned various investigations. However, many
of the reports remain beyond the reach of the public domain for reasons which include
client confidentiality and the commercial interests of the private companies and
The Rail Services Authority (RSA) has recently been established from part of a
previous organisation, known at the State Rail Authority (SRA). A business unit of this
authority, known as the Railway Geotechnical Services, formerly known as simply
Geotechnical Services has undertaken several noteworthy geotechnical land instability
investigations within the subject area over the years. These investigations specifically
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
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concern land instability problems associated with the passage of the dual electric South
Coast Railway Line (SCR) easement through the Hacking River Valley and escarpment
slopes. The stability problems they have encountered include natural instability,
instability induced by placing fill, embankment construction, excavation, and some
possible mine subsidence induced problems.
Plate 3.2. April 1997 view to the southeast over the reconstructed Coledale railway embankment.
Two lives were lost in 1988 during an active advancing composite extremely
rapid very wet debris flow, along Rawson Street, which originated in the railway
embankment adjacent to Coledale Railway Station. In addition to the two fatalities, one
house was destroyed and one track of the dual line was closed for an extended period,
restricting traffic flow on the line. The debris flow occurred during an intense rainfall
period, during which flooding occurred on the upslope side of the line due to a blocked
culvert. Following this disaster, tens of millions of dollars have been spent by the Rail
Access Corporation on geotechnical investigations, upgrading of the track and remedial
works along the railway easement. Whilst such works were proceeding on a lower scale
before the disaster, additional funds become available following the event for an
increased and accelerated effort to reduce the hazard and risk associated with slope
instability. An April 1997 aerial view of the Coledale Station and reconstructed
embankment with the adjoining residential area is shown in Plate 3.2. It is interesting to
compare this plate with Plate 2.2.
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The Railway Geotechnical Services has a database of past and present (active)
geotechnical problem sites relating to NSW railways, totalling, as of mid 1996, in
excess of 1000 sites (pers com Christie, 1997). Of these, 133 sites are situated within the
subject area. Of these 133 sites, 85 have been stabilised following geotechnical
investigations and installation of a range of remedial works. Whilst the Railway
Geotechnical Services has and is currently conducting many geotechnical investigations,
they have previously employed consultants to investigate and report on some specific
problem sites and areas within the Illawarra. One of these specific investigations is
discussed as a case study site in chapter 9. Reference is limited here to several
significant regional studies.
Smith (1964), an SRA drainage engineer, compiled a set of drainage works plans
(sketches) for the south coast line between Helensburgh and Thirroul, over the period
1950 to 1964. These plans provide an excellent historical record of land instability
which affected the line over this period. Smith documented some remedial works with
sketches in these plans.
Longmac Associates Ltd Pty (1989) prepared a report for the then State Rail
Authority titled Engineering Study - Stage 1, for the South Coast Railway, Helensburgh
to Thirroul stations. This study, presented in two volumes (Volume 1 - text, volume 2 -
plans) detailed 50 ‘problem’ sites. This information was assessed using a risk category
approach. This approach considered the site features, known history and referred to the
risk of an event affecting the track and/or public safety. It did not refer to the probability
of a certain landslip event actually occurring.
It is appropriate here to draw attention to an important historical note. Shellshear
(1890) discussed land instability which affected the original alignment of the SCR. The
location which Shellshear described at chainage 33 miles on the south side of Stanwell
Park, as shown on Figure 3.9, is now occupied by Lawrence Hargrave Drive. He also
described the remedial works that were carried out which comprised of manually
excavated trenches and drives backfilled with earthen ware pipes and hand packed
stone. This was an elaborate system for underground drainage and an inspired approach
at a time when the discipline of soil mechanics was unknown and the principle of
effective stress had not even been discovered. This site has not experienced significant
instability since that time.
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
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Figure 3.9. Shellshear (1890) discussed the treatment of slip land near the cliff edge on the Illawarrarailway line at chainage 33 miles (now approx. 53.8km) south of Sydney; a) Location plan showingposition of railway, road and subsurface drainage lines. Position of railway and road is now reversed, b)Cross sections of drainage trenches/drives 3 and 4.
3.10.10 RTA geotechnical investigations
The Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) is the State Government body which
administers the major arterial roads and highways within New South Wales. Within the
study area, the RTA is in charge of the F6 Freeway (which includes Mount Ousley
Road), the Princess Highway (which includes Bulli Pass), Lawrence Hargrave Drive,
and the Northern Distributor. Until approximately 1995, they also looked after Mount
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
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Kiera Road and Clive Bissell Drive. These two roads are now under the jurisdiction of
the WCC.
Of these roads, the F6 Freeway and in particular the Mount Ousley Road area,
and the Princess Highway and in particular the Bulli Pass area, and Lawrence Hargrave
Drive from Stanwell Park to Coledale have all experienced destructive land instability.
Over the last one hundred years, each road has been closed on numerous occasions for
periods of one to six months, to allow for reconstruction works after landslides
destroyed sections of the roads. As recently as Thursday 13th February 1997 at
approximately 12.30am, during heavy and prolonged rainfall, the Macquarie Pass road
(south of and outside the subject area), was affected by a debris slump as shown in Plate
3.3. This landslide affected the Wollongong lane in two places (the slide is located
adjacent to a hairpin bend), and the road was closed for several weeks for repair. The
remedial works cost $250,000 and included the construction of a 14m high retaining
wall using gabion baskets backfilled with coarse basalt gravel, as shown in Plate 3.4.
As with the RSA, the RTA (formerly the Department of Main Roads - DMR),
has a Geotechnical Services Group which amongst many other areas of work, conducts
geotechnical investigations on sites of land instability within the study area. These
works are conducted in liaison with the District Office situated in Bellambi. In addition
to their own investigations, the RTA also employs consultants to conduct investigations
of some sites. The Illawarra District Office has compiled a database of 52 sites within
their area of jurisdiction. Of these 52 sites, 40 are within the subject area considered
during this research project.
During 1988, a period of prolonged heavy rainfall, Lawrence Hargrave Drive
between Clifton and Coalcliff was closed due to damage from rock falls, debris flows
and other landslides. Aerial photographs of this section of Lawrence Hargrave Drive are
shown in Plates 3.5, 3.6 and 3.7. The rockfall hazard is clearly evident in Plate
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(a)
(b)
Plate 3.3. A debris slump near the top of Macquarie Pass occurred on Friday 14th February 1997, atapproximately 12.30am during heavy rainfall; (a) The rear main scarp and damage to the pavement ofMacquarie Pass, (b) The debris slump viewed from below.
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
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Plate 3.4. Remedial works comprised of a retaining wall constructed with gabion baskets to repair a debrisslump near the top of Macquarie Pass. The remedial works cost $250,000 and were completed inapproximately 3 weeks.
Plate 3.5. Vertical aerial view of Lawrence Hargrave Drive between Clifton and Coalcliff, the northernamphitheatre.
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Plate 3.6. Vertical aerial view of Lawrence Hargrave Drive between Clifton and Coalcliff, the centralamphitheatre. Note rock fall and debris flow paths.
Plate 3.7. Oblique aerial view to the northwest over Lawrence Hargrave Drive between Clifton andCoalcliff, the southern amphitheatre. Hanlon referred to this area as ‘Clifton Hill’.
Chapter 3: Review of work concerning the study area
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Plate 3.8. One of several dramatic landslides, a debris slump, which closed Lawrence Hargrave Drivebetween Clifton and Coalcliff in 1988 (Construction Australia 1988).
Plate 3.9. Slot drainage remedial works underway to repair a landslide on Lawrence Hargrave Drivebetween Clifton and Coalcliff, 1988 (Construction Australia 1988).
3.6. The road was closed at the end of April, and reopened in November. During this
time, the RTA spent five million dollars on stabilisation and road reconstruction, on
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approximately two kilometres of roadway. One of the quite dramatic debris slump
landslides is shown in Plate 3.8. A stage in the installation of one longitudinal trench or
slot drain is shown in Plates 3.9.
3.10.11 Wollongong City Council internal landslide hazard maps
The WCC has its own hazard maps as a series of map layers within their Geographic
Information System (GIS) computer package. These maps are confidential and strictly
for internal use within the WCC offices. Hence, the writer has little information
regarding these maps. These plans include and distinguish between numerous local
hazards such as known past land instability, potential land instability, landfill and areas
subject to flooding (pers. com. Peter Tobin, 1995).
Areas of recorded ‘landslip’ and ‘potential landslip’ are identified with shading
of different colours. However, the writer understands that not very much information
has been recorded by the WCC regarding the source of the identification of ‘landslip’ or
‘potential landslip’ areas, let alone specific technical and other information regarding
each ‘landslip’ site.
3.11 RAINFALL VERSUS OCCURRENCE OF LAND INSTABILITY
It is now well known that rainfall leads not only to saturation of soil but also to
elevation of pore water pressures which, in turn, decreases the effective strength at
different locations within a slope. It is also well known that prolonged periods of
rainfall, often in combination with short duration high intensity rainfall events are
common triggering events for land instability. Young (1976) summarised literature
which supports this contention across a wide variety of climates-humid tropics,
temperate regions, arid areas and high mountains. Locally, several authors have
estimated a relationship between rainfall and the onset of land instability, whilst some
have attempted to establish the relationship between rainfall events, and specific
magnitudes of antecedent rainfall and the onset of land instability. Some of the
conclusions are presented in the following section. This aspect of landslide research is
taken up in more detail, in Chapters 8 and 9 as part of this research project.
3.11.1 Bowmans work (1972)
In his documentation of ground movements at Thirroul Public School, Bowman
(1972a), plotted monthly rainfall totals with reported ground movements and damage
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over the period 1950 to 1970. In addition, he plotted rainfall against 24 reported
landslips within the City of Greater Wollongong, on an annual basis over the period
1948 to 1968. On the basis of these 24 reported landslips Bowman concluded that
catastrophic slides invariably occur after a rainfall of over 430mm in 1 month, and
slides often occur after monthly rainfall totals of 350mm. He added that slow slides and
movement of existing slides may occur with lesser amounts of cumulative rainfall. Of
the few slides that did not occur after periods of heavy rain, all could be related to
external disturbance of the site by engineering earthworks. Bowman attributed the lack
of landslides in some years of heavy falls, such as 1952, to incomplete records
concerning landslide occurrence.
3.11.2 Young’s work (1976)
Young noted the difficulty in compiling a complete register of Landslip in the
Wollongong area, due to the inaccessible or uninhabited condition of some sites, and
the reluctance of some residents to report damage as no compensation was available and
simply making the report would be expected to cause property devaluation. Hence
Young supplemented her records by examining all Illawarra Daily Mercury newspapers
for all the months during which rainfall exceeded 250mm. Young then used these
reports, in addition to WCC records and personal observations (including air photo
interpretation) to compile landslip numbers to compare with rainfall records. This work
of Young’s is included as Appendix 2, and has been extended by the writer to include
the period up to 1991.
Whilst noting the variation in rainfall station records, and the period of record,
Young selected two stations, Mount Kiera Scout Camp and Albion Park for her analysis
over the period 1890 to 1974. Young concluded that Bowmans 350mm critical
magnitude of monthly rainfall was probably too high and hence not conservative. She
estimated a critical value of 250mm rainfall per month as being likely to initiate
landslip.
In estimating this value, Young noted that it would be valid for a range of
socially acceptable levels of risk. Young showed that this 250mm rainfall per month
critical value had a 10% chance of occurring in 4 months of any year on the coastal plain
and in 8 months of any year on the escarpment. To present this information in context,
Young determined the maximum probable 24 hour rainfall in any year to be about 170
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mm on the escarpment. Furthermore, falls of 380mm per day and 550mm per day occur,
on average once every 50 years.
Young also noted the temporal and spatial variation in the balance between
precipitation and evaporation within the Illawarra. She demonstrated that heavy daily
and monthly falls are most common in summer, autumn and early Winter, with February
and June often being particularly wet. As evaporation is lower at higher elevations, there
is more water available for runoff and to enter into the groundwater on the upper slopes,
thus accentuating the instability of these upper slopes.
3.11.3 Longmac Associates Pty Ltd
In studying the relationship of rainfall with respect to landslide activity over the period
1988 to 1992, Longmac (1991, as reported by Pitsis, 1992) found a poor correlation
with one month antecedent totals. They concluded that a three monthly period
correlated better to current large scale landslides in their study area (Stanwell Park to
Coledale).
In the Longmac study, the maximum monthly and three monthly rainfall totals of
the Coledale and Woonona Stations (combined records cover the period 1930 - 1990)
were ranked on a year by year basis. In addition, this data was plotted against yearly
recurrence interval. The ranking placed years of major instability 1950, 1956, 1961
(Bowman 1972), 1974 (Young 1976) and 1988, 1989 and 1990 (Pitsis 1992) in the top
10 for the 3 monthly totals. This was not the case for the one monthly totals, although
some of these years were in the top 10. The magnitude of the top ten ranked 3 month
totals varied from 1171mm to 865mm, whereas the top ten ranked 1 month totals varied
from 708mm to 436mm.
In a geotechnical report for the WCC (Longmac, June 1991), regarding a
landslide at Morrison Avenue, Coledale, a threshold 3 monthly rainfall to trigger
instability between about 550mm and 650mm is quoted. This corresponds to a relatively
low return period of two to three years. In a geotechnical report for the State Rail
Authority of New South Wales regarding a landslide in Scarborough, Longmac
Associates (April 1991) reported that the landslide was triggered by a 1 month
antecedent rainfall total exceeding 350mm, and that movement of the landslide was
maintained by a 1 month antecedent rainfall total 230mm.
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3.11.4 Pitsis
Pitsis (1992) summarised the major periods of land instability, and noted the
concurrence of these periods of land instability and periods of extreme rainfall. Pitsis
noted that most documented mass slope failures appear to have occurred during high
intensity events of 400 - 500 millimetres over 24 hours, which have occurred within a
long duration rainfall period.
Pitsis suggested that erosional scouring and flooding rather than reactivation of
‘major land slip’ result from high intensity short duration rainfall events, such as the
June 1991 and February 1992 events. Based on observations over the period 1988 to
1992, he concludes that prolonged rainfall acts to ‘top up’ the phreatic water surface
until a critical threshold is reached and landsliding occurs. This contrasts with a high
intensity rainfall event during low rainfall periods where the water mostly runs off and
tends to cause flooding, and failure by scour rather than landsliding.