3 JBA Moeran - CBS Open Journals

MagicalCapitalism

BrianMoeran Abstract

Thisessaylooksatwaysinwhichvariousbranchesofcapitalistenterpriseandtheirsupportingmechanismsareoftennotasrationalastheymakethemselvesouttobe,butoperateinsteadaccordingtomagicalpremises.Magicalthinking,asamodeofthought,createsorinvokesextraordinaryconnectionsbetweenthings,people,organizations,andbeliefsinordertounderstand,explain,influence,andoccasionallypredict,events.Magicalpracticesinvolvemagicians,magicalrites,andmagicalrepresentations―almostinvariablyworkingtogethertoperformtheovercomingofuncertainty.Anduncertainty,inthesenseofunpredictability,iswhatunderpinsgovernment,business,andtheeconomy.Theessaymakesuseofsevenscenarios―rangingfromDavosandBrexittoGPSandJapanesemanga―toillustratehowpoliticians,media,education,andvariousformsofculturalproductionmakeuseoflanguage,technologies,andimagestoperformmagicincontemporarysocieties.

Keywords

Culturalproduction,economyofappearances,education,illocutionaryacts,magicalsystem,media,sport,technology

Page1of25JBA6(2):133-157Autumn2017©TheAuthor(s)2017ISSN2245-4217

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JournalofBusinessAnthropology,6(2),Autumn2017

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“Therearenomysteriousincalculableforcesthatcomeintoplay,butrather[…]onecan,inprinciple,masterallthingsbycalculation.Thismeansthattheworldisdisenchanted.Oneneednolongerhaverecoursetomagicalmeansinordertomasterorimplorethespirits,asdidthesavage,forwhomsuchmysteriouspowersexisted.Technicalmeansandcalculationsperformthisservice.Thisabovealliswhatintellectualizationmeans.”

Weber(1948:139)

“We’respellboundbyScarlettJohansson,bewitchedbytheopulenceofvintagefloralsanddrawntothedarksideofblackpartypieces.Welcometotheseasonofmagicandsparkle.”

MarieClaire(UK),December2015

InthisessayIwilllookatwaysinwhichvariousbranchesofcapitalistenterpriseandtheirsupportingmechanismsareoftennotasrationalasthey―orWeber,whosediscussionofscience,rationality,anddisenchantmentisquotedabove―makethemselvesouttobe,butoperateinsteadaccordingtomagicalpremises.Magicalthinking,asamodeofthought,createsorinvokesextraordinaryconnectionsbetweenthings,people,organizations,andbeliefsinordertounderstand,explain,influence,andoccasionallypredict,events(Lévi-Strauss1966).Magicalpracticesinvolvemagicians,magicalrites,andmagicalrepresentations(Malinowski1922:403;Mauss1972)—almostinvariablyworkingtogethertoperformtheovercomingofuncertainty(Malinowski1954:29-31;Gell1992:57).Anduncertainty,inthesenseofunpredictability,iswhatunderpinsgovernment,business,andtheeconomy—asweareallacutelyawarefromterroristattacks,stockmarketcrashes,globalwarming,Brexit,entertainmentbellyflops,andtheelectionofDonaldTrumpasPresidentoftheUSA.

Thetopicofmagicisalmostasoldasthedisciplineofanthropologyitself.Mythesisisasfollows.Inspiteofearlyanthropologists’evolutionaryargumentstothecontrary—E.B.Tyler(1929:111)describeditas“oneofthemostperniciousdelusionsthatevervexedmankind”(hiswords,notmine!)—wefindmagicatworkinallsortsofmodernpractices:includingfinanceandtrade,governmentgatherings,thelaw(includingintellectualpropertyandtrademarklaw),medicineandhealth,technology,advertising,marketing,culturalproduction,andconsumption.1

1See,forexample:Holmes(2014)andAppadurai(2015)oncentralbanking;Zaloom(2006)ontradingfloors;GarstenandSörbom(2016)ontheWorldEconomicForumatDavos;Yelle(2001)onlaw;Westbrook(2016)onlegalcontracts;Suchman(1989)andLeach(2012)onintellectualproperty;Assaf

Moeran/MagicalCapitalism

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MagicalsystemsPreciselybecauseanthropologistshavediscussedmagicalpracticesindifferentpartsoftheworldoveraperiodofmanydecades,theydonotnecessarilyagreeaboutwhat,exactly,constitutesamagicalsystem.ForMarcelMauss,allmagicalsystemsrequiredthreeelementstobeinconjunctionwithoneanother:magician,magicalrepresentation,andmagicalrite(Mauss1972:18).Malinowski(1922:403)madeasimilartripartiteschemainwhichhefocusedontheconditionoftheperformer,therebysuggestingthatmagicisanembodiedandemergentprocess:acontinualbecomingofthesocialandthematerial:

“Magicalltheworldover…representsthreeessentialaspects.Initsperformancethereenteralwayssomewordsspokenorchanted,someactionscarriedout,andtherearealwaystheministerorministersoftheceremony.Inanalysingtheconcretedetailsofmagicalperformances,therefore,wehavetodistinguishbetweentheformula,therite,andtheconditionoftheperformer.”2

IwillherefollowMaussinmydelineationofthesystemsofmagicatworkincontemporarycapitalism.First,amagicianhas—or,rather,isseentohave—certainqualitiesthatalaypersondoesnot.Certainprofessionshavebeen,andstillare,thoughttopossessmagicalpowersbecauseofthedexterityandoutstandingknowledgeoftheirpractitioners.Whethersuccessfulinventororinvestor,fashiondesignerorfinancialtrader,spindoctororneuro-surgeon,barristerorbusinessleader,“itistheirprofessionwhichsetsthemapartfromthecommonrunofmortals,anditisthisseparatenesswhichendowsthemwithmagicalpower”(Mauss1972:29).Because,likeOrsonWelles,theyprevailoveruncertainty,theyarewidelyrecognizedbysocietyasabletoaccomplishthingsbeyondthepowerofnormalhumanbeings(Moeran2015:64-66).

Thequestionarisingfromthis,however,is:whobecomesrecognisedasa“magician,”andonwhatgrounds?Clearly,itispublicopinionthat“makesthemagicianandcreatesthepowerhewields”(2012)ontrademarklaw;Whiteheadetal.(2002)onmagicalpracticesinoperatingtheatres;Stevens(2001)onalternative,andFarquar(1996)onChinesemedicalpractices;Johnson(2010)ontherelationbetweenmagic,moralsandhealth;andHsiao(1994)onthemarketizationofhealthsystems;MarkusandBenjamin(1997)oninformationtechnology;Williams(1980)andMcCreery(1995)onadvertising;Arnould,PriceandOtnes(1999)andSt.James,HandelmanandTaylor(2011)onmarketingandconsumptionpractices;DionandArnould(2011)onluxurygoods;andMoeran(2015)onfashionandfashionmagazines.ThisessayowesmuchtoexchangesIhavehadoverthepasttwoyearswithTimothydeWaalMalefyt,withwhomIamintheprocessofeditingabooktitledMagicalCapitalism.Thankyou,Timothy.Iwouldalsoliketothanktwoanonymousreviewersfortheirdetailedcommentsonthefirstdraftofthisessay.2Inavariationontheconditionoftheperformer,Gell(1992:57)arguedthat“themagicalattitudeisaby-productoftherationalpursuitoftechnicalobjectivesusingtechnicalmeans.”


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(Mauss1972:43).But,isithisorherpertinentskill(eloquenceinapolitician,forexample,orcreativityinanadvertisingcopywriter),orsomeotherfactor(anabilitytomanipulatepersonalnetworks,forinstance)thatpersuadesapublicalreadyprimedbythenatureofhisprofessiontobelieveinthemagician?Almostcertainly,recognitiontakesplaceinitiallywithinaparticularsocialworld—ofpolitics,finance,advertising,filmproduction,andsoon.Butinmodernsocieties,thispublicisinlargepartcreatedandsustainedbythemediaanditsvariousproducers.Thismeansthatweneedtoexplorenotjusthow,when,andwhereamagicianperformshis/hermagicinfrontofwhom,forwhatpurpose,andwithwhatresults,buthowwhatstartsoutaslimitedrecognitionseepsoutintosocietyasawhole,thankstomediaattention,wordofmouth,andsocialmediabuzz.

Letusnowturntomagicalrites.Everymagicalsystemincludesoneormorecentraloperationsinwhichthemagicianacts.Aneconomicsummit,atradingfloor,anoperatingtheatre,afilmset,acourtoflaw,atelevisiontalkshow3—suchmagicalritesareoften“preciselythosewhich,atfirstglance,seemtobeimbuedwiththeleastamountofsacredpower”(Mauss1972:9),althoughtherearemanyother“tournamentsofvalues”(Appadurai1986;Moeran2010)(anauction,afashioncollection,amuseumexhibition,theBookerPrize,AcademyandGrammyAwards)whicharedesignedtoconfigureand“consecrate”aparticularfield(ofart,fashion,culture,literature,filmandmusic)bymeansofmagicalperformances(Bourdieu1993:120-125;Mauss1972:47;seealsoEnglish2005).4Tobeeffective,creativeandtodothings(Mauss1972:19),sucheventsalsotakeplace⎼liketheWorldEconomicForuminDavos⎼inspeciallyqualifiedplaces(artgalleries,lawcourts,[operating]theatres,concerthalls,stockexchanges)(ibid.p.46).5

Magicalriteslikethesearedesignedtoeffecttransformations(inshareprices,inapatient’shealth,indefining“fashion,”intheinterpretationofapoliticalorcriminalact),andthustendtobestrictlyprescribedintermsoftime,aswellaslocation;theyareperformedregularlyatparticulartimesoftheyear(fashion“weeks,”variousawardsceremonies)or,ifdaily,withinstrictlycontrolledtimelimits(hencetheopeningandclosingbellattheNewYorkStockExchange).Magicalrites,

3CaitlinZaloom(2006)andLauraGrindstaff(2002)havewrittenperspicaciouslyonfinancialtradingandtelevisiontalkshowsrespectively.Katz(1981)andWhiteheadetal(2002)havecommentedonritualbehaviourintheoperatingtheatre,while,severaldecadesearlier,HortensePowdermaker(1951:281-306)outlinedwaysinwhichshesawHollywoodfilmproductionasbeingimbuedwithmagicalthinking.4SeealsoSmith(1989)onauctions;AnandandWatson(2004)ontheGrammyawards;andAnandandJones(2008)ontheBookerPrize.5SeeKatz(1981:336-7)foranexampleofhowritualspaceisdividedupinahospitalsurgicalarea.


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likeritualingeneral,makeuseof,orthemselvesare,aformoflanguage,whichtranslatesideasandtheirrepresentationstodisplaymagic’seffect(aBankofEnglandfanchart,forecastinginflation[Holmes2014:22];aBankofJapanriskbalancechartforecastingrealGDPgrowth;aHappyperfumeadvertisementwithawide-mouthed,laughingwomanlookinghappy).Almostinvariably,thepartisidentifiedwiththewholeinaformofcontiguousmagic(fanandriskbalancechartsrepresentthe[future]economy;useofasingleproductanentirestateofbeing).ThisiswhatMausscalls“thefirstlawofmagic”(Mauss1972:64;Tambiah1968:190).

So,too,withMauss’ssecondlawofmagicalrepresentation,thatofsimilarity,inwhichlikebothproducesandactsuponlike,sothatanobject(afanchartorperfumebottle)isdesigned,andable,torepresentthewhole(theeconomyorattractiveness)whilealsoactingonittomakeithappen.Bysodoing,theideaoftheimageassumesthenatureofasymbol:agoodeconomysignalsfinancialsecurity,politicalacceptance,employment,familycontentment,andsoon;attractivenessacarefreewoman,happy,smiling,andnotinanywayparticipatingintheeconomy(exceptasconsumer).Forboththeeconomyandattractivenesstobecomereal,ratherthanimaginary,itissufficientforthemagiciantoselectasinglequality(inflation,happiness),whichcanthenbesetinopposition(thethirdlawofmagicalrepresentation)tootherselectedqualities(bankratesandstockmarketpriceindices,forexample,orseductionandromance)(Mauss1972:68-69).

Manyformsofrepresentationusedinmagicalritesareverbal.Indeed,utteringwordsintheformofaspellisitselfaritual,whichprogressesfromwordtothought,topower,andfinallytodeed(Tambiah1968:175).ThisiswhyMalinowski(1922:408)regardsthe“virtue,theforce,theeffectiveprincipleofmagic”aslyinginthespell.Whetherwearelookingatabeautyadvertisement(SouthFlorida’sfreshoptionforcosmeticmedicine),readingthelatestpronouncementinafashionmagazine(GallianoweavesmagicatHauteCouturecollection),orwatchingaBloombergnewsvideo(Is2,500themagicnumberinShanghai?),magicritesareusedto:

“Re-structureandintegratethemindsandemotionsoftheactors.Thetechniquecombinesverbalandnon-verbalbehaviourandexploitstheirspecialproperties.Languageisanartificialconstructanditsstrengthisthatitsformowesnothingtoexternalreality:itthusenjoysthepowertoinvokeimagesandcomparisons,refertotimepastandfutureandrelateeventswhichcannotberepresentedinaction.Non-verbalactionontheotherhand,excelsinwhatwordscannoteasilydo—itcancodifyanalogicallybyimitatingrealevents,reproducetechnicalactsandexpressmultipleimplicationssimultaneously.Wordsexcelinexpressiveenlargement,physicalactionsinrealisticrepresentation”(Tambiah1968:202).


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HavinglaidoutmyunderstandingofMauss’stheoryofmagic,Iwillnowillustratemythesisthatmagicisaliveandwellincontemporarysocietiesbyofferingsevenscenariosofmagicalthinkingandmagicalpractices—rangingfromculturalproductiontotechnology,bywayofmedia,finance,government,education,andthesociallyunderprivileged.Iwillfinishbytakingintoaccounthowthesystemofmagicians,rites,andrepresentationsisperformedinoureverydaylives.

Scenario1:Magicalrealismandtheuncertaintiesofculturalproduction

InOctober2015,hardontheheelsofParisFashionWeek,SuzyMenkes—who,atonestageatleast,epitomisedthenearestthingonecouldgetto“objective”reportinginthefashionindustry—praisedAlberElbaz,chiefdesigneratLanvin,forhis“magicalrealism.”Preciselywheresuchmagicalrealismwastobefoundwashardtojudge.Wasitinthe“stretchycorsets[made]tofitsnuglyunderaone-shoulderblackdresswithslitsbetweentheangulardrapes?”Orinthedesigner’sabilityto“simplifytheclosetintoanartform?”6Whatever,Menkes’takeonmagicalrealismseemsalongwayfromthatofanotherfashiondesigner,TataChristiane,whosemagicalrealismcollectionblurred“whatisrealandwhatisfiction”with“mockedmood,mixtureoffabricsandmotivs[sic].Feathersandfroufrou.Fantasticandmarvellous.AndHumour.”7

Neitherofthesetakesonmagicalrealismbearsmuchresemblancetoitsartisticandliteraryorigins,8although(unlesswearededicatedfashionistas)wewouldrecognizethat,intheworldoffashion,magicalrealismspeaksfromtheperspectiveofpeoplewholiveinourworldbutexperienceadifferentrealityfromtheonewecallobjective.Inshort,itendeavourstoshowusaworldthroughtheeyesofothers.Inthisrespect,wemaynotethatfashionisoftendescribedintermsofmagic,andtheindustryitselfoperatesaccordingtomagicalthinking(Moeran2015).Designersare“magicians”or“shamans”whohave“muses”;their

6SuzyMenkes,“#SuzyPFW:Lanvin—Magicalrealism.”October1,2015.http://www.vogue.com.tw/suzymenkes/content_en.asp?ids=222947TataChristiane,“Magicalrealismchapter1.”December10,2011.https://www.behance.net/gallery/2655981/Magical-Realism-Chapter-I-editorial8Althoughfirstbroughttopublicattentionas“magicrealism”bytheGermanartcritic,FranzRoh,“magicalrealism”waslaterappliedtotheworkofSouthAmericanwriterslikeGabrielGarciaMarquezandIsabelleAllende,andwasfirstenunciatedinthefieldoffashioninaseriesoficonicphotographstakenbyMelvinSokolskyinthemid-1960s.Sokolsky’sinfluencecanbeseentodayintheworkofcontemporaryfashionphotographerslikeCraigMcDean,StevenMeisel,andRyanMcGinley.


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collectionsare“magical”astheyplaywithfantasyandreality;andfashionitselfisallabout“glamour”—anoldScottishwordmeaning“enchantment.”InsomewaysnotrecognizedbyMenkesorChristiane,thefashionsystemmayberatherclosetomagicalrealism,inthatforit,too,timeisnotlinear,causalityissubjective,andthemagicalandtheordinaryareoneandthesame.Evenso,magicalrealismcomesandgoesintermsofcriticalconsciousness:inthisseason,outthenext—afactwhichleadsmetocommentontheuncertaintycharacterizingnotjustfashionandthefashionindustry,butculturalproductioningeneral.

Theuncertaintyofculturalproduction(bywhichIrefertotheprocessesbywhichart,fashion,film,literature,music,performingarts,andvideogamesareconceived,created,distributed,andsold)isfirstandforemostfinancial,sincedemandisuncertainand“nobodyknows”(Caves2000:3)whetheranycreativeproductisevergoingtobea“hit”ora“miss”(BielbyandBielby2004).LucianaArrighi,ProductionDesignerfortheMerchantIvoryfilmHowardsEnd,putitthisway:

“Noneofuseverknowwhetherafilmisgoingtobeasuccessornot,andIthinkthat’spartofthemagicofthefilmindustry,becauseyouknowwhatisgoodorbad—or,atleast,Ican—butyouneverknowwhetherit’sgoingtohitthejackpot.”

Thisfinancialuncertaintyprincipleinculturalproductionisaccompaniedbyanotherofwhatwemaybroadlydefineas“aesthetics.”Magazineeditors,stylists,photographers,fashiondesigners,andothercreativepersonnelcanrarely—ifever—bepinneddownbeforehandabouttheaestheticchoicesthatgointothestructuringofafashionmagazineissue,theshootingofafashionwell,theselectionofamodel,andsoon.Theymaytrytostagethingsbeforehand,buttheyareinfactlookingforwhatMarioTestinohasreferredtoas“unpremeditatedmagic”tomakethingshappen.AsOrsonWellesonceremarkedoffilm:“AsafilmdirectorIpresideoveruncertainty.”

Thisaestheticuncertainty(whatRichardCaves[2000:3-10],inhisseminalworkoncreativeindustries,referstoastheartforart’ssakeproperty)stemsinlargepartfromtheoftenunanticipatedtransformationsthatoccurasmentalconcepttakesontwo-orthree-dimensionalformandisthenre-usedwithitsowninternaltransformations(witnessafashionmagazinedescriptionofacollection:Aflourishoffeathersturnsasemi-longcoatutterlyseductive).Thefactthatnobodyiseverquitesureabouthowaninnervisionwillmaterialiseduringthecreationofaproduct,norhowanaudiencewillreacttoit,explainsbothaestheticandfinancialuncertainty,whilealsoaddingtothefinishedproduct’sperceivedmagicalquality.

Likeallformsofculturalproduction,makingafashioncollectionoreditingafashionmagazinerequirescarefulcoordinationofthediverseskillsofdesigners,seamstresses,fabriccutters,editors,make-upartists,


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photographers,publishers,layoutartists,advertisingmanagers,hairstylists,models,andsoonandsoforth.ThisiswhatCavesreferstoasamotleycrewproperty.

Witheverystepalongthewaytocompletion,allthenecessarypersonnelmustcometogetheranddotheirnecessaryworkwithinanallottedtimeframe.Thismethodofworkorganizationinvolvesconsiderablenegotiationamongthedifferentcreativepeopleabouthowbesttopersuadetheiraudienceoftheefficacyoftheirmagicalpractices.Althoughallformsofculturalproductionaresubjecttohierarchicalformsofmanagement,thereisstillalotofroomformanoeuvringwithregardtowhatthefinalproductwilllooklike,sothatsocialuncertaintyalsoprevails.Thoseinvolvedinculturalproductionareneverquitesurehowothersaregoingtoreacttotheirideasandwaysofdoingthings.Itiswithinsuchaframeworkofuncertaintiesthatthefashion,film,music,media,art,animeandotherculturalindustriesoperate.

Scenario2:Mediaandthemagicoffootball

Letusnowturntoanotherkindofuncertainty:chance.Inmodernsocieties,asIsuggestedearlier,amagician’spublicisinlargepartcreatedandsustainedbythemediaanditsvariousproducers.Mainstreammediareport,primarily,thewordsanddeedsofindividualsandorganizationsseentobecentraltothestructureofasociety(politics,theeconomy,education,healthcare,and,inthescenariothatfollows,sport).Inthat(intheory,atleast)theycheckcontentandsubjectittoeditorialscrutiny,mainstreammediaactasgatekeeperswho“organize”magicians,togetherwiththeirritesandrepresentations—somethingwesawratherclearlyattheendoftheEnglishPremierLeaguefootballseasoninthelatespringof2016.

Itissaidthatbookiestendtofitintotwocategoriesintheirassessmentsofchance:those“whorelyonputtingendlessamountsof‘big’dataintoalgorithmicmachines,”inanefforttoremovechanceandluckfromtheequation;andthosewho“relyonexperience,form,intuition,punditsandthehistorybooks.”9Eitherway,theiragreedcalculationinAugust2015,atthestartofthefootballseasoninquestion,wasthattheoddsagainstLeicesterCitywinningtheEnglandfootballleaguepremiershiptitlewere5000-1.Theywere,perhaps,influencedbythefactsthat,first,Leicesterhad“miraculously”escapedrelegationinthepreviousseason;second,theirnewmanager,ClaudioRanieri,“thenearlyman”,hadbeensackedbyGreecethatsummer(forlosingathometothe

9MarkShapland,“AsluckypunterscollectonLeicesterCitywinningthePremierLeagueat5,000-1,whydidbookiesoffersuchcrazilyhighodds?”ThisisMoney.co.uk,May6,2016.http://www.thisismoney.co.uk/money/news/article-3571428/Why-did-bookies-offer-crazily-high-5-000-1-odds-Leicester-City.html


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FaroeIslands),andhadneverwonatop-flighttitleinhismanagingcareer;andthird,thePremierLeaguehadbeendominatedbyfourclubswhichhadshared22ofthe23titlessinceitsinaugurationin1992.Mediagleefullypointedoutthatbookieswereofferingshorteroddson,forexample,Britain’sPrimeMinister,DavidCameron,beingappointedmanagerofAstonVillafootballclub(2500-1);ElvisPresleybeingdiscoveredalive(2000-1);HughHefneradmittingheisavirgin(1000-1);orSimonCowell,ofX-FactorandAmericanIdolfame,becomingnextPrimeMinisterafterDavidCameron(500-1).

Defyingtheodds,asbynowmanyofusknow,LeicesterCitywonEngland’sPremierLeagueandwasasaresultreferredtointhemediaasa“magicalteam.”10Butwhowasitsmagician?Themanagerwho,withhisimaginarybell(“Dillyding!Dillydong!”),“turnedwaterintowine?”11Ortheplayers—asolid“backfour”whodidn’tbelieveinpassingtooneanother,whileothersfurtherforwardwereableto“conjuremagic”outoftheir“twinkle-toes?”Orwasitneitherofthese,butalongdeadKingofEngland,RichardIII,whosereburialinLeicesterinlateMarch2015cameimmediatelybeforetheFoxes’revival(aniceexampleofcontagiousmagic)?12OrshouldthecreditgotoaThaiBuddhistmonkwho,accordingtoaNigerianwebsite,hadbeendistributing“blackmagic”charmstotheplayersandblessingthesoccerpitchattheclub’sKingPowerStadiumoverthepreviousthreeyears?13

Notsurprisingly,therewasarationalistbacklashtoallthis,sothatmediacommentators—likebookies—weredividedintotwocamps.Therationalistcamparguedthattheromanticcampneededtobekeptincheck,andstartedto“debunk”theclub’s“miracle.”LeicesterCity’ssuccesswasaboutsystems,itsproponentssaid;notromance.Theclubsucceededbecauseitinvestedinmarginalgains,rangingfromapioneeringscoutingsystemtorotationalfouling,aimedatreducingyellowcards.14Theclubwasnodifferentfromthe“BigFour”(thatwon

10“Europeansuperleague:LeicesterCity‘magic’deservingofplaceinsuperleague.”BBCSport,April5,2016.http://www.bbc.com/sport/football/3596844311“HowClaudioRanieribroughtmagictoLeicesterCity.”FinancialReview,May7,2016.http://www.afr.com/business/sport/how-claudio-ranieri-brought-magic-to-leicester-city-20160506-gontgd12The“Foxes”isthenicknamegiventotheLeicesterCityteam.GaryLineker,“nothingcomparestothistrulymagicaltitlechargebymyLeicesterCity.”TheGuardian,March13,2016.https://www.theguardian.com/football/2016/mar/13/gary-lineker-leicester-city-premier-league-titlere13“Revealed:LeicesterCityhavebeenusingblackmagic(charms)onopponents.”AllSoccerPlanet,March15,2016.http://www.allsoccerplanet.com/2016/03/revealed-leicester-city-have-been-using-black-magic-charm-on-opponents/14EdSmith,“ThemagicofLeicesterCitygoeswellbeyondfootball.”The


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22outoftheprevious23championshiptitles)inhowitmadeuseofnewtechnologytoanalyseamassofdataonhowplayersperformed.Whatwashypedbythemediaas“magic,”theycontinued,wasinfactbasedupondatameasurement,calculation,analysis,andrationalisedstrategy.Thisargumentnotwithstanding,mediaorganizations—likethoseintheadvertisingindustry(McCreery1995)—werenotashamedofusingmagicalexplanationsforeventstheycouldnototherwiseexplain.

Scenario3:Politicians,Grexit,andtheeconomyofappearances

Inthelatespringof2016,EurozonefinanceministersagreedtoextendfurtherloanstoGreeceinwhatwasthencalled“amajorbreakthrough”inanongoingcrisis.Ordidthey?Itseemedatonepointthatnobodywasquitesure.WhatpeoplearenowsureaboutisthatGreece’sentryintotheEurozonewassurroundedbyabitof“creativeaccounting,”or“magic,”performedbytheheadofthecountry’sstatisticalagency,whomadeinflationandthebudgetdeficitdisappearinordertomeetMaastrichtTreatyrequirementsthatinfutureallmembersshouldhaveabudgetdeficitofbelowthreepercent.15Onceacceptedintothe“EUclub,”thecountryenjoyedlowerinterestratesandwasabletoborrowexorbitantamountsofmoney.Publicdebtballoonedto113percentofGDPin2009,andbyApril2015wasestimatedataround175percent(andinMay2016,at180percent!).Insteadofreformingpublicfinances,theGreekgovernmentborrowedmoreandmoremoneytomeetthedeficit.Inretrospect,itseemsastonishingthatbanksqueueduptolend.ThemarketsdidnotbelievetherewasariskofdefaultbecauseGreece'scurrency,theEuro,waslockedintothatofGermany,andGermanyhasbeentheeconomicpowerhouseofEurope—asituationwhichthenledtocallsforGermany,notGreece,toleavetheEurozone.Oneoftwoextremeshadtogo!16

Furthermagicalthinkingwasperformedwhenanewgovernment,underPrimeMinisterAlexisTsipras,threatenedanexitfromthecurrencyunioninordertogetmoreofapro-growthprogrammefromitscreditors,evenasitundidsomeofthereformsthosecreditorshadagreedwith

Guardian,April30,2016.http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/apr/30/leicester-city-rise-premier-league-football-capitalism15AlanLittle,“How’magic’madeGreekdebtdisappearbeforeitjoinedtheEuro.”BBCNews,February3,2012.http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-1683481516“Whyit’stimeforGermanytoleavetheEurozone.”TheDailyTelegraph,May28,2016.http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11752954/Why-its-time-for-Germany-to-leave-the-eurozone.htmlItturnsout,however,thattheUKisthecountrythathasoptedoutoftheEU.Foradiscussionofthemagicalpracticesthattookplaceduringtherun-uptotheReferenduminJune2016,seemyshorteditorialinAnthropologyToday(Moeran2016).


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previousgovernmentsinreturnforGreece’sfirsttwobailouts.Whenthisfailed,anewmagicalperformancetookplace,asTsiprasandEUofficialstriedtostretchthelimitsoftheiraudience’srationalcalculationsbyconjuringthepossibilityofthecountry’srevitalisedeconomicperformanceinthefuture.ArgumentsagainstfurtherdebtreliefweresupportedbytheideathatGreece’sborrowings,whileastronomical,camewithsuchgoodterms,atbelow-marketrates,thatwhatappearedtobeadebtlevelof200percentofGDPwasreallymorelike150percentofGDPinnetpresentvalueterms.Inotherwords,thedebtloadwasactuallyquitemanageableifthoseconcernedpretendedthatGreececouldpayitallbackrightnowatthetimethebail-outwasoffered.17Thistime,inan“economyofappearances,”politiciansandbankersengagedinaperformancethatwasbotheconomicanddramatic,justastheBre-XgoldstrikeinIndonesia,describedbyAnnaTsing,was“adrama,aconjuringtrick,anillusion”—a“self-consciousmakingofaspectacle”thatwas“anecessaryaidtogatheringinvestmentfunds”(Tsing2000:118).

Bre-X,BrexitandGrexit18allfollowedascriptseeminglybasedonrationalarguments,ratherthanonwhatwereinfactmagicalpremises.“Magic,ratherthanstrictdescription,callscapital”(Tsing2000:120).Politicians,economists,analysts,regulators,andmediaallparticipatedinaconjuringtrickinwhichspectacleandmysteryplayedwithrealityasthecharismaoftheperformers(AlexisTsipras,AngelaMerkel)movedtheiraudience(financialinstitutions,theGreekpeople)beyondthelimitsofrationalcalculation(Tsing2000:118,127)inanattempttoshoreupthefinancial,andwithittheorganizational,uncertaintyoftheEUanditsfuture.

Scenario4:MagicalWordsattheWorldEconomicForum,Davos

NotfornothingisDavosstillreferredtoasTheMagicMountain.Everyyear,inthoseconditionsoftransparencyandopacity,secrecyandpublicity,revelationandconcealmentwhichcharacterizeallmagicalacts(GarstenandSörbom2016;Taussig2003),seniorexecutivesofglobalcorporations,headsofstate,NGOs,NobelPrizewinners,ForbesListbillionaires,popsingers,private-equityhedgefundmanagers,humanrightsactivists,anoccasional“royal”orPope,andvariousotherselectedleadersofcivilsocietygatherattheWorldEconomicForum(W.E.F.)fora

17TimFernholz,”HowtomagicallyeraseGreekdebtwithonesimpletrick.”Quartz,August17,2015.http://qz.com/480987/how-to-magically-erase-greek-debt-with-one-simple-trick/18WemightherenotethemagicalqualityoftheletterXwhichsignifies,amongotherthings,theChristiancross,themarkonaballotpaper,anilliterate’ssignature,amathematicalvariable,andtelevisionprogrammeswithmysticalcontentsoroutcomes,liketheXFilesandXFactor.


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fewdaysinorderto“improvethestateoftheworld”—amissionstatementthatissometimesinterpretedas“don’toffendanyone.”19

Eachmeetinghasitstheme:“TheFourthIndustrialRevolution”(2016),“ResilientDynamism”(2013),or“TheGreatTransformation”(2012)—thelastamagical(and,inthecontextofKarlPolanyi’sbookbythesametitle,somewhatironical)attemptbygovernmentandbusinessmagicianstofacethefactthat“capitalismnolongerfitstheworldaroundus.”

W.E.F.nowpublishesaselectionof“inspirationalquotes”everyyear.Theseincludebanalitiessuchas:“Innovationisaninexhaustibleengineforeconomicdevelopment”(LiKequiang,PremierofthePRC)and“Highereducationisthestrongest,sturdiestladdertoincreasedsocio-economicmobility”(DrewFaust,President,HarvardUniversity);andsomewhatmoresurprisinglineslike:“Comingouthasmademeabetterleader”(BethBrookeMarciniak,GlobalViceChairofPublicPolicy,EY),and“We’veheardalotabouttheInternetofthings—IthinkweneedanInternetofwomen”(ChristineLagarde,IMFManagingDirector).Wewouldprobablyunderlinesuchstatementsheavilyinredinkifourstudentsweretowritethemintheirtermessays,butinthecontextofDavosoursuspectstudentsareindeedtransformedintowizards.

Whatemergesmoststronglyisthefactthat“Davos”(ametonymicsubstitutioncharacteristicofmagic[Tambiah1985:36])isa“talkfest”—“anexerciseincorporatespeeddating”where“thefasteryouwalk,themoreimportantyouare”20—wherewords,thoughts,power,andtheoccasionaldeedcometogetherinanannualrite,ortournamentofvalues(Moeran2010).ThelanguageusedatDavosis“amixtureofcorporatejargon,future-fixationanddeploymentofairyconceptsintendedtoconveyprescientwisdom.”21Thusdowereadabout“drillingdown,”“catalysingmulti-stakeholdervalue,”“playingineveryvertical,”and“navigatingacirculareconomy.”Welearn,too,of“theresilienceimperative,”“equalitability,”“unrecruitment,”“globalburn-outsyndrome,”and“hardwirecompetitiveness”22–phrasesdesignedthroughtheirobscuritytomakeordinarypeoplethinkthatthoseparticipatingmustbesmartandknowwhattheyaredoing―eventhough,bymany

19“AfewtruthsaboutDavos.”DavosNewbies.http://www.davosnewbies.com/posts/a-few-truths-about-davos/20NickPaumgarten,“MagicMountain:WhathappensatDavos?”TheNewYorker,March5,2012.http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/03/05/magic-mountain21A.McE.“Thelanguageofpower.TheWorldEconomicForumhasitsowndistinctivelanguage.”TheEconomist,January26,2014.http://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2014/01/davos-speak?fsrc=scn/fb/wl/bl/languageofpower22Ibid.


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accounts,itistheparticipantsthemselveswhohavecausedtheinequalitythattheyproclaimmustbeovercome.23Theirwords,then,aresacredand“possessaspecialkindofpowernotnormallyassociatedwithordinarylanguage”(Tambiah1985:22)because—likeBuddhistmonksusingthedeadPalilanguageinritualsinnortheastThailand—theyviolatetheircommunicativefunctionbycreatingneologismsoutofthedeadlanguageofLatin(andoccasionalAncientGreek).Eventhoughtheyareutteredbytheanointedhighpriestsofgovernment,politics,business,andpopculture,theirmagicalpowershouldnotbeattributedtothespeakersthemselves(howeverelevatedtheirstatus).Rather,itresidesintheirwords,whichbecomeeffectiveonlybecausetheyareutteredinaveryspecialcontextofotheraction—theWorldEconomicForumatDavos(Tambiah1985:18).

Scenario5:Universityrankingsperformingeducation

AccordingtotheTimesHigherEducation(THE),OxfordUniversitydisplacedtheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology(CalTech)asthetoprankeduniversityintheworldin2016-17.TheywerefollowedbyStanfordandCambridgeUniversities,andthenMIT.AmongAsianuniversities,theNationalUniversityofSingapore(NUS)cameinat24,PekingUniversityat29,TsinghuaUniversityat35,theUniversityofTokyoat39,andtheUniversityofHongKong(HKU)at43=.24AtleastoneotherrankingsystemforuniversitiescompeteswiththatoftheTHE.TheQSWorldUniversityRankings,forexample,saysthatMITisNumber1,followedbyStanford,Harvard,Cambridge,CalTech,andOxford.Inthis“system,”NUScameinat12,HKUat27,andTokyoUniversityat34.

ThecriteriausedbytheTHEtoarriveattheserankingsincludeteaching,internationaloutlook,industryincome,research,andcitations(inthatorder),andwouldseemtoincludeotherfactorssuchasthenumberofFTE(FullTimeEquivalent)students,student/staffandfemale/maleratios.QS,ontheotherhand,referstoacademicreputation,employerreputation,facultystudentratios,internationalfaculty,internationalstudents,andcitationsperfaculty.

QSalsooperatesa“star”system,independentofrankings,whichisbasedon:(1)“corecriteria”ofteaching,employability,research,andinternationalization(withbetweenfourandseven“indicators”foreach);(2)learningenvironment(facilitiesandonline/distancelearning);(3)specialistcriteria(disciplinerankingandaccreditation);and(4)

23“Davosgeniusesill-equippedtorecognizeeconomicstructuralproblems,addressinequality.”InterviewwithCurtisEllis,RT.January22,2015.https://www.rt.com/op-edge/225039-economy-davos-switzerland-rich/24https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/world-university-rankings-2016-2017-results-announced


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“advancedcriteria”(socialresponsibility,innovation,arts&culture,inclusiveness).Universitiesareinvitedtoapplyfor“starrating”tohelptheirbranding,marketing,studentrecruitment,employmentplacements,increasedmediaawareness,andothersimilaradministrativeexercises.

Whatisclearhereisthatsuchcriteriamustbereducibletonumbers,anditissuchnumbersthatareindicativeofmagicalthinkinginthattheyimplypersuasive(notpredictive)analogiesbetweenindicators,rankings,andthequalityofuniversityeducation.Theiraimof“likeattractslike”(gooduniversitiesattractgoodteachers,goodresearchers,goodstudents,andviceversa)isatypicalexampleofsympatheticandcontagiousmagicthatallowsrankingstobeconstitutive.LikeBankofEnglandfanchartsandeconomicactivity(Holmes2014:23),rankingsandstarratingscreateeducation—whichisanon-quantifiableexperience—asanempiricalfact.Theyareasetofinstrumentscontributingtotheconstructionofeducationalsettings,actors,andinstitutions(Mackenzie,MuniesaandSiu2007:3-4);theydefinethe“value”ofresearch(throughcitationindices);obligescholarstopublishinjournals(whicharethemselvesrankedandgivepointstoresearcherswhopublishinthem)(seeBrenneis2016);encouragetheformationofmutualback-slappingcliques(whousemutualcitationtoestablishtheirworth);anddiscourageinnovativethinkingthatdoesnotconformtothecoreofadiscipline.Inthissense,then,statisticsdoindeedtransformwhatisacceptedastertiaryeducation(Didier2007:302).ToadaptsomethingsaidbyMichelCallon(2009:19):therearenoeffectsof—oron—knowledgewithoutwell-designedinterventions.Theissue,then,isnotwhatcriteria(forexample:teaching,research,citationindices,A/Blistjournals)weshouldusetodefineuniversityeducation,buthowbehaviours,institutions,agencements,andrulesofthegameaffectinguniversityeducationarelearned.Inshort,wearedealingwith—andmyapologiesforsuchabastardizationoftheEnglishlanguage—“educationization”;inotherwords,withhow“education”appears(Callon2009:22).

Rankings,andtheaccompanyingargumentssurroundingtheirpresence,areafineexampleofhowamagicalriteisperformative.Inotherwords,theycannotbedescribedmerelyassayingsomething,sincetheyalsodoit.Inthissense,theyareillocutionaryacts(Austin1975)which,simplybybeingpublishedeveryyear,haveconsequencesandeffectchange(intermsoffacultyhirings,studentnumbers,researchgrants,externalfunding,andsoon).Likeritualactsingeneral,rankingscannotbesubjectedtoverificationand,besidesactingasacontrolmechanismonresearchers,“areoftengearedtoachievingpracticalresults”(Tambiah1985:81,83).Thisisthefunctionofuniversityrankingsandallotherformsofmeasurementthatcurrently“bedevil”highereducation.


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Scenario6:GPSandtheenchantmentoftechnology

InFebruary2016,anAmericantouristinIceland,NoelSantillon,directedtheGPSunitinhisrentalcartoguidehimfromKeflavikInternationalAirporttoahotelinnearbyReykjavik.25Manyhoursandmorethan250icymileslater,hepulledoverinSiglufjordur,afishingvillageontheoutskirtsoftheArcticCircle.Althoughhehad“aninklingthatsomethingmightbewrong”—onthewaynorthhehadseensignsshowingthatReykjavikwasintheotherdirection—helatersaidthathehad“puthisfaithintheGPS.”26Althoughhiserrorwasinitiallyoneofspelling(anextraletterrinthenameofthestreetinwhichhishotelwastobefound),Mr.SantillonisnottheonlypersonwhohasplacedabsolutefaithinGPStechnology.AgroupofJapanesetouristsinWesternAustraliawoundupinthemiddleofMoretonBayathightide,whentheyinsistedonfollowingtheircar’sGPSinstructionstoturnontoasubmergedcauseway(onlyvisibleandpossiblypassableatlowtide),ratherthandriveacrossabridge(visibleatalltimes)totheirislanddestination(Figure5).Otherdrivershaveendedupinaswamp,ariver,apileofsand,andacherrytreebyobeyingtheirGPS.27AwomaninBelgium,whoaskedtheGPSinhercartotakehertopickupafriendatastationnearBrusselslessthantwohoursaway,turnedupinCroatiatwodays(and900miles)later.28

Whatisgoingonhere?AlfredGell(1988,1992)hasarguedthatonewayhumanbeingsdistinguishthemselvesfromotherspeciesisbytheirtechnologicalcapabilities.Weuse—sometimessimple,sometimescomplex—technicalmeanstoformabridgebetweenasetof“given”elements(thebody,forinstance,orabasematerial,orenvironmentalfeature),andagoalthatwewanttoachievebymakinguseofthesegivens(theachievementofbeauty,forinstance,ortheperfectionofalchemy,orsavingtherainforest).

Oneofthetechnologiesthatweoftenuseisthatofenchantment.

25IamgratefultoTimothyMalefytforsharingwithmesomeoftheexamplesandideasdescribedhere.26DanBilefsky,“GPSmix-upbringswrongturn–andcelebrity–toAmericaninIceland.”TheNewYorkTimes,February4,2016.http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/05/world/europe/iceland-american-tourist-gps.html?_r=027RobertWabash,“NinecaraccidentscausedbyGoogleMaps&GPS.”Ranker.http://www.ranker.com/list/9-car-accidents-caused-by-google-maps-and-gps/robert-wabash?var=5&utm_expid=16418821-201.EEIZkBszS3O1rZiBcoCRjg.2&utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com.hk%2F28SaraMalm,“Belgianwomanblindlydrove900milesacrossEuropeasshefollowedbrokenGPSinsteadof38milestothestation.”MailOnline,January14,2013.http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2262149/Belgian-woman-67-picking-friend-railway-station-ends-Zagreb-900-miles-away-satnav-disaster.html


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Thetechnologyofenchantment,hesays,isprobablythemostsophisticatedpsychologicalweaponweusetoexertcontroloverthethoughtsandactionsofotherhumanbeings,becauseit“exploitsinnateorderivedpsychologicalbiasestoenchanttheotherpersonandcausehim/hertoperceivesocialrealityinawayfavourabletothesocialinterestsoftheenchanter”(Gell1988:7).

Clearly,technologyenchants;ithasthepowerofcastingaspelloverus(Gell1992:163).Inthisrespect,thereisnobasisforanoppositionbetweenthetechnicalandthemagical(Gell1988:6)forallthedriversmentionedabovewereenchantedbytheirGPStoperceiverealitythewayinwhichtheirGPSwantedthemtoperceiveit(p.7).Atthesametime,thesymbolicmediacommentaryontheirmishapscanborderonmagicalthinking(“inkling,”“faith,”“blindlyfollowed,”“distracted”).Inthisway,technology,togetherwithitsmediareporting,sustainsmagic(p.9).

AndyettheenchantmentthattookplacedoesnotfitGell’sideathatthetechnologyofenchantmentisforsocialpurposes,aimedatcontrollingthethoughtsandactionsofotherpeople(Malefyt2017).Rather,itisuniquelypersonal,involvingindividualpeople’sidiosyncraticwaysofusingthetechnologyintheircars.AGPSislikeIT—informationtechnologywhoseimplementation,itisbelieved,cantransformanorganization’sworkpractices.Bypurchasingtheappropriatesoftwareprogrammes,bothlinemanagersandITspecialistsareconvincedthatITwillmagicallybringaboutorganizationalchange.Whattheyfailtorealiseisthatthis“magicbullet”doesnot—indeed,cannot—ensurethatuserswilluseIT(oraGPSsystem)asintended(MarkusandBenjamin1997:59).Nogunfiresitself;itneedssomeonetopickitup,aimatatarget,andsqueezethetrigger.Somepeople,aswehavejustseenwhenitcomestoGPSnavigation,arenotverygoodatfiring.Theytakeaim,butsomehow(throughinattentionorinadvertence)fireatthewrongtargetand,insodoing,allowtheirenchantmentwithtechnologytooverrulecommonsense.

Scenario7:Magicaltransformationsofsocialinferiors

Popularculturehasalwayshadaninterestinmagicalbeings—asthefairlyrecentfadforHarryPotterbookshasremindedus.Iwill,however,lookfurtherafieldtoillustratethispoint.29Japanesepopularliterature

29OneofthereviewersofmyoriginalsubmissiontotheJBAseemedsurprisedthatIshouldchooseanon-Westernexampleinthismagicalscenario.PerhapsIshouldremindmyreadersoftwothings:first,ajournalofbusinessanthropologyshouldbelookingattradingpracticesbeyondtheWesternhemisphere;second,Japanisanadvancedcapitalistsocietywheremanyofthescenariosprovidedherearealsotobefound.Thesamemaybesaid,tosomedegreeatleast,ofChina,SouthKorea,Singapore,Thailand,andotherAsiancountries.Whatweneedtoresearchiswhetherthedegreetowhichtheyarefoundthereisthesame,andin


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hasformanycenturiesincorporatedmagicalbeingsintooneorotherofitsnumerousforms.FromKaguyahime(inthetenthcenturyTaketorinoMonogatari)tothecontemporaryanimationseries,SailorMoon,bywayofmedievalliteraturecharacterslikeMomotarō,weencountermagicalbeingswhocomefromorbattlewithotherworlds,andwhotransformthemselvesand/orothersduringtheprocess.30Suchtransformationscanbeintermsofmaterialwell-being—aswhenthediscoveryofKaguyahimeandMomotarōleadstogreatwealthonthepartofthepoverty-stricken,childless,oldcoupleswhofoundthemandbroughtthemup.Theyalmostinvariablyinvolveatransformationfromchildhoodtoadulthood—witnessthegirlheroinesofcontemporaryanime,MinkyMomoandCreamyMami,whosharethemagicalabilitytomorphintogrown-upimagesofthemselves(asafairyprincessandpopidol,respectively).

Inonerespect,suchmagicaltransformationsfocusongenderrelationsinJapan:Kaguyahimeisayoungwomanbesetbysuitors(includingtheEmperor)askingforherhandinmarriage,butwhomshesuccessfullyrebuts;SailorMoon’smagicalwarriorsareJapan’ssymbolsof“girlpower,”battlingevilontheirown,withouttheleadershipofmen.Manycontemporarymagicalgirl(mahōshōjo)mangaandanimeallowyounggirlsnotjusttofantasizeaboutadulthood,buttemporarilytoexperienceitbeforereturningtotheirchildhoodlives.Magicisusedtobridgethegapbetweengirls’realselvesandtheiridealofyoungwomanhoodasthey“startcomingtogripswithsocialnormsoffemininebeautyandsexuality”(Sugawa2015).

Atthesametime,theintroductionofmagicalbeingsintopopularcultureoftenaccompaniestheuncertaintiesofmajorsocialchange.31ThestoryofKaguyahime,themoonprincesswhoiscourtedbytheEmperorofJapan,mightbeinterpretedasanallegoryofthearrivalofBuddhisminJapananditsinevitableclashwiththenativereligionofShintō;themangaheroine,SallytheWitch(MahōtsukaiSarī[1966]),whoalsocomesfromanotherdistantworld,representsapotentmetaphorforJapan’swesternizationandmodernizationinitshigh-growthperiod,asSallybringsnoveltyandtransformationtotheworldofhumans(Japan)froma

whichsectorsofsocietymagicalpracticesareprevalent.30Kaguyahimeappearsinvariousmediaforms:manga(KimimaroKaguya),anime(KaguyaSumeragi),computergames(KaguyaHōraisan),andvideogames(KaguyaNanbi).MomotarōwasapopularcharacterrepresentingtheJapaneseGovernmentinJapaneseWorldWarIIfilms,asitfoughtagainst“Americandevils”(oni).Thecharacterisalsofoundincontemporaryanime(MahōnoPrincessMinkyMomo)andvideogames(MomotarōDensetsu).31ThissuggeststhatcurrentuncertaintiessurroundingresultsoftheEUReferendumintheUnitedKingdomandtheelectionofDonaldTrumpasPresidentoftheUSAmaygiverisetoaproliferationofmagicalperformances(see,forexample,Moeran2016).


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remoteandmagicalrealm(theWest).

Frompovertytowealth,fromdiminutiveandnondescriptschoolgirltolong-leggedbeauty,frompre-pubescentgirltoeroticisedsuper-warrior,themagicaltransformationswroughtonbehalfofthesociallyunderprivilegedinJapanesepopularcultureextendintootherareasofgenderuncertainty:femaleempowerment,maternalnurturing,andtherejectionofheterosexualrelationsinfavouroflesbian-themedgirls’love(yuri)(in,forexample,PuellaMagiMadokaMagica)(Sugawa2015).

Itgoeswithoutsaying,ofcourse,thatfemalecharactersinJapanesepopularvisualsbearlittleresemblancetoreal-lifewomeninJapan,eventhough“themagicalgirlgenrehasbeenanactivesiteofcontestingideassurroundinggenderrolesandidentities”(Saito2014:145).WhatisperhapsinterestingisSaito’sassertionthatthemagicalgirlgenreisdrivenbythemarketingstrategiesofmajortoycompanies,likeBandai,whichcapitaliseongender-dividedsalesofcharactermerchandiseandgadgetsusedbycharactersintelevisionanimeprogrammes(ibid.p.144).Inotherwords,themagicalexploitsofSailorMoon’sTsukinoUsagi(literallyRabbitfromtheMoon)andothermagicalgirlcharactersatthelevelofpopularculturalcontentarenotusedtoreveal,buttoskilfullyconceal(Taussig2003:298),thetrickeryofanothermagicalpractice:thatofmarketing.

This,maybe,iswhatmagicisallabout.Overtlyaboutuncertaintyandunpredictability,magicalpracticesactuallyconcealmoreimportantissues,whilepartiallyrevealingthem.PoliticiansinWesterncountriesusemagictoconcealthefactthatdemocracy(orsocialismorcommunism)doesnotworkonbehalfofevenamajority—letaloneall—ofthepeopleintheireverydaylives.Culturalproducerstalkofmagicintheirpracticestoconcealthefactthatingeneraltheyarebesetbyaesthetic,social,andfinancialconstraintsoraffordancesthatmakeitverydifficultforthemtoworkcreatively(Moeran2014).Theirmagicalexplanationsalsodisguisethefactthatthe“culture”theyproduceisonlymadeupofcommodities.Governmentsperform“education”asasetofinstitutionalmeasurementsinordertocoverupitsprimaryaim:tomoveyoungpeopleseamlesslyintojobsattheexpenseoffreedomofthoughtanduntrammelledlearning―bothofwhichcanbedangeroustoasociety’sstatusquo.Magic,inshort,playswiththeextenttowhichwehaveneverbeenmodern(MeyerandPels2003)andourbeliefthatthemodernworld,asWeberargued,istrulydisenchanted(Latour1993:114).Likebelief,weusemagictoreinforceourdelusions,byreferringto:

“Theprocessthatallowsonetokeepanofficialtheoryatthefurthestpossibledistancefromitsinformalpractice,withoutanyrelationshipbetweenthetwoexceptforthepassionate,anxious,andmeticulouscaretakentomaintaintheseparation.”


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(Latour2010:24)

PerformingMagic

Theforegoingscenariosareintendedtoprovokethought,ratherthanactasdefinitivetheoreticalanalysesofmagicalpracticesatwork.Whattheyallillustrate,however,isthatmagiciansperformtheirritesandrepresentations.Ifwesay,withAppadurai(2015:49),thatnotjustfinanciers,butadvertisingagencies,architects,CEOs,consultants,entrepreneurs,fashiondesigners,headsofstate,lawyers,marketers,andNGOs,amongothers,channeltheworkingsofuncertaintysothattheycanbecomewinnersinwhatisagameofrisk,thenjusthowtheydosoneedstobeexamined(Holmes2014;Moeran2015;Vangkilde2012).Inotherwords,aswellasaskinghowmagiciansbecomerecognizedassuch,weneedtoexaminehowmagicisperformedincontemporarycapitalistsocieties.

Letusstartwiththewayinwhichlanguage(orrhetoric[McCloskey1998])isusedtoperformanactionbybeingspoken(whatAustin[1975:5-6]referredtoasan“illocutionaryact”).That“sayingsomethingmakesittrue”(Searle1998:115)issomethingIarguedinmyexampleofuniversityrankings.ItisanapproachtakenbyDouglasHolmes(2014)andArjunAppadurai(2015)intheiraccountsofcentralbankersandtradersinderivativesrespectively,aswellasrathermoregenerallyinhisdiscussionofmarketsandtheeconomybyMichelCallon(2009).32AsHolmes(2014:13)notes,performativeutterancesmaybeanalytical(Thevarianceofunexpectedriskaccountsformostofthetotalreturns),representational(ThefacesofChina’snewphilanthropy),33orinstrumental(Billionairehedgefundmanagerpredicts“exceptional”tradingopportunity).Designedtomanageexpectations,theyarethetoolsofeverymagician’stradeastheyworkina“magicalspace”(Appadurai2015:19).

Veryoften,liketheAzande,whoseattributionsofwitchcrafttoallformsofmisfortuneweremadefamousbyEvans-Pritchard,modernmagiciansmakeuseofmaterialsubstances—rangingfromfanchartstofabrics,bywayofwrittenlegalcontracts(Westbrook2016),conceptualmodels(Roberts2014),statistics,andlogos—toperformtheirspells,for“inthesubstanceliesthemysticalpowerwhichproducesthedesiredend”(Evans-Pritchard1937:441).HencewefindBankofEngland

32GiventhatAustin’sanalysisofperformativeutterancestookintoaccountbothspeakerandaudienceinwhatHolmes(2014)referstoas“acommunicativefield,”IfindithardtoacceptCallon’s(2009:19)neologismof“co-performation,”which,howevermuchhemayarguetothecontrary,strikesmeasredundant.33TheBankofEngland’sfanchartsdescribedbyDouglasHolmesareanexcellentexampleofrepresentationalperformativity.


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pronouncementslike“theforecastrepresentedbytheMPC’sfanchartisakeyinputtopolicydecisions”(Holmes2014:22);andfashionmagazinesproclaimingthemeritsoffrivolouschiffonorsexysilk,whiledistressedfabricsandhandcrafteddetailingarethelatestinsurvivorchic.

Magicisalsoaformofexpressiveperformancethatreliesontheproductionoftransformativeactiontoovercometheunpredictabilityofthehumancondition.Thepurposeofperformanceistoeffecttransformation,bothsymbolizedandactualized(Schnechner1988:118-119),aswesawinmyexampleofJapanesepopularculturalforms.Magicisperformedsymbolicallyasinvisiblepowerby“charismaticmagicians”inencounterswith“themurkyandtheuncertain,”andisactualizedasaprimesourceformotivatingsomethinginparticipantstoappear“true”when“dealingwithfundamentaldilemmasofthehumansituation”(Graeber2012:34).Magicalpracticesassumethattheiraudiencesarenotstagnant,butratherimplementthereceivedeffectsofthetransformation,therebyvalidatingtheperformance,performer,andparticipantsthemselves.

Coda

Thequestionyoumaynowaskyourselvesisthis:hastheargumentpresentedherethatmanyformsofcapitalistenterprise—fromeconomicpredictiontoculturalproduction—are,moreoftenthannot,magical—hasthisargumenttransformedyourownthinkingaboutsuchthingsandthewaystheyareperformed?Ifso,thenyouwillbeobligedtorecognizethatI,too,amamagicianwhohaskeptyouspellboundduringthemagicalacademicriteofwhatwasfirstakeynotelecture,beforebeingtransformedintoaninternational,blindpeer-reviewed,academicpublication.

Suchself-flattery,however,raisesanotherissuethatresearchersintheworldofbusinessanthropologywoulddowelltoponder(and,hopefully,actupon).Theexamplesofmagicalpracticesgivenhererangefromfashiontopopularculture—bywayofsports,finance,politics,academia,andtechnology.Inshort,itseemsthatmagicalpracticesmightbefoundinalmosteverythingsocial.Inotherwords,potentially,anyonecanbecomeamagician;anythingcanbeperceivedas“magical.”Ihaveasuspicionthatthismaywellbetrue.Whatweneed,therefore,arestudiesofthedifferentsocialworldsinwhichmagicalpersonsandpracticesarefound,sothatwecanthendeterminewhethertherearedifferencesamongthem—differencesthataremeaningfulenoughtomaketheanthropologicaltheoryofmagicworthdevelopingandapplyingtocontemporarybusinesssituations.

AsreadersoftheJBA,youmightliketoponderthis.Asconsultinganthropologists,youmightalsoconsiderwhetheratheoryofmagicisausefulwaytoexamineandexplaincertainkindsofbusinessbehaviour


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and,ifso,whetheryourclients—whoimaginethemselvestoberational—willbepersuadedbyargumentspointingoutthattheyaren’t!Forthis,ofcourse,youwillyourselvesneedtobecomemagicians,withyourownspecialritesandrepresentations.Asweallnowknowfromourexperienceswithmainstreamandsocialmedia,performanceiseverything!

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BrianMoeranisHonoraryProfessorofCreativeIndustriesattheUniversityofHongKongandwasfoundingeditoroftheOpenAccessJournalofBusinessAnthropologyfrom2011-2016.Hehaspublishedwidelyondifferentformsofculturalproduction‒includingceramics,advertisingandwomen’sfashionmagazinepublishing‒primarily,butnotexclusivelyastheyarepractisedinJapan.MonographsincludeaJapaneseAdvertisingAgency(HawaiiUniversityPress,1996),TheBusinessofEthnography(Berg,2005),TheBusinessofCreativity(LeftCoastPress,2014),andTheMagicofFashion(LeftCoastPress,2015).HehasinhistimealsobeenaRoyalNavalhelicopterpilot,Japanesetelevisioncomedian,[email protected]

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