3 Quality assurance in feed-producing plants QUALITY ASSURANCE IN FEED-PRODUCING PLANTS 1. GENERAL CONCEPTS To assure consistent product quality and safety, feed producers must have standard protocols in place for self-regulation of all of the processes in their feed-producing plant (feed plant). This includes written procedures, maintenance of records, and peri- odic audits. Quality assurance protocols are not only important for the implementation of TSE control measures, but also for measures to control or prevent other diseases and feed-related animal health problems. In addition to self-regulation, most national or local governments have auditing or inspection regulations for feed plants, including a standard protocol for official sam- pling of feeds for testing. Audits should also follow standardized written protocols and adequate records should be kept. A basic concept is that all contaminants (non-desired products and substances, including prohibited or restricted products or substances) are excluded from all feed products at each processing step. In the context of TSE control, these contaminants and prohibited materials or products include some ingredients of animal origin and feeds or feed components containing these ingredients. The exact definition of what materi- als are considered contaminants (and prohibited) depends on the feed ban in place, but generally includes MBM or other meals derived from ruminants or mammals. The definition also depends on the species of animals for which the feed is intended (e.g. pets, ruminants, poultry, non-ruminants, aquatic species). Because these materials may not be considered contaminants (and prohibited) outside the context of TSE control, and/or may be allowed for certain groups of animals, they may be legally present in feed plants. Therefore, the term “cross contamination” is often used for these prohibited materials, while ‘contamination’ is used for materials that should not be in any feed materials (e.g. rodents, birds, rodent droppings, toxins, mould). In the feed plant, separation of feeds must be assured and cross contamination must be prevented in areas and on equipment at each processing step, according to the spe- cific feed ban in place and other national regulations. Major steps where contamination and cross contamination may occur include: • Unloading of the raw materials • Storage of the raw materials • Transport of the raw materials • Conveying • Cleaning • Drying • Milling • Mixing • Pelleting • Bagging • Transport between each step • Transport of the final product
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3 QUALITy ASSURANCE IN FEED-pRODUCING pLANTS · QUALITy ASSURANCE IN FEED-pRODUCING pLANTS 1. GENERAL CONCEpTS To assure consistent product quality and safety, feed producers must
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Quality assurance
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QUALITy ASSURANCE IN FEED-pRODUCING pLANTS
1. GENERAL CONCEpTSTo assure consistent product quality and safety, feed producers must have standardprotocols in place for self-regulation of all of the processes in their feed-producingplant(feedplant).Thisincludeswrittenprocedures,maintenanceofrecords,andperi-odicaudits.QualityassuranceprotocolsarenotonlyimportantfortheimplementationofTSEcontrolmeasures,butalsoformeasurestocontrolorpreventotherdiseasesandfeed-relatedanimalhealthproblems.
Inaddition toself-regulation,mostnationalor localgovernmentshaveauditingorinspectionregulations for feedplants, includingastandardprotocol forofficialsam-plingoffeedsfortesting.Auditsshouldalsofollowstandardizedwrittenprotocolsandadequaterecordsshouldbekept.
A basic concept is that all contaminants (non-desired products and substances,includingprohibitedor restrictedproductsorsubstances)areexcluded fromall feedproductsateachprocessingstep.InthecontextofTSEcontrol,thesecontaminantsandprohibitedmaterialsorproductsincludesomeingredientsofanimaloriginandfeedsorfeedcomponentscontainingtheseingredients.Theexactdefinitionofwhatmateri-als are considered contaminants (and prohibited) depends on the feed ban in place,butgenerallyincludesMBMorothermealsderivedfromruminantsormammals.Thedefinitionalsodependsonthespeciesofanimalsforwhichthefeedis intended(e.g.pets,ruminants,poultry,non-ruminants,aquaticspecies).
2. ImpORTANT pOINTS FOR QUALITy ASSURANCEInthefollowingsectionsofthischapter,importantpointsareoutlinedforqualitycontrolinfeedmillsandplantsproducingpremixesandmixedfeedaccordingtotheprotocolsoftheSwissfeedcontrolauthorities(ALP,2004).Theimplementationoffeedbansandthemanufacturingprocessitselfaredescribedinseparatechaptersinthiscoursemanual.
2.1. working areas and production equipmentIngeneral,workingareasandproductionequipmentshouldbeconstructed,arranged,operated,andmaintainedsothat:
in first out (FIFO) principle is maximized for all materials (e.g. raw materials, singlecomponentfeeds,mixedfeeds,premixes,feedadditives)inordertooptimizequality.
Working areas and production equipment should be exclusively dedicated to theproductionoffeed,andclearlyseparatedfromotherproductionactivities.Whenplantsproducemultiplecategoriesoffeeds,includingfeedsthatcontainsubstancesthatareprohibitedinothercategoriesoffeeds,theproductionprocessinglinesforthedifferentfeedcategoriesshouldbecompletelyseparated.
In order to reduce the risk of contamination and cross contamination, protocolsshouldbe implemented toassure thatallworkingareasandequipment thatdirectlyeffectproductqualityareregularlycleanedandprofessionallymaintained.Theproto-colsshoulddefinefrequency,methodandtheresponsibleperson(s).Protocolstopre-venttheintroductionofpathogenicorganismsshouldalsobeimplemented.Protocolsshouldalsodescribeimplementationofappropriatepathogeneradicationmeasures.
Apreventivepesteradicationprotocol, includingresponsibilitiesandspecific tasks,should be defined and implemented. The entire manufacturing facility, including allstorageareas,shouldbeincludedintheplan.Ifnecessary,theadministrativeandnon-productionareasshouldalsobeincluded.Whenactiveeradicationofpestsisrequired,thetreatmentdate,pesttype,treatmentarea,treatedmaterials,eradicationmaterialsused,quantityof theeradicationmaterialsused,waitingperiod,andsignatureof theresponsiblepersonshouldberecorded.
Anorganizationchartandstaffappointmentprotocolmustbedevelopedthatindicatethe qualifications and responsibilities of management personnel. The chart must bepresented to the competent authorities mandated with inspections. All managementpersonnelmustbeinformedinwritingaboutrequiredtasks,responsibilitiesandcom-petences,especiallywitheveryemploymentchange.Inaddition,managementperson-nelmustbeprovidedwithadescriptionofprofessionalanddisciplinaryauthoritiesfortheirrespectivebranchofproduction.
Position descriptions must also be developed for each other position, and mustincludetheprofessionaltrainingandrequiredskills,assignedtasks,thespecificareasof responsibility (e.g. tostopproductionorshipments, toallowusageorwithdrawal/recallofgoods,torelease/cleargoodsforshipment),andadesignatedproxyperson.
2.3. production processAqualifiedpersonmustbeidentifiedtoberesponsibleforproduction.Thispersonmustbecertifiedinthespecificproductionareaandhavesufficientknowledgeofanimalfeedlegislation, process engineering, and animal nutrition and should meet the followingqualifications:
• understands what constitutes appropriate working area and production equip-ment,andunderstandstheirconstructional,technical,andhygienicmaintenanceandoperation;
• is aware of his/her responsibilities and is able to transfer information to allinvolvedpersonnelinorderthattheyunderstandthespecificproductionrequire-ments.
The manufacturer must guarantee that the various production processes are con-ductedinaccordancewiththewrittenprotocolsandflowcharts.Theseprotocolsallowthecriticalpoints1oftheproductionprocesstobedefined,auditedandcontrolled.Alltechnical and organizational possibilities must be optimized to avoid contamination,crosscontaminationandothererrors.
Acriticalpointcanbedefinedasastepintheproductionprocessthat,ifnotargetedcontrolisapplied,couldleadtoalossorsignificantdeviancefromtherequiredtargetstate of product quality and safety. Critical points in the production process can bedeterminedusing:
1 The term “critical point” in the production process is used in the context of HACCP methodology, which isacceptedasananalysismethodforfoodsafetyinthefoodprocessingindustry.
2 HACCP is described in the “Quality control concepts, hygiene, and HACCP in the meat industry” chap-ter in the Capacity Building for Surveillance and Prevention of BSE and Other Zoonotic Diseases projectcoursemanualManagementof transmissiblespongiformencephalopathies inmeatproduction (FAO,2007).
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Critical points generally include addition of ingredients to the premixes, additionof premix to the feed, the weighing scale, the measuring devices, the mixer and thechronologicalorderoftheproductionsteps.Often,otherpointsarealsoincluded.
A thorough analysis of the potential for contamination, cross contamination andsources of other errors from delivery through shipment must be made. Moreover,componentresiduesmustbequantifiedstep-by-stepovertheentireproductionproc-ess(usingestimatesortrueobservations).Singleproductionstepscannotbesumma-rizedbyaddition,becauseimportantinformationregardingthelocationofcomponentresidueswillbelostandbecausethepotential individualcausesmustbeunderstoodin order to implement controls. Using a step-by-step analysis it will become evidentwhichtechnicalandorganizationalplant-specificpreventivemeasuresmustbetakenanddocumented.
Both internal laboratories that perform analyses for third parties and externallaboratories thatareappointed for thequality controlsmustbeaccreditedandworkaccordingtovalidatedmethods.Internallaboratoriesworkingexclusivelyfortheplantarenotrequiredtobeaccreditedbutmustalsoworkaccordingtovalidatedmethods.Themethodbywhichanalysisresultsareverifiedmustberecorded.
ate products and final products must be characterized using written specifications.Differentiations must be made between specifications that characterize quality (e.g.energy content) and specifications that characterize safety (e.g. content of unwantedsubstances).Specificationsmustbeverifiedbythemanufacturer(forpremixesormixedfeeds)and/orbythesupplier(forfeedadditivesorpremixes).Whenspecificationsareverifiedthroughcertificationorotherdocumentation,therecipientmayalsorequiretestresultswithinanappropriatetimeinterval.
Inaddition tosamplescollected for testing,samples fromeverybatchofpremixesandmixedfeedsmustberetainedandstoredinamountsdefinedbythemanufacturer’sprotocolstoenabletracebackofeachproduct.Samplesfromeveryidentifiedproduc-tionsector (continuousproduction)or fromappropriate time intervals (exclusivepro-ductionforownneeds)mustbecollected.Thesesamplesmustbesealedandlabelledsoastobeeasilyidentifiable.Storageconditionsmustpreventabnormalchangestothesample’scompositionandotheradverseeffects,andsamplesmustbeavailableforthecompetentauthoritiesforacertainspecifiedamountoftime,forexamplethreemonthspastexpirydate.
Theprocedure forcollectingandretaining thesesamplesshouldbe inaccordancewith these procedures for other samples (as described in section 5 of this chapter).Additionally,thefollowingpointsmustbeconsidered:
2.�. StorageMaterialsshouldbestoredaccordingtoawrittenplantspecificstorageconcept,whichshouldbemadeavailabletocompanypersonnel.Rawmaterialscontaininghighlevelsof unwanted substances or materials that are destined for detoxification, as well aspremixesandmixedfeedsthatcomplywithspecifications,mustbestoredinappropri-atecontainersorroomsthathavebeenconstructedandmaintainedinsuchawaythatgoodstorageconditionsareguaranteed.
Measuresmustbetakentoavoidaccessbyrodentsandotherpestsand,ifnecessary,appropriate eradication protocols must be implemented. Products must be stored insuchawaythattheyareeasytoidentifyandmisidentificationand/orcrosscontamina-tionbetweendifferentproductsisexcluded.
Theconceptshoulddescribehowandwherewhichproductsarestored toexcludemisidentificationorcrosscontaminationbetweendifferentproducts.Ifaplantmanufac-turesand/orstoresmultiplecategoriesoflivestockfeedorisotherwisestoringanimalmaterialsprohibitedforlivestock,thenthosefeedsormaterialsprohibitedforcertaincategories of animals must be clearly identified and must be stored separately fromnon-prohibitedfeedstoreducetheriskofcrosscontamination.Clearidentificationofstoredproductsmeans:
3. DOCUmENTATION AND DATAThe manufacturer must have a documentation system at its disposal to define andcontrolcriticalpoints in theproductionprocessesand todevelopand implement thequalitycontrolplan.Themanufacturermustmaintaincompleterecordsoftheappropri-ateauditsandothercontrols.Theserecordsmustbestoredsothatthehistoryofeachproducedbatchcanbebacktracedandthattheresponsiblepersoncanbeidentifiedifcomplaintsariseafterdistribution.
Atminimum,thefollowingprotocolsandrecordsmustbeavailable:• specificproductionflowchartandcurrentprocessoverviewfortheplant;• analysisofpossiblecarryoverbetweenindividualbatches;• guidelinesforcleaningandmaintenanceoftheworkingarea;• guidelinesforcleaningandmaintenanceofproductionequipment;• preventiveandactivepesteradicationplans;• accreditationofexternallaboratory;• accreditation of internal laboratory (and validation of any methods that are not
For feedadditivesandpremixesused in furtherproduction internally: the typeandoriginalbatchnumber,thevolumeusedand,fortheresultingproduct,thetype,produc-tiondate, resultingbatchnumber (including the internalbatch record indicating thisinformation) and, in case of continuous production, the point of introduction into theproductionline.
Forfeedadditives,premixes,andmixedfeedssold:thetype,batchnumber,volume,anddeliverydateof theproduct,aswellas thenameandaddressof the receiveroftheproduct(traderorenduser),includingthedeliveryreceiptorinvoiceindicatingthisinformation.
4. COmpLAINTS AND pRODUCT RECALLEachlegitimateandillegitimatenegativecommentfromacustomermustbeconsid-eredacomplaintandacausemustbesought for theproblemwith theproduct.Themanufacturermustrecordandverifycomplaintssystematically,includingatminimumthefollowingpoints:
If a product is recalled, it is important to be able to quickly and specifically iden-tifyaffectedcustomers.Themethod for identificationofaffectedcustomersmustbedefinedinwriting,andachecklistdeveloped.Thechecklistmustalsoincludehowtherecalledproductswillbeprocessed.Themanufacturermustmaintainwrittenrecordsofthedestinationofrecalledproducts.Beforedecisionscanbemaderegardingfutureuseorresaleoftheseproducts,theymustundergoathoroughqualitycheck.
�. SAmpLE COLLECTIONThecollectionofappropriatesamplesof feed ingredientsor finishedcompound feedis an important aspect of feed control, both for domestically produced and importedfeeds.The individualsamplescollectedmaythenbetestedusingdifferent laboratoryanalyses,inorderto:
Sampling and testing may be carried out in the context of official feed control orwithinthequalityassuranceprogrammeofafeedproductionplant,andresultsofthetestingmayserveasabasisorjustificationfordefendingagainstlegalactionsorprov-ingliability.Theverificationofproductionorimportdocumentsmustbedoneinparallelwiththesamplecollection.Whenthesamplecollectioniscarriedoutbyafeedinspec-tor,hemustassurethatanemployeeoftheplantispresentduringhisvisit.
The sampling protocol(s) for both feed plants and for governmental control pro-grammemustbeavailableinawrittenform.Theprotocolmustallowforsamplingatregularintervals,andassurethatthesamplestakenarehomogeneousandrepresenta-tiveoftheentirebatch.Theprotocolincludesatleastthefollowingdetails:
Forbaggedproducts,itmustfirstbedeterminedhowmanybagsmustbesampled(at approximately 100 grams sampled per bag) to achieve the final sample volumerequiredbytheprotocol.Then,astandardslotterbagtrier(samplingdevice)isinsertedintheuppersectionofthebag(slotinthedownwardposition).Theslotofthesampleprobemustbelargerthanthelargestparticleofthefeedbeingsampled.Thesampleistakenbyrotatingthetrieruntiltheslotisontheuppersideofthetrier,whichisthenremoved.
Forbulkfeed,thesamplecollection isbestcarriedoutwhile loadingorunloading,i.e.atrailcars,trucksortrailers.Withastreamcutter,aminimumof10cutsatequalintervalsaretakentoprovideapproximatelyonekgtotalsample.Withstationarybulkfeed(generallyinavehicle),onlyalimitedaccessispossible.Dependingontheacces-sible surface of the feed, a minimum of 10 probe samples are taken from differentcompartments.
Forliquidingredients,itisbesttoobtainsamplesatperiodicintervalsduringunload-ing. It is advisable to discard the first several litres of material before sampling, toaccountforanysolidsorcontaminantsthatmayhavecollectedinthetank.
Thepersonresponsible forsamplecollectionmustbecareful topreventanycon-tamination during the process. Separate equipment must be used for each sample,samplessealedindividually (e.g.usingbagtriers),andgeneralhygienerules(e.g.forclothingandhandlingoffeed)mustberespectedduringtheprocess.
FAO. 2007. Management of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in meat production.Course manual, Project Capacity Building for Surveillance and Prevention of BSE and OtherZoonoticDiseases.Rome
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Laboratory analysis
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LABORATORy ANALySIS FOR THE DETECTION OF pROHIBITED mATERIALS IN LIvESTOCk FEED
1. GENERAL CONCEpTSImplementationofaneffectivefeedbanisacrucialcomponentofanynationalBSEcon-trolprogram.Inordertoeffectivelyenforceanyfeedbaninplace,representativesam-plesfrombothimportedanddomesticallyproducedfeedsmustberoutinelycollectedandtested(Gizzietal.,2003).Samplecollectioniscoveredinthe“Qualityassuranceinfeed-producingplants”chapterinthiscoursemanual.
Unfortunately,itisnotpossibletodirectlydetectprionsinsamplesoffeedandfeedcomponents. Therefore, laboratory methods must focus on detecting the presence(intentionalorinadvertent)ofprohibitedmaterials,primarilyMBM.Becauseofthedif-ferences in thescopeof feedbans implemented indifferentcountries, the testusedmustbeappropriatetothespecificresultrequired.
Forexample, invariouscountries fishmeal,poultrymeal,and/orpuremeals fromnon-ruminant animal species (e.g. equine, porcine) may still be allowed for feedingof pigs, fish and/or poultry, as well as ruminants in some cases. In other countries,all animal proteins are banned for all food-producing animals. Therefore, the mostappropriatetestforaparticularcountrymightbeonethatdetectsanyanimalmaterial(including fish),any terrestrialanimalprotein (i.e.poultryandmammals),anymam-malian material or any ruminant material. If all intra-species feeding is banned (asintheEU;EU,2002)1, thetestwillneedtodistinguishamongmaterial fromdifferentmammalianspecies.Moreover,thepresenceofanimalmaterialinadvertentlyincludedinfeeds(suchasrodentsandbirds)mustbeconsidered.AlthoughthismaterialisnotconsideredtoposeaTSE-relatedrisk,itspresencemightaffectthevalidityofthetestresultaswellasindicateotherproblemswiththequalityandsafetyofthefeed.
In addition, a quantitative test method may or may not be required depending onwhetherthefeedbaninacountryincludesanallowablelevelofaprohibitedmaterial,orwhetheranydetectableprohibitedmaterialisunacceptable.
Furthermore,different laboratory testsdiffer in theirability todistinguishmaterialthathasundergoneprocessing.Forexample,theMBMproducedbyrenderingatspecif-icconditionsofheat,pressureandtimemaynolongertestpositiveformaterialofinter-est(usuallyproteinorDNA)whencertaintestsareused.Therefore,bothwhenchoosingthetestingmethodandwheninterpretingthetestresults,theprocessingconditions(orpossibleconditions)forimportedanddomesticMBMmustbetakenintoaccount.
For example in the EU, with the exception of the intra-species feed ban, currentlegislation only requires distinction between material from fish and material fromterrestrial animals for in feed for most livestock. In addition, all rendering plants intheEUstatesshouldbeprocessingatstandardparameters (133ºC/3bar/20minutes;seethe“Renderingofanimalby-products”chapter in thiscoursemanual for further
discussion).Therefore,testsmustbeabletodistinguishbetweenfishmealandMBMprocessedundertheseconditions.Noquantificationisrequired,asintheEUdetectionofanyprohibitedmaterialinasamplemeansthatfeeddoesnotcomplywiththefeedban.Therefore, testsor testingprotocols forall feedmaterialsproducedboth in theEUstatesandimportedfromothercountriesintotheEUmustbeabletoappropriatelyaddressthesequestions.
2. AvAILABLE TEST mETHODSDifferenttestsmakeuseofdifferentapproachesfordetectionofprohibitedmaterialsinfeed.Inopticalmicroscopy,animaltissuessuchasbones,musclefibres,hairs,andfeathersaredirectlyidentified.Withothermethods,variousanimalproteins,peptides,lipids,DNA,volatilematerialsorspecificorganicmoleculesareidentified.Theprimarytestmethodscurrentlyusedaredescribedinthefollowingsections.
2.1. Optical microscopyOpticalmicroscopy(OM)isthedirectidentificationofanimaltissuesbytypicalphysicalstructure. It involvesconcentrating thematerialsbybothsedimentationand flotationand thenevaluating thematdifferentmagnificationswithboth thestereomicroscopeand thecompoundmicroscope (Plates1-5).Thesedimentcontainsmineralparticlesincluding bones and teeth, and the floatation contains organic particles, which aremainlyplantproductsbutincludemeatparticlesandfeathers.
Technically,theOMmethodologyisrelativelysimple(EU,2003).However,inpractice,OM technicians must have a high level of expertise that only comes from extensiveexperienceinobservingMBMsamplesunderthemicroscope.
Sedimentation/flotation: About 10 grams of feed material are first dissolved in anorganicsolvent(tetrachlorehylene)toconcentratethemineralsinthesedimentandtheorganiccomponentsintheflotation.Thisseparatesthematerialasfollows:
flotationaremade from the fractionofparticlesgreater than1mmdiameter.Theselargeparticlesofbonefragments(sediment)ormeatparticles(flotation)maybevisual-izedinthestereomicroscopeatamagnificationof50x.
Observationwiththecompoundmicroscope:Thesedimentispreparedwithaclear-ing agent (phenoglycerin) and the flotation is treated with potassium iodide (to staintheproteinsorange-yellow).Thepreparationsarethenobservedatamagnificationof50-400x with the compound microscope. Generally, three preparations are screened,onepreparationofthe<0.35mmfractionandtwopreparationsofthefractionbetween1mmand0.35mm.
However,becausemanymaterialstobetestedhaveundergoneprocessing, immu-noassaysmustovercometheproblemofmaintainingtestsensitivityandspecificity inthefaceofthedegradationofproteinsthatoccursduringheating.Furthermore,evenwhennot fullydegraded, theconformationofproteinsoftenchangeswithheat treat-ment. Therefore, the immunoassay must employ antibodies that detect either heatstableantigenicsitesorantigenicsitesonheatstableproteins,i.e.thosethatremainaftertheapplicationofheattreatmentand/orotherappropriateprocessingparameters.Therefore, a parallel application of the immunoassay methodology is to control andaudittheadequacyofprocessingparametersattherenderingplantbymeasuringthepresenceordegradationofvariousproteins(Pallaronietal.,2001).
ThefirstmethoddevelopedfordetectionofMBMusingmolecularbiologytechniqueswasan immunoassay fordetectionofruminantproteins inrenderedmaterialheatedtogreaterthan130ºC(Ansfield,1994),andanimprovedimmunoassayfordetectionofruminantandporcineproteinsheatedtogreaterthan130ºCat2.7bar incompoundanimal feeds was later described (Ansfield et al., 2000). However, the usefulnessof these immunoassays was somewhat restricted by their tedious protocols whichrequiredperformanceinspecializedlaboratories.
Colour-linked antibody (1) bound to antibody pre-bound on strip = coloured line
Protein
Au
Vial
Absorbent pad
Test line
Sample
Filter pad
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Colour-linked antibody (1) unreacted
Colour-linked antibody (1) bound to ruminant protein (if present), bound to antibody pre-bound on strip = coloured line
Au
Au
Scheme of a strip test
FigUre 1
Basic schematic of a lateral flow immunochromatographic assay (strip test) for detection of specific proteins in feed
Morerecently,anewtypeofcommercialimmunoassayhasbeendeveloped,theso-called“striptest”(Figure1),mostcommonlyusedtoidentifyruminantprotein.Thesesingle-steplateralflowimmunochromatographicassaysaresimpletohandleandallowthetestingofmanysamples inarelativelyshort time.Mostof thesetestsdetectthepresenceofTroponin I (aheatstableruminantmuscleprotein) in thesample.Theseimmunoassaysarenotquantitative,andgiveeitherapositiveornegativeresultwithadetectionlimitat1%to5%forMBMthathasbeenrenderedatthestandardprocessingparameters(133ºC/20min/3bar).
2.3. Lateral flow immunochromatographic assays Thetestprocedureofthelateralflowimmunochromatographicassays(striptests)nor-mallyincludesweighingoutofapproximately10gramsthesample,addingextractionsolution,shortheatingofthesampleinboilingwaterorwashing(dependingonassay),placing the test strip into the sample tube and reading of the results within severalminutes.
The strips have two possible visualization zones: A reaction line that appears onlyif ruminant protein is present and a control line that forms to validate that the stripisworkingproperly.Specific testproceduresdiffer for thedifferent tests,andfurtherdetailsareavailablefromthemanufacturers(Table1).
2.�. Near infrared spectrographyNearinfraredspectrography(NIRS)isamethodtoidentifyspectrographicvibrationsofgroupsoforganicmolecules(e.g.O-H,C-H,N-H)indicatingspecificmaterialsofinter-est.Itinvolvesinitialcalibrationandvalidationofthesystem,preparationandirradiationofthesample,andanalysisoftheanswerspectrausingspecificmathematicalequa-tions(Murrayetal.,2004).
2.�. Near infrared microscopy Near infraredmicroscopy (NIRM) isalsoaspectrographicmethod to identifyspecificisolatedparticles.Itinvolvesconcentrationofbonematerialbysedimentation(similartoOM),irradiationandanalysisofapurespectrumforeachparticle,andclassification
TABLE 1. Selected lateral flow immunochromatographic assays, including manufacturer information
of theparticles. In this test,mineralsshownovibrationspectra (Murrayetal.,2004:Baetenetal.,2004).
2.�. Near infrared camera Nearinfraredcamera(NIRC)issimilartotheNIRMbutfaster,asitcananalyse500par-ticlesinfiveminutes.Theequipmentisexpensive,andthereisahighcostperanalysis(Baetenetal.,2004).
2.�. High performance liquid chromatographyHighperformanceliquidchromatography(HPLC)isamethodtodetectspecificdipep-tides that indicate thepresenceofmuscle tissue (e.g.carnosine).However,with thismethoditisnotpossibletodifferentiatebetweenmusclefromterrestrialanimalsandthatfromfish.ThistestmethodisdescribedbySchönherr(2002).
3. COmpARISON OF TESTSEachmethodhasadvantagesanddisadvantages(Table2:VonHolstandBoix,2004).OMisbasedprimarilyonthedetectionofbonematerialandisnotaffectedbytheprocess-ingparametersofthesample.InOM,terrestrialanimalbones(Plates1and2)canbedistinguishedfromfishbones(Plate3)inthesedimentationfraction,butbonematerialfrommammalsandpoultrycannotbeseparated.ThisalsomeansthatwithOMitcan-notbedeterminedifbonematerialisfromrodentsorbirdsthatmaybeinadvertentlypresent in feed components. Muscle (Plate 4) in the flotation indicates the presenceofanimalmaterial (terrestrialanimalorfish) inthesample,buttheorigincannotbedistinguishedmorespecifically.The identificationof feathers (Plate5) in the flotationis indicativeof thepresenceofpoultryorotheravianmaterial,but feathersmustbedistinguishedfromplantmaterial,whichmaylooksimilar.
The PCR is species specific, but is also sensitive to contamination and interferingingredients thatmayaffect thevalidityof the result. Itmaybeappropriateasacon-firmatorymethod.Overthepastfewyears,bothmolecularbiologicalmethods(PCRandimmunoassay)haveimprovedintheirabilitytodetectheat-treatedMBM,asthetestsnowutilizethedetectionofveryshortDNAtargetsequencesandmorestableproteinfragments,respectively.
A relatively high number of samples can be processed in a short time with bothimmunoassay and NIRS. Therefore, these could be appropriate screening methods,especiallyastheydonotrequiretoxicreagents.However,althoughimmunoassayhasaverylowleveloffalsenegativeresults,theybothhaverelativelylowsensitivities,whichisnotoptimalforscreeningtests.
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TABLE 2. Comparison of characteristics of the main testing methods
Test characteristic Optical microscopy pCR1 Immunoassay NIRS2 NIRm3
von Holst C, Boix A. 2004. Meat and bone meals in feed: Results from recent interlaboratory
studies for the validationofmethodsand for theevaluationof theproficiencyof laboratories
Abstract L17. Stratfeed Symposium Food and feed safety in the context of prion diseases.
Namur,Belgium
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BSE risk and trade
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BSE RISk AND TRADE IN ANImAL pRODUCTS AND LIvESTOCk FEEDS
1. GENERAL CONCEpTSCurrently,thereisatrendformoreandmorecountriestoparticipateininternationalor regional trade in agricultural products. The economic and quality-of-life benefitsof increased trade, especially for developing countries, can be enormous (WorldBank,2005).However,theriskstoglobalpublicandanimalhealthalsoincreasewithincreasedmovementoftheseproducts.ThespreadofBSEisanexcellentexampleoftheseincreasedrisks.Thischapterpresentsaspectsoftradeinagriculturalproducts,suchasassessmentofBSErisk,availabledataandotherissuesofglobaltrade.
2. THE EFFECTS OF BSE ON GLOBAL TRADEClearly, theworldsupplyofanimalproteinhasbeendisruptedby theappearanceofBSE.Trade inanimalprotein, includingmealsmade fromprocessingofmammalianprotein(e.g.meatandbonemeal/MBM)aswellnon-mammalianprotein(e.g.poultrymeal, fishmeal) isalreadymorerestrictedthan inthepast,andcouldbecomemorerestricted as countries become more aware of risk of BSE and other diseases thatmaybespreadthroughlivestockfeeds.However,aseconomiesgrowandthedemandincreases for meat and other animal products, the demand also increases for high-qualityproteinsformanufactureoflivestockfeeds.Globalizationofmarketscaneasesomeoftheeffectsofthisincreasedproteindemandbutglobaltradealsointroducesnewrisks.Moreover,animalwelfare,environmentalissuesandanincreasedconsumerawarenessoffoodsafetyallmustbeconsideredwhentradinginagriculturalproducts.
Consequently,additionalsourcesofhigh-qualityalternativeproteinwillneed tobeestablished or reconsidered, (as described in the “Protein use in livestock feeding”chapterinthiscoursemanual)andassurancesforthesafetyofnon-prohibitedanimalproteinsourcesimproved.Thiswillincludeassuringfulltraceabilityandstrengtheningof compliance with international regulations, which will require increased technicalcapacity inmanyexportingcountries.Ultimately,allof these factors, inparallelwiththeTSE-relatedfeedbans,willplayaroleinthetypesofproteinsproducedandtradedintheworld.
3. ASSESSING THE RISkS OF BSE IN TRADE Inprinciple,alltradedecisionsmustbebasedonanassessmentoftheexportingcoun-try’sactualriskforaspecificcommodityanddisease,aswellasthedomesticsituation(HeimandMumford, 2005).WTO, through theOIE (the international standardsettingbodyforanimalhealthissues)andtheCodexAlimentarius(theinternationalstandardsettingbodyforfoodsandfeeds),requiresariskassessmenttobemadeanytimeagri-culturaltraderestrictionsareinplacethataremorestringentthantheseinternationalstandards(WTO,1994).Withoutanassessmentscientificallyjustifyingtheirrestrictions,WTO member countries are not in compliance with Agreement on the Application ofSanitaryandPhytosanitaryMeasures.
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Forexample, inmostcases it isnot logical toprohibit importofaproduct fromacountrywhereadiseaseisendemic if thediseaseisalsoendemicdomestically,or ifthedomesticsituationprecludesspreadorestablishmentofthedisease(e.g.aninsect-bornediseaseinacountrywherearequiredvectordoesnotexist,orBSEinahypotheti-calcountrythatraisesnoruminantlivestock).
Similarly,itisnotlogicaltobanproductsfromacountrywhereadiseasehasbeenreported, if the importingcountryhasasimilardomesticrisk (even ifcaseshavenotbeen reported). Therearemanyexamplesof countries implementing importbansorrestrictionsafteratradingpartnerreportsafirstBSEcase,eventhoughtheimportingcountryhasanequivalentBSErisk.ItisalsoclearthatBSEexposureofacountryprob-ablyhappened5-15yearsbeforeanycasesareseen,andthereforeimplementationofbansagainstlong-timetradingpartnersdoesnotnecessarilyaffectcurrentrisk(HeimandMumford,2005). ItmustalsobeconsideredwhetherthereisalargediscrepancybetweenBSEcontrolmeasuresimplementedintheimportingandexportingcountries.
In addition, it is not logical to ban products that pose negligible risk. The OIE hasdeterminedthatmilkandmilkproducts,proteinfreetallow,andcertainotherproductsposenegligiblerisk, irrespectiveof theBSEriskof theexportingcountry (OIE,2005).Debonedbeef(undercertainconditions)canalsobetraded,evenfromcountrieswithariskofBSE(OIE,2005a).Therefore,thereshouldbenorestrictionsonimportingtheseproducts, even when the exporting country has a non-negligible BSE risk. However,restrictionofsomeproductsforhumanconsumption(e.g.processedmeatpies,mincedmeat)fromcountrieswithariskbutinsufficientcontrolmeasures(e.g.noSRMban)canbejustified,asthesecouldposeanimmediatepublichealthrisk.
The impact of all these scenarios on BSE risk through trade would be taken intoaccountthroughtheprocessofnationalriskassessment inconjunctionwithassess-mentsof theriskof importingspecificproducts.Nationalriskassessmentsarecur-rentlyavailableforsomecountries,asdescribedinthe“IntroductiontoTSEsandBSE”chapterinthiscoursemanual.
4. TRADE DATA: QUALITy AND QUANTITy Sufficient valid trade data of high quality for any commodity can be extremely diffi-cult tocollectandcompile.Countriesengaging intradegenerallymaintaintheirownnationalrecordsofimportandexports,althoughthelevelofdetailvariesconsiderably.Examinationofrecordsoftenshowsdiscrepanciesbetweenimportrecordsandexportrecords for a single transaction between two countries, and records of transactionsbetween neighbouring countries may not be even minimally complete. Moreover, nosingle international institution is responsible for compiling these data into a singleglobaldatabase.
Whenspreadof infectiousdiseases isconsidered, trackingof importsandexportsbecomescrucial. In thecaseofBSE,whichcarriespublicandanimalhealthconse-
��
BSE risk and trade
in animal products
and livestock feeds
quences,theimportofriskyproductsmustbeexaminedtoevaluateanationalexposurerisk for importing as well as exporting countries, as described above. Unfortunately,duetothelongincubationperiodofthisdisease,dataonimportsbeginninginthemid-1980sthroughtodaymustbeavailableforexamination.
4.1. Data sourcesFAOisonesourceoftradedata.FAOcompilesinformationonvariousaspectsoffoodand agriculture from member countries throughout the world to support their pro-grammes and activities. The data are analysed and interpreted and made generallyavailable (FAOSTAT, 2004). Data compiled by FAO that are relevant to this discussionincludeagriculturalproduction,agricultureandfoodtrade,foodaidandexportsofcere-alsbysourceanddestination.
FAO collects its data through questionnaires sent annually to member countries,accessingwebsitesofthecountries,nationalandinternationalpublications,countryvis-itsmadebyFAOstatisticians,andreportsbyrepresentativesinmembercountries.Intheabsenceofreliablesourcesorwheninformationisnotavailable,figuresareestimatedonthebasisof tradedata fromtradingpartners. In thecaseofentirelymissingdata,statisticiansestimatecertaindatapointsifotherparametersaresufficientlyavailable.
Inaddition to thesedata, somedata fromEUmembercountriesareobtainedandcompiledthroughEurostat(2004).TheUnitedNationsStatisticsDivision(UN,2004)hasextensivepublicationsnotonlyrelatedtotradestatistics,butalsoregardingothertradestandardsandissues.Insomecases,officialtradedatacanbesupplementedwithtradeinformationanddatafromothernationalorinternationalagenciesororganizations,aswellasfromunofficialsources.
4.2. problems encountered in gathering and interpreting trade dataSystemsfortradereporting.Countriesmayreportdataonimportsandexportsindiffer-entways.Forexample,theymayhavedifferentsystemstodescribeimportedcommodi-ties used for domestic consumption and those re-exported to other countries. Mostcountriesreportgeneraltradedata,whichdonotdiscriminatebetweengoodsusedandgoodsre-exportedwithoutenteringthecountry,i.e.exportsfromcustomswarehousesand freezonesorports.Thisdistinction is important inconsideringwhetheracom-modity (suchasMBM)hasbeenusedwithinacountryorexportedonward toa thirdcountry,butdependingonthesystemusedtheinformationmaynotbeascertainable.Inaddition,itmaynotbeascertainablewhetheraparticularimportcontainedmaterialproducedonlyintheexportingcountry,oralsoincludedproductsoriginatingelsewhere.Consequently,itisdifficulttoevaluatetheBSEriskforre-exportedproducts,especiallythosethathavebeenheldforlongperiodspriortoshipment.
Classification and definitions. Additional problems regarding trade data are thediscrepanciesthatexistinclassificationanddefinitionoftradedcommodities(asmen-tionedinthe“Proteinuseinlivestockfeeding”chapterinthiscoursemanual).In1988,manycountriesadoptedthethirdrevisionoftheUnitedNationsStandardInternationalTradeClassification (SITC;UN,1998)or theHarmonizedCommodityDescriptionandCoding System of the Customs Cooperation Council (HS; CCC, 2004) causing someconfusion.Inanattempttomaintaincomparabilitywiththesystem(s)upto1987,FAOhasoptedtocontinueusingRevision2oftheSITC,whileattemptingtoadjustthenewclassificationtotheoldone.
management of
transmissible
spongiform
encephalopathies
in livestock feeds
and feeding
��
However,problemsandconfusionremain.Forexample,intheclassificationofmeat,certainnationalstatisticsincludeonlygroupingatthethree-digit(SITCRevision2)level,e.g.fresh,chilledorfrozen(code011),ordried,saltedorsmoked(code012).Inthiscaseithasbeennecessarytoredistributethedatafromthethree-digitgroupsamongthefour-digitlevelsubgroups(SITCRevision3),bytakingintoaccounttheinformationfromtradingpartners,whichmayormaynotbeavailableorreliable.Asanotherexample,withintheFAOSTATclassification,meatmeal(code1173)isdefinedas“Flours,mealsand pellets of meat and offal (including of marine mammals); greaves and tankage.Usedforfeed.”(FAOSTAT,2004).Thus,thisclassificationcodedoesnotallowdetermi-nationofdifferentby-producttypesorspeciesoforigin(e.g.mammalian,avian,aquatic)andthereforethepossibilityfortracebackislimited.
Re-export.Examinationofimportandexportrecordsfromcountriesindicatesthatre-exportofBSEriskproducts,includingcattle,mammalianprotein,andfeedscontainingmammalianproteinhasbeencommon.Therefore,forexample,riskyproductsexportedfromWestEuropetoEastEuropewereoftenre-exportedtotheNearEastorbeyond.Moreover,tradingcompaniesbuyandsellproductsallovertheworldandshipmentsmaychangeownersseveraltimes.Althoughitisknownthatmanyofthesetransactionsoccuronlyonpaperorelectronically,whiletheactualproductremainsinstorage,thenumberoftransactionsmakestheabilitytotrackandtracetheproducts,andthereforedetermine the country of origin, increasingly challenging (Brian Cooke, FEFAC, Per-sonalcommunication,2005).
�. ASSESSING BSE EXpOSURE RISk�.1. what we knowItiswellknownthatbeforeBSEwasrecognizedintheworld,globaltradeinlivecattleandbovineproductsincludingMBMandfeedscontainingMBMwaswidespread,espe-ciallyfromindustrializedareassuchastheEUandNorthAmerica(Tables1and2).EvenafterBSEwasrecognizedand itwasdeterminedthattransmissionoccurredthroughlivestock feedcontaining the infectiveagent, trade in theseriskyproductscontinued.For example, export of mammalian protein continued from the EU even after it wasprohibitedfrombeingfedtoruminantsin1994,andcontinueduntilexportwasbannedfromtheUKin1996,Portugalin1998,andtherestoftheEUin2001(EU,2001).
�.2. what we don’t knowUptoand includingthepresent time,manycountrieshaveassumedthat there isnoBSEriskwhenimportingfromcountriesthathavenotreportedBSEcases.However(asdescribedinthe“IntroductiontoTSEsandBSE”chapterinthiscoursemanual)thisisclearlynotthecase,astheriskofBSEbeingpresentincountriesoutsideEuropeisstilllargelyunknownbecause:
2. Countries vary greatly in their surveillance and reporting of diseases such asBSE.
Therefore, the BSE agent may still be silently amplifying in many, as yet undeter-mined,countriesthatcontinuetoexportriskyproducts.This,inadditiontothelackofaclearabilitytoestablishexactlywhatwastraded,when,andbywhom,meansthatmostcountriesthroughouttheworldhave,knowinglyorunknowingly,receivedsomelevelofexposuretotheBSEagentthroughimports.Further,continueddomesticamplificationandtrademaycontinuetospreadriskyproductsworldwide,despitecontinuedtighten-ingofregulations(HeimandMumford,2005).
TABLE 1. Cattle exports from western Europe by importing region
Cattle imports (total number of animals)
Importing region 1��� to 1��0 1��1 to 1��� 1��� to 1���
EasternEurope 48648 192561 157411
NearandMiddleEast 80476 916851 803639
NorthAfrica 209593 1095021 366949
SubSaharanAfrica 5718 3136 969
CentralAmerica 369 418 975
NorthAmerica 31 637 147
SouthAmerica 2030 8780 1149
CentralAsia 0 741 667
EastAsia 450 346 601
SouthAsia 648 1828 188
SoutheastAsia 633 1912
Oceania 216 189 152
Source:FAO(2004).
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BSE risk and trade
in animal products
and livestock feeds
�. SUmmARy OF TSE-RELEvANT CONCEpTS• ItiscrucialforimportingcountriestoevaluatetheBSEstatusofexportingcoun-
tries, as well as to consider the risks of imported products. Risk assessmentsarealreadyavailableforsomecountriesandinternationalrecommendationsareavailablefromtheOIEdescribingunderwhichconditionsthetradeofcommodi-tiesposeanegligiblerisk.
• Giventhedifficultiesinassessingtherisksitmustbeassuredthatallimportedproducts comply with domestic regulations through examination of records oraccreditationofsources,aswellasborderchecks,testingandaudits.
Participants from the partner countries have also contributed significantly to theproductionand translationof thecoursemanuals,and tomanyotheraspectsof thecourses.
2AppENDIX
Related background reading and web links*
*ThesereferencesandWeblinksrefertoallfourCapacityBuildingforSurveillanceand Prevention of BSE and Other Zoonotic Diseases project course manuals.Therefore,alldocumentsandlinksmaynotbeapplicabletothetopicscoveredinthismanual.
*ThesereferencesandWeblinksrefertoallfourCapacityBuildingforSurveillanceand Prevention of BSE and Other Zoonotic Diseases project course manuals.Therefore,alldocumentsandlinksmaynotbeapplicabletothetopicscoveredinthismanual.
��
Appendix 2
Related background reading and web links
RELATED BACkGROUND READING AND wEB LINkS
TSE pages of selected ministries and other general data sourcesDepartment of Environment Food and Rural Affairs. United Kingdom, BSE homepage:
FAO. 2007. Management of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in livestock feeds andfeeding.Coursemanual,ProjectCapacityBuildingforSurveillanceandPreventionofBSEandOtherZoonoticDiseases.Rome
FAO. 2007. Management of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in meat production.Course manual, Project Capacity Building for Surveillance and Prevention of BSE and OtherZoonoticDiseases.Rome
Heim D, kihm U. 2003. Risk management of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in
Europe.RevScitechOffintEpiz22(1),179-199
Heim D, mumford E.2005.ThefutureofBSEfromtheglobalperspective.MeatScience70:555-
562
Heim D, murray N.2004.Possibilities tomanage theBSEepidemic:cohortcullingversusherd
Render – The National magazine of Rendering. 2004. Rendering 101: Raw material, renderingprocess,andanimalby-products.http://www.rendermagazine.com/August2004/Rendering101.pdf
The BSE Inquiry. 2000.Thereport.TheinquiryintoBSEandvariantCJDintheUnitedKingdom,Volume13: Industryprocessesandcontrols,Chapter6,Rendering.http://www.bseinquiry.gov.
Animal by-products Tissues and other materials (including fallen stock) dis-cardedattheslaughterhouse,whichgenerallygotoincin-eration,burialorrendering(dependingonthecountry)
Animal waste Animalby-products
Ante mortem Before death (generally refers to the period immediatelybeforeslaughter)
Ap Apparentprevalence
BAB Bornaftertheban;animalswithBSEthatwerebornafterimplementationofafeedban
BARB Bornafter the realban;animalswithBSE thatwerebornafter implementation of a comprehensive and effectively-enforcedfeedban
CCp Critical Control Point: a step in a production chain that isessential to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard orreduceittoanacceptablelevelandatwhichacontrolcanbeapplied
HACCp Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points: a method toidentifyprocessstepswherea lossorsignificantdeviancefromtherequiredproductqualityandsafetycouldoccurifnotargetedcontrolisapplied
HACCp plan Adocumentprepared inaccordancewith theprinciplesofHACCPtoensurecontrolofhazardsthataresignificantforthesegmentoftheproductionunderconsideration
Hazard analysis The process of collecting and evaluating information onhazardsandconditionsleadingtotheirpresencetodecidewhich are significant for the segment of the produc-tion under consideration and therefore which should beaddressedinthecontrol(orHACCP)plan
High quality protein Proteinsourcesthatmatchtherequirementsofaparticularspeciesorproductionclasswell
HpLC Highperformanceliquidchromatography
IAG EuropeanFeedMicroscopistsworkinggroup
IFIF InternationalFeedIndustryFederation
IHC Immunohistochemistry
Indigenous BSE case DomesticBSEcase;non-importedBSEcase
Obex Thepointonthemidlineofthedorsalsurfaceofthemedullaoblongata thatmarks thecaudalangleof the fourthbrainventricle;amarkerfortheregionofthebrainstemwheresomeof thepredilection areas forhistological lesionsandPrPSc deposition in BSE are located (such as the dorsalnucleusofthevagus)
OD Opticaldensity
OIE WorldOrganisationforAnimalHealth
Om OpticalMicroscopy
OR Oddsratio
pathogenicity Ability of an organism to invade a host organism and tocausedisease
pCR Polymerasechainreaction
pithing The laceration of central nervous tissue by means of anelongated rod-shaped instrument introduced into the cra-nialcavityofslaughtercattleafterstunning.
pk Proteinase K; a serine proteinase that digests PrPC com-pletelybutPrPSconlypartiallyundercertainconditions
post mortem Afterdeath
prion InfectiousagentcausingTSE
proteolysis Cleavage of a protein by proteases; also referred to as“digestion”
prp Prion protein, encoded by the gene PRNP, expressed bymanycelltypesandmanyorganisms
prpBSE Resistant prion protein associated with bovine spongiformencephalopathy;alsocalledPrPSc
Rapid test Test systems using immunological assays that detect thepresence of infectious agents in animal tissues or othermaterialswithinhours
RR Relativerisk
Ruminant species Animals with multichambered stomachs that allow bacte-rial fermentationof feedsprior to intestinaldigestion (e.g.cattle,sheep,goats,camellids)
Scrapie ATSEofsheepandgoats
SE Sensitivityofadiagnostictest
Segregation Undesirable separation of raw ingredients in a compoundfeedafterprocessing
SFT SwissInstituteofFeedTechnology
Sick slaughter Cattle with non-specific signs (definition differs amongcountries)
ThiscourseisapartoftheprojectCapacityBuildingforSurveillanceandPreventionofBSEandOtherZoonoticDiseases.Theaimoftheprojectistobuildcapacity,establishpreventivemeasuresandanalyserisksforbovinespongiformencephalopathy(BSE),sothat,ultimately,partnercountriesareableeithertoprovethemselvestobeBSE-freeorareabletodecreasetheirBSErisktoanacceptablelevel.Governmentalandprivateveterinary services, diagnostic laboratories, and the livestock, food and animal feedindustrieswillbestrengthenedandsupported,andtechnicalcapacitybuiltateverystepalongthefoodproductionchain.Inthefuture,theknowledgegainedduringthisprojectcould be used by the countries to establish similar programmes for control of otherzoonoticfood-bornepathogens.
The direct project partner in each country is the National Veterinary Office. Thecountriescommitandpayasalary toat leastone individual,situated in theNationalVeterinaryOffice,toactasaNationalProjectCoordinator(NPC),committhreetraineespercourseandprovidethenecessaryinfrastructureforimplementationoftheprojectinthecountry.TheNPCisresponsibleforcoordinatingtheactivitiesoftheprojectwithinthecountry,includingofferingtrainingcourses,identifyingandorganizingtrainees,andpromotingcommunicationbetweentheproject,thegovernment,thescientificcommu-nityinthecountry,thelivestockandfoodindustries,andthepublic.Othercommitmentsby the countries include providing paid leave time for employees to attend courses,providing infrastructure and facilities for in-country courses, providing historical andcurrentdata(surveillancedata,animalmovementdata,import/exportrecords)andthestaffrequiredtoidentifythosedata,andprovidingadequatestaffforandfacilitatingtheinitialneedsassessmentandfinalcomprehensiveriskassessment.
ANationalProjectBoardineachoftheparticipatingcountriesregularlyevaluatestheoperationalprogressandneedsoftheproject,andprovidesaregularvenueforcom-munication among the project team, national partners and stakeholders. This BoardiscomprisedoftheNPC,representativesofthenationalgovernment,aprojectrepre-sentative,thelocalFAOrepresentative,andlocalstakeholdersfromprivateindustryandtheveterinarycommunity.
ACTIvITIES OF THE pROJECT1. Thespecificneedsofeachparticipatingcountryareassessed.2. Comprehensive courses to “train the trainers” are provided in Switzerland (or
Thecoursesare:• DiagnosticTechniquesfortransmissiblespongiformencephalopathies• Epidemiology, Surveillance and Risk Assessment for transmissible spongiform
Onlythosemotivatedindividualswhowillbeimplementingtherelevantinformationinto the national BSE programme, who have some experience (e.g. ability to use amicroscope,veterinarytraining)andhaveadequateEnglishskills,areaccepted.
After each course, the relative success of the course is evaluated focusing on thesuccess of the training methods and effectiveness of the knowledge transfer ratherthanonthelearningoftheindividualtrainees.Therefore,nowrittentestisgiven,butclosecontact ismaintainedwiththetraineesaftertheyreturntotheircountries,andtheirprogressandsuccess in implementationof their training into thenationalBSEprogrammeisfollowedandevaluatedinthefield.
3. Eachof theTSE-specificcourses is thenofferedasan in-countrycourse in thenative language, and is organized by the trainees and the National VeterinaryOfficeswithtechnicalsupportfromtheproject.In-countrycoursesusethesamecurriculumandexpectedoutcomesastheoriginalcourses,andareprovidedwithsupport,technicalassistanceandmaterials(translatedintotheirownlanguage).TheintroductoryTSEandbiosafetycoursecurriculumisalsopresented.Atleastoneexpert trainerassists inpresenting thesecourses.Participantsarechosenaccordingtostrictselectioncriteria,butthenumberofparticipantsandthefre-quencyandlocationofcoursesgivendependsontheneedsofthecountryandthetypeofcourse.
4. The knowledge gained through the courses should then be integrated by thepartnercountrythroughdevelopmentandimplementationofanationalBSEcon-trolprogramme.Theprogrammeispromotedandsupportedbythecountriestoensurethesustainabilityofthesystem.Contact,technicalsupportandfollow-upwiththecountriesisongoingthroughouttheproject.