1 FEEDBACK TUTORIAL LETTER 2 nd SEMESTER 2017 ASSIGNMENT 2 EDUCATION THEORY AND PRACTICE B ETP520S
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FEEDBACK TUTORIAL LETTER
2nd SEMESTER 2017
ASSIGNMENT 2
EDUCATION THEORY AND PRACTICE B
ETP520S
FEEDBACK TUTORIAL LETTER 2
SEMESTER 2/2017
EDUCATION THEORY AND PRACTICE B
ETP520S
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Dear ETP520S students Your assignments reflect well, however I need to emphasise the importance of formatting and editing
your work before sending it off. With that I mean that you should make your assignment look attractive
and it should appear as a piece of academic writing.
Avoid long sentences; give facts in bullet form and highlight your headings. Please use my numbering as
indicated in the Tutorial letter.
Please read extensively and make use of YouTube to see presentations and enjoy life chats.
Do not give up, you are almost there!
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CLASSROOM GROUP ACTIVITIES
Students learn through their participation in the attainment of knowledge by gathering information
and processing it by solving problems and articulating what they have discovered. Each activity
below provides students with opportunities to deepen their learning by applying concepts and
articulating new knowledge and many of these activities also provide the instructor feedback about
the students’ learning.
Entry/Exit Tickets
Entry & Exit tickets are short prompts that provide instructors with a quick student diagnostic. These
exercises can be collected on 3”x5” cards, small pieces of paper, or online through a survey or course
management system.
• Entry tickets focus student attention on the day’s topic or ask students to recall
background knowledge relevant to the day’s lesson: e.g., “Based on the readings for
class today, what is your understanding of ___________?”
• Exit tickets collect feedback on students’ understanding at the end of a class and provide
the students with an opportunity to reflect on what they have learned. They can be
helpful in prompting the student to begin to synthesize and integrate the information
gained during a class period. For example, a muddiest point prompt: “What was the
muddiest point in today’s class?” or “What questions do you still have about today’s
lecture?”.
Advantages of entrance and exit tickets include: participation of each student, prompt for students
to focus on key concepts and ideas, a high return of information for the amount of time invested,
important feedback for the instructor that can be useful to guide teaching decisions (e.g., course
pacing, quick clarification of small misunderstandings, identification of student interests and
questions).
Learn more about entry and exit tickets, and see examples.
Free Writing/Minute Paper/Question of the Day Exercise
These are activities that prompt students to write a response to an open question and can be done
at any time during a class. Writing activities are usually 1-2 minutes, and can focus on key questions
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and ideas or ask students to make predictions. These activities give students the opportunity to
organize their own thoughts, or can be collected by the teacher to gain feedback from the
students. Advantages include developing students’ abilities to think holistically and critically, and
improving their writing skills.
Learn more about one-minute papers and see examples.
Ice Breakers
Ice Breakers are low-stakes activities that get students to interact and talk to each other, and
encourage subsequent classroom interactions. They can be useful at the beginning of the semester:
for example, asking students to introduce themselves to each other and what they would like to
learn in the course. Advantages of icebreakers include: participation of each student, the creation of
a sense of community and focusing students’ attention on material that will be covered during the
class period.
Learn more about ice breakers and see examples.
Think–Pair–Share
This type of activity first asks students to consider a question on their own, and then provides an
opportunity for students to discuss it in pairs, and finally together with the whole class. The success
of these activities depends on the nature of the questions posed. This activity works ideally with
questions to encourage deeper thinking, problem-solving, and/or critical analysis. The group
discussions are critical as they allow students to articulate their thought processes.
The procedure is as follows:
1. Pose a question, usually by writing it on the board or projecting it.
2. Have students consider the question on their own (1 – 2 min).
3. Then allow the students form groups of 2-3 people.
4. Next, have students discuss the question with their partner and share their ideas and/or
contrasting opinions (3 min).
5. Re-group as a whole class and solicit responses from some or all of the pairs (3 min).
Advantages of the think-pair-share include the engagement of all students in the classroom
(particularly the opportunity to give voice to quieter students who might have difficulty sharing in a
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larger group), quick feedback for the instructor (e.g., the revelation of student misconceptions),
encouragement and support for higher levels of thinking of the students.
Learn more about think-pair-share and see examples.
Case Studies and Problem-Based Learning
Case studies are scenarios that apply concepts learned in class to a “real-life” situation. They are
usually presented in narrative form and often involve problem-solving, links to course readings or
source materials, and discussions by groups of students, or the entire class. Usually, case studies are
most effective if they are presented sequentially, so that students receive additional information as
the case unfolds, and can continue to analyze or critique the situation/problem.
Guiding questions lead students through the activity. The questions should be designed to develop
student’s critical thinking by asking students to distinguish between fact and assumptions, and
critically analyze both the process they take in solving the case study as well as the solution
itself. Example questions include:
• What is the situation? What questions do you have?
• What problem(s) need to be solved? What are some solution strategies? Evaluate
pros/cons and underlying assumptions of these strategies.
• What information do you need? Where/how could you find it?
• What criteria will you use to evaluate your solution?
There are many collections of case studies publically available in a variety of disciplines.
Learn more about case studies and explore collections.
Problem-based learning activities are similar to case studies but usually focus on quantitative
problems. In some cases the problems are designed to introduce the material as well as provide
students with a deeper learning opportunity.
Learn more about problem-based learning and see examples.
The advantages of problem-based learning activities and case studies include developing students
problem solving and decision making skills, develop student’s critical thinking skills encouraging
critical reflection and enabling the appreciation of ambiguity in situations.
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Group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively
Group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively
By Cynthia J. Brame, Ph.D., CFT Assistant Director and Rachel Biel, CFT undergraduate intern
Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students’
learning. Whether the goal is to increase student understanding of content, to build particular
transferable skills, or some combination of the two, instructors often turn to small group work to
capitalize on the benefits of peer-to-peer instruction. This type of group work is formally termed
cooperative learning, and is defined as the instructional use of small groups to promote students
working together to maximize their own and each other’s learning (Johnson, et al., 2008).
Cooperative learning is characterized by positive interdependence, where students perceive that
better performance by individuals produces better performance by the entire group (Johnson, et al.,
2014). It can be formal or informal, but often involves specific instructor intervention to maximize
student interaction and learning. It is infinitely adaptable, working in small and large classes and
across disciplines, and can be one of the most effective teaching approaches available to college
instructors.
What can it look like?
What’s the theoretical underpinning?
Is there evidence that it works?
What are approaches that can help make it effective?
References
What can it look like?
Informal cooperative learning groups
In informal cooperative learning, small, temporary, ad-hoc groups of two to four students work
together for brief periods in a class, typically up to one class period, to answer questions or respond
to prompts posed by the instructor.
This video shows an example of informal cooperative learning in a large class taught by Tessa
Andrews at the University of Georgia:
Additional examples of ways to structure informal group work are given in the table below.
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Formal cooperative learning groups
In formal cooperative learning students work together for one or more class periods to complete a
joint task or assignment (Johnson et al., 2014). There are several features that can help these groups
work well:
The instructor defines the learning objectives for the activity and assigns students to groups.
The groups are typically heterogeneous, with particular attention to the skills that are needed for
success in the task.
Within the groups, students may be assigned specific roles, with the instructor communicating the
criteria for success and the types of social skills that will be needed.
Importantly, the instructor continues to play an active role during the groups’ work, monitoring the
work and evaluating group and individual performance.
Instructors also encourage groups to reflect on their interactions to identify potential improvements
for future group work.
This video shows an example of formal cooperative learning groups in David Matthes’ class at the
University of Minnesota:
There are many more specific types of group work that fall under the general descriptions given
here, including team-based learning, problem-based learning, and process-oriented guided inquiry
learning.
What’s the theoretical underpinning?
The use of cooperative learning groups in instruction is based on the principle of constructivism,
with particular attention to the contribution that social interaction can make. In essence,
constructivism rests on the idea that individuals learn through building their own knowledge,
connecting new ideas and experiences to existing knowledge and experiences to form new or
enhanced understanding (Bransford, et al., 1999). The consideration of the role that groups can play
in this process is based in social interdependence theory, which grew out of Kurt Koffka’s and Kurt
Lewin’s identification of groups as dynamic entities that could exhibit varied interdependence
among members, with group members motivated to achieve common goals. Morton Deutsch
conceptualized varied types of interdependence, with positive correlation among group members’
goal achievements promoting cooperation.
Lev Vygotsky extended this work by examining the relationship between cognitive processes and
social activities, developing the sociocultural theory of development. The sociocultural theory of
development suggests that learning takes place when students solve problems beyond their current
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developmental level with the support of their instructor or their peers. Thus both the idea of a zone
of proximal development, supported by positive group interdependence, is the basis of cooperative
learning (Davidson and Major, 2014; Johnson, et al., 2014).
Cooperative learning follows this idea as groups work together to learn or solve a problem, with
each individual responsible for understanding all aspects. The small groups are essential to this
process because students are able to both be heard and to hear their peers, while in a traditional
classroom setting students may spend more time listening to what the instructor says.
Cooperative learning uses both goal interdependence and resource interdependence to ensure
interaction and communication among group members. Changing the role of the instructor from
lecturing to facilitating the groups helps foster this social environment for students to learn through
interaction.
Is there evidence that it works?
David Johnson, Roger Johnson, and Karl Smith performed a meta-analysis of 168 studies comparing
cooperative learning to competitive learning and individualistic learning in college students (Johnson
et al., 2006). They found that cooperative learning produced greater academic achievement than
both competitive learning and individualistic learning across the studies, exhibiting a mean weighted
effect size of 0.54 when comparing cooperation and competition and 0.51 when comparing
cooperation and individualistic learning. In essence, these results indicate that cooperative learning
increases student academic performance by approximately one-half of a standard deviation when
compared to non-cooperative learning models, an effect that is considered moderate. Importantly,
the academic achievement measures were defined in each study, and ranged from lower-level
cognitive tasks (e.g., knowledge acquisition and retention) to higher level cognitive activity (e.g.,
creative problem solving), and from verbal tasks to mathematical tasks to procedural tasks. The
meta-analysis also showed substantial effects on other metrics, including self-esteem and positive
attitudes about learning. George Kuh and colleagues also conclude that cooperative group learning
promotes student engagement and academic performance (Kuh et al., 2007).
Springer, Stanne, and Donovan (1999) confirmed these results in their meta-analysis of 39 studies in
university STEM classrooms. They found that students who participated in various types of small-
group learning, ranging from extended formal interactions to brief informal interactions, had greater
academic achievement, exhibited more favorable attitudes towards learning, and had increased
persistence through STEM courses than students who did not participate in STEM small-group
learning.
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The box below summarizes three individual studies examining the effects of cooperative learning
groups.
What are approaches that can help make group work effective?
Preparation
Articulate your goals for the group work, including both the academic objectives you want the
students to achieve and the social skills you want them to develop.
Determine the group conformation that will help meet your goals.
In informal group learning, groups often form ad hoc from near neighbors in a class.
In formal group learning, it is helpful for the instructor to form groups that are heterogeneous with
regard to particular skills or abilities relevant to group tasks. For example, groups may be
heterogeneous with regard to academic skill in the discipline or with regard to other skills related to
the group task (e.g., design capabilities, programming skills, writing skills, organizational skills)
(Johnson et al, 2006).
Groups from 2-6 are generally recommended, with groups that consist of three members exhibiting
the best performance in some problem-solving tasks (Johnson et al., 2006; Heller and Hollabaugh,
1992).
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To avoid common problems in group work, such as dominance by a single student or conflict
avoidance, it can be useful to assign roles to group members (e.g., manager, skeptic, educator,
conciliator) and to rotate them on a regular basis (Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992). Assigning these
roles is not necessary in well-functioning groups, but can be useful for students who are unfamiliar
with or unskilled at group work.
Choose an assessment method that will promote positive group interdependence as well as
individual accountability.
In team-based learning, two approaches promote positive interdependence and individual
accountability. First, students take an individual readiness assessment test, and then immediately
take the same test again as a group. Their grade is a composite of the two scores. Second, students
complete a group project together, and receive a group score on the project. They also, however,
distribute points among their group partners, allowing student assessment of members’
contributions to contribute to the final score.
Heller and Hollabaugh (1992) describe an approach in which they incorporated group problem-
solving into a class. Students regularly solved problems in small groups, turning in a single solution.
In addition, tests were structured such that 25% of the points derived from a group problem, where
only those individuals who attended the group problem-solving sessions could participate in the
group test problem. This approach can help prevent the “free rider” problem that can plague group
work.
The University of New South Wales describes a variety of ways to assess group work, ranging from
shared group grades, to grades that are averages of individual grades, to strictly individual grades, to
a combination of these. They also suggest ways to assess not only the product of the group work but
also the process. Again, having a portion of a grade that derives from individual contribution helps
combat the free rider problem.
Helping groups get started
Explain the group’s task, including your goals for their academic achievement and social interaction.
Explain how the task involves both positive interdependence and individual accountability, and how
you will be assessing each.
Assign group roles or give groups prompts to help them articulate effective ways for interaction. The
University of New South Wales provides a valuable set of tools to help groups establish good
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practices when first meeting. The site also provides some exercises for building group dynamics;
these may be particularly valuable for groups that will be working on larger projects.
Monitoring group work
Regularly observe group interactions and progress, either by circulating during group work,
collecting in-process documents, or both. When you observe problems, intervene to help students
move forward on the task and work together effectively. The University of New South Wales
provides handouts that instructors can use to promote effective group interactions, such as a
handout to help students listen reflectively or give constructive feedback, or to help groups identify
particular problems that they may be encountering.
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Assessing and reflecting
In addition to providing feedback on group and individual performance (link to preparation section
above), it is also useful to provide a structure for groups to reflect on what worked well in their
group and what could be improved. Graham Gibbs (1994) suggests using the checklists shown
below.
The University of New South Wales provides other reflective activities that may help students identify
effective group practices and avoid ineffective practices in future cooperative learning experiences.
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Debate
Engaging in collaborative discourse and argumentation enhances student’s conceptual
understandings and refines their reasoning abilities. Stage a debate exploiting an arguable divide in
the day’s materials. Give teams time to prepare, and then put them into argument with a team
focused on representing an opposing viewpoint. Advantages include practice in using the language
of the discipline and crafting evidence-based reasoning in their arguments.
Learn more about debate.
Interview or Role Play
Members of the class take the part or perspective of historical figures, authors, or other characters
and must interact from their perspective. Breakdown the role play into specific tasks to keep
students organized and to structure them so that the content you want to cover is
addressed. Preparation work can be assigned for outside of class, so clearly communicating your
expectations is essential. Advantages include motivation to solve a problem or to resolve a conflict
for the character, providing a new perspective through which students can explore or understand an
issue and the development of skills, such as writing, leadership, coordination, collaboration and
research.
Learn more about role play.
Interactive Demonstrations
Interactive demonstrations can be used in lectures to demonstrate the application of a concept, a
skill, or to act out a process. The exercise should not be passive; you should plan and structure your
demonstration to incorporate opportunities for students to reflect and analyze the process.
1. Introduce the goal and description of the demonstration.
2. Have students think-pair-share (see above) to discuss what they predict may happen, or
to analyze the situation at hand (“pre-demonstration” state or situation).
3. Conduct the demonstration.
4. Students discuss and analyze the outcome (either in pairs/small groups, or as a whole
class), based on their initial predictions/interpretations.
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Advantages of interactive demonstrations include novel visualizations of the material and allowing
students to probe their own understanding by asking if they can predict the outcome of the
demo. They are also a venue for providing applications of ideas or concepts.
Learn more about interactive demonstrations.
Jigsaw
A Jigsaw is a cooperative active learning exercise where students are grouped into teams to solve a
problem or analyze a reading. These can be done in one of two ways – either each team works on
completing a different portion of the assignment and then contributes their knowledge to the class
as a whole, or within each group, one student is assigned to a portion of the assignment (the jigsaw
comes from the bringing together the various ideas at the end of the activity to produce a solution
to the problem). In a jigsaw the activity must be divided into several equal parts, each of which is
necessary to solving a problem, or answering a question. Example activities include implementing
experiments, small research projects, analyzing and comparing datasets, and working with
professional literature. The advantages of the jigsaw include the ability to explore substantive
problems or readings, the engagement of all students with the material and in the process of
working together, learning from each other, and sharing and critical analyzing a diversity of ideas.
Learn more about the jigsaw method.
Learn about how to use groups effectively.
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7 Reasons Good Teams Become Dysfunctional
1. Leadership
Dysfunctional teams lack a strong leader. A team needs a strong leader to identify the team's objective, maintain the group's focus on that end, and drive the team toward its established goal.
2. Team Members
Dysfunctional teams often have members more interested in individual glory and less interested in the team's objective. The goal of the team must always remain the team's focus. The quest for individual glory is contrary to the very concept of a team. As such, a true team needs members that are concerned only with how they can help the team achieve its goal and not what achieving the goal will be able to do for them individually.
3. Defined Goal
A dysfunctional team often fails to define its goal. A well-organized team defines its goal or goals from the outset and then sets out a road map as to how to get there.
4. Equitable Distribution
Dysfunctional teams disproportionately place too much of the team's work on a few of its members' shoulders. This is contrary to the entire concept of the team. If one person is going to do everything, why have a team to begin with? It is wasteful. A successful team combines individuals who come together to accomplish the defined goal and spread the work load evenly across team members. Each person is necessary to achieve the goal.
5. Focus
Dysfunctional teams lack focus. They may convene to discuss an issue but get caught up in seemingly endless debate surrounding a general topic while never moving toward an ultimate goal. A team needs to maintain its focus on achieving its defined goal.
6. Accountability
Dysfunctional teams lack accountability. They push back deadlines, or worse, they ponder theoretical questions without defined goals in mind. Moving back deadlines or simply gathering to endlessly pontificate without defined goals leads to a lack of accountability. Without accountability, it is easy to lose focus on the team's goal. A successful team maintains its accountability to achieving its ultimate end.
7. Decisiveness
Dysfunctional teams lack decisiveness. Often flowing from a strong team leader, a team needs to be decisive. Consider facts, draw conclusions on the basis of the best available information, and make a decision. A team's goal must always be to make a decision and then to act to accomplish its goal or make recommendations as required to do so.
The opinions expressed here by Inc.com columnists are their own, not those of Inc.com.