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ADBOU, University of Southern Denmark
Version
HUMAN OSTEOLOGICAL METHODS
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19. december 2011
CONTENTS
HEAD OF THE FORM
Location/site number
Grave number
Context
Coordinates
Arm position
Grave type
Height
Age
Sex
THE FORM
Questionable features
PRESERVATION
Quantitative preservation
Qualitative preservation
SEX ESTIMATIONCranium
Pelvis
Postcranial skeleton
AGE ESTIMATION
Limbus acetabula
Proximal tibia
Femur linea aspera
Femur fossa trochanteria
Femur caput fovea
EPIPHYSEAL FUSION
DENTITION
Dental developmental age
Enamel hypoplasia
Dental conditions
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
67
7
7
10
11
11
11
12
12
13
15
15
17
18
20
22
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JOINT CHANGES
Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH)
TRAUMATIC CHANGES
LOG
OTHER DESCRIPTIONS AND COMMENTS
REFERENCES
23
24
25
27
27
28
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HEAD OF THE FORM
Location/site number
It is crucial that the identification of the skeleton is unambiguous and
correct. It is therefore important that both the location/site number
and grave number are entered carefully and readable in their respec-
tive textboxes on the form. Several excavations/sites have been given
different names over the course of time (for instance Tirup is the same
location as Bygholm). As long as the site designation is unambiguous it
is acceptable to use all synonyms, but it is most practical to use the
same name on all registration forms from the same site. The site num-
ber is the excavating authoritys registration of the actual excavation.
The site number is relevant to use where several excavations, dis-
persed in time, have taken place on the same site.
Grave number
The numbering of the graves and the skeletons in them is often not con-
sistent. Many cemeteries were excavated during the course of several
independent digs and thus have different systems of numbering for each
dig. As a main rule, a skeleton found in a grave must get a number
starting with G followed by a number (1, 2, etc.). Both in the field
and in the anthropological lab, it is not uncommon to find remains from
additional skeletons intermixed with the bones of the primary skeleton
of the grave. If the additional bones can be assigned to the skeleton of a
neighboring grave, they are transferred. If this is not the case, an inde-
pendent registration of the additional bones is made.
Context
The grave numbers of additional skeletons are entered in the textbox
context. These skeletons are given the same G-numbers as the prima-
ry skeleton in the grave they were found in. The only difference is that
the number is followed by a letter. The letters A, B,.. are used for the
skeletal parts that were identified as being different doing excavation
and the letters X, Y, .. are used for the skeletal parts that were recog-
nized as being from another person during examination in the lab. Such
additional skeletons must always get their own skeletal registration form
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so at least one form exists for each recognized individual of a cemetery
excavation.
If it is logical and possible, other numbering systems should be convert-
ed to the Gnumbering system mentioned above. To be able to relate
to the archaeological registrations, the original number is written on the
registration form in brackets on the form.
Coordinates
In order to keep track of the position of finds doing an archaeological
excavation a system of coordinates is put down in the excavation field.
The space termed coordinates in the registration form refers to the
points of the position of the grave in the system of coordinates. The two
coordinates of the position of the cranium are entered on the form. The
information about coordinates is found in the archaeological field form.
Arm position
Arm positionis entered for the right and the left side respectively. The
information about arm position is found in the archaeological field form.
Grave type
Six possible scores are used to describe the grave types. The infor-
mation about grave type is found in the archaeological field form.
/: No information about grave type
1: Grave without coffin
2: Wooden coffin grave - seen as traces of wood in situ, nails in situ or
handles and mountings in situ in the grave.
3: A stone cist made of either natural stones or bricks.
4: A stone grave the grave is framed with either headstones, foot-
stones or both.
5: Other grave types for instance ship burials.
Height
The length of the skeleton is measured in the grave (using definitions
presented in Boldsen, 1984). The measurements are taken on skeletons
found undisturbed in situ in the graves and the length of the skeleton is
measured from the top of the skull to the distal point of the talus. It is
important that all sources (the box, excavation forms, notes from the
field osteologist, previous journals and field reports) are all examinedboth to maximize the sample size and to check for validity. The method
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of measuring the height as described above was not used on all excava-
tions. If another method was used or if there are uncertainties about
which method was used the measurement is given in brackets in the
registration form. The height is given in centimeters. The information
about height measured in the grave is found in the archaeological field
form.
Age
In the textbox age in the head of the registration form the final subjec-
tive estimation of the age at death is given. Together with the space
sex this is the last to be filled out in the form.
Age is entered as an interval in years. Concerning children, it is possible
to estimate the age within a narrow interval using the dentition and
measurements of the long bones. The age is given as a decimal fraction
of a year (for instance a child with an age at death of one and a half to
two is written as 1.5 2). Concerning adults, an appropriate interval of
years is given. The age is put down as the closest whole year and not to
the next birthday (the interval 30 35 years is a span of 6 years from
30.00 35.99 years).
Sex
In the textbox sex in the head of the registration form the final subjec-
tive estimation of the sex of the individual is given. This is a score given
according to a 5-point scale (see table 3) and is a joined assessment of
the sex estimation scores of the cranium, pelvis and postcranial skele-
ton. Together with the textboxage this is the last to be filled out in the
form.
THE FORM
Questionable features
If a given trait cannot be registered a / is entered in the textbox on the
form. This will usually occur if the bone is not preserved at all or if the
bone is insufficiently preserved to make relevant observations. At least
25 % of a bone has to be preserved in order to score a given trait.
PRESERVATION
The preservation of the skeleton is given as a quantitative and a qualita-tive assessment (see table 1 and 2).
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Quantitative preservation
The quantitative preservation describes how much of the skeleton is
preserved. The scores 1, 2 and 3 are used. If less than 1/3 of the bones
of the skeleton are preserved the score 1 is given. If approximately half
of the bones are preserved the score 2 is given. If more than 2/3 of the
bones are preserved the score 3 is given.
Table 1 Quantitative preservationScore Description
1 Maximum 1/3 of the bones is preserved
2 Between 1/3 and 2/3 of the bones are preserved
3 Minimum 2/3 of the bones are preserved
Qualitative preservation
The qualitative preservation describes how well the bones of the skele-
ton are preserved. The erosion of the bone surface and the degree of
fragmentation are considered. If the skeleton is poor preserved and
more than 2/3 of the bones of the skeletons have a pronounced degree
of erosion and fragmentation the score 1 is given. If the skeleton is in-
termediately preserved and 1/3 - 2/3 of the bones have a pronounced
degree of erosion of surfaces and fragmentation the score 2 is given. If
the skeleton is well preserved and less than 1/3 of the bones have a
pronounced degree of erosion of surfaces and fragmentation the score 3
is given.
Table 2 Qualitative preservationScore Description
1 Poor
2 Intermediate
3 Well
SEX ESTIMATION
Sex is estimated according to the 5-point scale seen in table 3. In
children the sexual characteristics have not developed and an estimation
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of sex is not possible to make. The sex is estimated only when os ilium,
os ischii and os pubis are fused in acetabulum or when the
synchondrosis spheno-occipitalis (S.S.O.) is fused (table 4) both
features are fused by the age of approximately 16 years. When neither
the pelvic nor the cranial bones are preserved the degree of epiphyseal
fusion of the long bones is assessed - the degree of fusion then has to
correspond to an age older than 16 years in order to estimate the sex.
Note: Only one sex estimation score is given for the cranium, pelvis and
postcranial skeleton separately.
Table 3 Sex estimation scores
Score Description
/ Sex cannot be estimated - the relevant skeletal parts arenot preserved
1 Distinctly male morphology
2 Slightly male morphology
3 The sex is indeterminable/children
4 Slightly female morphology
5 Distinctly female morphology
Cranium
When estimating sex the following components of the cranium are
assessed: the shape ofArcus superciliaris, the morphology of margo
supraorbitalis, the size ofprocessus mastoideus, the relief of linea
nuchalis superior, angulus mandibula and the shape ofprotuberantia
mentalis. The features are compared with the illustrations in ill. 1 and an
overall sex estimation score for the cranium is given.
Pelvis
When estimating sex the following two components of the pelvis are
assessed: incisura ischiadica major and angulus subpubicus. The
features are compared with the illustrations in ill. 2 and an overall sex
estimation score for the pelvis is given.
Postcranial skeleton
An overall sex estimation score is given based upon the robusticity and
length of the postcranial skeleton.
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MALE FEMALE
ill. 1. U. Freund
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MALE FEMALE
ill. 2. U. Freund
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AGE ESTIMATION
The estimation of age at death has been one of the main topics within
biological anthropological research for the past 150 years. The first
systematic studies of cranial sutures took place in the 1860s and age
estimation based upon dental attrition originates back to the late 19th
century.
A general development in society, where focus has been on
expanding the implementation of technological features in all aspects of
human life, has taken place throughout the past decades. This
development is also reflected in the efforts of generating new knowledge
about age at death estimated in skeletal material within the field of
anthropology. Statistical based computer software has been developed
(e.g. transition analysis) and other methods that use X-ray technology,
microscopic analysis and chemical analysis have been introduced to
improve the methods. In this way new methods of analyzing the age of
death in skeletal material using scientific methods will be applied in the
future.
A new method named CEI (Calibrated Expert Inference) has been
developed within the last couple of years. The method was introduced
by a collaboration of researchers from the University of Southern
Denmark, the Max Planck Institute of Demographic research in Rostock
and Pennsylvania State University. The use of the method requires basic
training in osteology and is based upon both observations made of
skeletons from reference samples (skeletal material where age at death
and sex is known) and statistical methods (logistic regression analysis
and Bayestheorem).
The following anatomical components can be used to estimate the age
at death of individuals in European medieval and post-medieval periods.
The indicated age marks the midpoint of the transition from a young to
an old stage and the 95% confidence intervals.
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Limbus acetabula
Young Old
The edge is rounded The edge is sharp
K: 30 [-11;73]. Photo: P. Tarp M: 28 [-7;60] Photo: P. Tarp
Proximal Tibia
Young Old
The features are rounded The features are sharp
K: 42 [-13;92] Photo: P. Tarp M: 24 [-19;66] Photo: P. Tarp
Femur linea aspera
Young Old
Linea aspera is rounded Linea aspera is sharp and irregular
K: 30 [15;38] Photo: P. Tarp M: 21 [-19;61] Photo: P. Tarp
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Femur fossa trochanteria
Young Old
The area is smooth One or more exostoses are seen
K: 54 [8;102] Photo: P. Tarp M: 42 [2;82] Photo: P. Tarp
Femur caput foveaYoung Old
Fovea is smooth Fovea is pointed and irregular
K: 35 [8;63] Photo: P. Tarp M: 33 [21;45] Photo: P. Tarp
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EPIPHYSEAL FUSION
The degree of epiphyseal fusion is scored according to the descriptions
seen in tables 4 and 5.
Epiphyseal fusion is registered for the proximal ends of the right
and left humeri, claviculae and radii. Furthermore the fusion of the
epiphyses of the right and left crista iliaca are registered. The ages of
epiphyseal fusion of the bones in the skeleton are given in ill. 3.
Table 4 Epiphyseal fusion
Score Description
/ No information - the relevant bone is not preserved
0 The epiphysis is loose
1 The epiphysis is partly fused
2 The epiphysis is fused but the epiphysis line is visible
3 The line of the epiphysis is erased
Table 5 Spheno-occipitalis Synchondrosis (S.O.S. / S.S.O.)
Score Description
/ No information - the relevant bone is not preserved
0 The synchondrosis is open
1 The synchondrosis is partly fused
2 The synchondrosis is fused
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ill. 3
Ill. Kuussmann 1988
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DENTITION
Dental developmental age
In the textbox age the age that corresponds closest to the dental
developmental stage is entered using the drawings in ill. 4 and ill. 5. It is
the degree of mineralization that is important not the degree of dental
eruption. The age is given as a decimal fraction of a year. A 6 months
old child will get a scoring of 0.5 years. Likewise, a 4 months old child
would give a score of 0.3 years. Only one decimal is used. For a fully
developed set of teeth when the third molar has erupted and is in
occlusion - the score 25+ (years) is given.
In the textbox information the number of dental groups, used for
age estimation is entered. A full set of deciduous teeth contributes six
dental groups: Three groups in both the maxilla and the mandibular.
The four incisors form one group, the two canines form one group and
the four deciduous molars form one group. One group only has to be
represented by a single tooth in order to get a positive score. The
deciduous dental formula is given as follows:
Deciduous dental formula: i 2/2 c 1/1 m 2/2 = 10 x 2 = 20
A full set of permanent teeth contributes eight dental groups: Four
groups in both the maxilla and the mandibular. The four incisors form
one group, the two canines form one group, the four premolars form
one group and the six molars form one group. The dental formula for
the permanent teeth dentition is given as follows:
Permanent dental formula: i 2/2 c 1/1 pm 2/2 m 3/3 = 16 x 2 = 32
In cases where a child is in an age where both deciduous and permanent
teeth are present the number of remaining deciduous groups and
permanent erupted groups are counted separately. Afterwards the
number of groups of the two types of teeth are added to get the final
result to be entered in the informationtextbox.
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ill. 4
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ill. 5
Enamel Hypoplasia
Enamel hypoplasia is irregularities in the dental enamel seen as an
impressed band on the tooth. Hypoplasia is coursed by physiological
disturbances and is formed while the tooth is developing. Enamel
hypoplasia is only scored on permanent canines (see table 6). The upper
left canine is preferred, but if it is missing the right canine is scored
instead. Only hypoplasia visible to the naked eye is scored.
Table 6 Enamel hypoplasia on +3
Score Description
/ No information - the tooth is not preserved
0 Normal tooth without enamel hypoplasia
1 One or more enamel hypoplasia
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We use the dental table of Haderup but others exist, see for instance
Lynnerup et al. (2008) or Hillson (1996).
Haderups dental table (Lynnerup et al 2008):
right MAXILLA left
Permanent 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Deciduous 05 04 03 02 01 + 01 02 03 04 05
MANDIBULA
Permanent 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Deciduous 05 04 03 02 01 - 01 02 03 04 05
Dental conditions
In all categories only the 12 permanent teeth are scored. The tooth has to
be in occlusion in order to be scored. Only teeth that with certainty can be
identified are scored.
Table 7 The presence of the tooth
Score Description
/No information - neither the tooth nor the relevant piece of jaware preserved.
0 Tooth found in the jaw
1 Tooth has fallen out after death
2 Tooth has fallen out before death
3 Loose tooth tooth without the matching piece of jaw.
4 8. molar not formed
5 The tooth is formed but not in occlusion
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Table 8 Dental attrition
Score Description
/ No information the tooth is insufficiently preserved
0 Unworn tooth
1 Attrition only in enamel
2 Attrition has exposed the dentine in one cusp
3 Attrition has exposed the dentine in two cusp
4 Attrition has exposed the dentine in three cusp
5 Attrition has exposed the dentine in four cusp
6 Attrition has exposed the dentine so the dentine is visibleinterconnected in two or more cusps
7 Attrition has removed the enamel of the mastical surface
8 Attrition has removed the entire crown of the tooth
Table 9 Caries
Score Description
/ No information the tooth is insufficiently preserved
0 Normal tooth without caries
1 Initial caries seen as a dark shadow on the enamel
2 Caries in the enamel
3 Caries in the dentine but the pulp is not open
4 The pulp is open due to caries
5 Caries has destroyed the crown of the tooth
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Fistula/abscess is scored in the bone of the jaw. The tooth does not
have to be present in order to score a fistle.
Table 10 Fistula/abscess
score Description
/ No information the relevant piece of jaw is not preserved
0 Normal jaw, no fistulae
1 One or more fistulae by the root of the tooth
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS
The frontal bone (os frontalis) is a very robust bone this is the reason
why this bone is used for morphometric analysis. When working with
skeletons excavated from soil the state of preservation is an important
factor. The frontal bone is frequently preserved even though the rest of
the skull is destroyed by external factors such as pressure from the soil.
Seven measurements are used that reflect the form, size and general
appearance of the frontal bone: Six chords (measured with a sliding cal-
iper) and one arch. Five of the measurements were described by Martin
and Saller (1957) and the names of the measurements presented in that
publication are given in brackets after the title of the measurements.
The last two measurements 6 and 7 - were created to be able to de-
scribe the maximal curvature of the frontal bone and the size of arcus
supraciliaris.
1. Outer biorbital width (M431)
This measurement reflects the width of the upper face. It is measured
between the most anterior points on the suture between os
zygomaticum and os frontalis in both sides. This point is called the
frontomalare temp. It is marked as number 1 on ill. 6.
2. Minimal frontal width (M9)
This measurement reflects the minimum width of the frontal bone
behind arcus superciliaris. It is marked as number 2 on ill. 6.
1 Anthropometric parameters such as M43 refer to the measurements defined by R. Martinin Martin and Saller (1957).
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3. Maximal frontal width (M10)
This measurement reflects the maximum width of the frontal bone on
sutura coronalis. It is marked as number 3 on ill. 6.
4. Frontal chord (M29)
This measurement reflects the length of the frontal bone from nasion to
bregma. It is marked as number 4 on ill. 7.
5. Frontal arch (M26)
This measurement also reflects the length of the frontal bone but as an
arch from nasion to bregma. The midpoint between nasion and bregma
is marked with a pen. This dot defines the measurement point called
mesomethopion. It is marked as number 5 on ill. 7.
6. Lower frontal chord
The nasion mesomethopion chord. This measurement reflects the dis-
tance between nasion and mesomethopion. It is marked as number 6 on
ill. 7.
7. Upper frontal chord
The bregma mesomethopion chord. This measurement reflects the
distance between mesomethopion and bregma. It is marked as number
7 on ill. 7.
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3
2
1
ill. 6. U. Freund
5
7
46
ill. 7. U. Freund
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS
Femur length
The maximal length of both the right and left femora are measured on
the measuring table. Length is entered millimeters with one decimal. In
the case of children with unfused epiphyses the femur is measured with-
out epiphyses. Where one epiphysis is fused, the other is held in place
and measured thus with both epiphyses. If the unfused epiphysis is
missing the score / is given as is the case if the entire bone is missing.
See ill. 8.
Femur epicondyle width
The maximal width across both the right and the left femora epicondyles
measured with a sliding caliper in millimeters with one decimal. In chil-
dren the loose epiphyses are measured. See ill. 8.
Humerus length (M1)
The maximal length of both the right and the left humeri are measured
on the measuring table. Length is entered in millimeters with one deci-mal. In the case of children with unfused epiphyses the humerus is
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measured without epiphyses. Where one epiphysis is fused, the other is
held in place and measured thus with both epiphyses. If the unfused
epiphysis is missing the score / is given as is the case if the entire
bone is missing. See ill. 8.
Humerus epicondyle width
The maximal width across both the right and the left humeri epicondyles
measured with a sliding caliper in millimeters with one decimal. In chil-
dren the loose epiphyses are measured. See ill. 8.
ill. 8
JOINT CHANGES
In these textboxes the changes to the largest joints of the skeleton are
entered. The joint rims of all bones of the joint of interest are scored as
one entry. In the shoulder the humerus, scapula and clavicula are
scored. In the ankle the tibia, fibula and talus are scored. In the knee
the femur, tibia and patella are scored. In the pelvis the femur and
acetabula are scored. At least half of the relevant bone has to be
preserved in order to score it. Examples of joint changes are seen on ill.
9 and 10.
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Table 11 Joint changes
Score Description
/The joint rim is not sufficiently preserved for it to be regis-tered.
0 Normal joint rim
1Lipping (osteophytosis): at least 10 mm long and 1 mmtall.
ill. 9. Photo: P. Tarp ill. 10. Photo: P. Tarp
Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH)
DISH is a joint disease without known etiology but genetic heredity and
diabetes are considered as possible causative agents. The
paleopathological diagnosis requires an anterolateral fusion of at least
four vertebrae. That is a fusion of the part of the vertebral column that
is turned towards the inside of the body and towards the right. This is
also known as dripping candle wax. The disease must not be mistaken
for the condition pelvospondylite (Morbus Becterew) which is seen as
symmetric and complete calcification of the longitudinal ligaments of the
vertebral column. DISH does in most cases not cause any severe symp-
toms other than stiffness and unspecific pain to the back. Modern epi-
demiological studies show that DISH is found most frequently among
Caucasoid in Europe and North America, that it is found primarily among
persons in ages between 50 and 75 years and that it is more frequently
found among males (65%) than females (35%). (Leden 2008; Verlaan
et al. 2007)
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/388973-overview.
Historical studies have tried to show a connection between DISH and
monastic life as they assume a higher frequency of well nutriment and
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thus diabetes among monks than others in the surrounding society (see
ex. Verlaan et al. 2007).
Ill. 11 shows changes to the vertebral column related to DISH.
Table 12 DISH
Score Description
/ The vertebrae are not sufficiently preserved to be scored
0 Normal vertebrae
1 Minimum four vertebrae are fused
ill. 11. Photo: P. Tarp
TRAUMATIC CHANGES
The presence of trauma in four regions of the skeleton is scored: The
cranium, the upper extremities, the lower extremities and a collective
group of the rest of the skeleton (ribs and vertebral column).
Trauma can be divided into two different types of fractures high
impact and low impact fractures.
The high impact fractures occur from sudden arising traumatic
situations such as violent acts and accidents. The person is exposed to
a trauma with such a high impact that the bone will get an immediate
fracture. High impact fractures are seen on ill. 12 - 17.
Low impact fractures are caused by continued pressure or pull on a
bone throughout a long period of time with low energy. In time (up to
years) the pressure will create small fractures to the bone for instance
caused by an unfortunate working position. The low impact fractures are
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most often seen in the vertebral column and the pelvic bones but most
other larger bones can be affected. Low impact fractures are seen on ill.
19 and 20.
Open and unhealed fractures relate to trauma received around the time
of death. However, it can be difficult to differentiate it from postmortem
damage either arising in the soil or during excavation. When a sharp
object strikes the fresh bone it leaves a shiny mark with sharp edges.
When a blunt object strikes a cranium it leaves an impression on it often
with secondary star-shaped fractures seen as beams away from the
primary fracture site. When both unhealed and healed fractures are
found in the same area the score 3 is given.
ill. 12, ill. 13 and ill. 14 show examples of trauma arising due to
sharp edged violence. Ill. 15 shows trauma arising due to a stroke by a
blunt object. In ill. 16, ill. 17and ill. 18trauma arising presumably due
to accidents is shown.
Table 13 Traumatic changes
Score Description
/ No information - the bones are not preserved
0 Normal bones
1 Open, unhealed fracture
2 Healed fracture
3 Both open, unhealed fracture and healed fracture
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Ill. 12-20:Photo: P. TarpLOG
Here the dates, who registered what etc. is entered. Initials on the
person doing the registration are entered in the textbox termed
signature.
OTHER DESCRIPTIONS AND COMMENTS
On the back of the form or on a separate form miscellaneous
observations from the examination of the skeleton are noted. Both
conditions related to human biology and other aspects should be noted.
It is important to write down and describe findings of archaeological
artifacts on or inside the skeleton. The finding of such objects is
reported to the relevant archaeological authority and is turned in or
discarded as soon as possible after an agreement has been made.
ill. 12 ill. 13 ill. 14
ill. 15 ill. 16 ill. 17
ill. 18 ill. 19 ill. 20
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REFERENCES
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