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Appendix A

The Earth and Geologic History

A.1 Significance to the Engineer

To the engineer, the significance of geologic history lies in the fact that although surficialconditions of the Earth appear to be constants, they are not truly so, but rather are tran-sient. Continuous, albeit barely perceptible changes are occurring because of warping,uplift, faulting, decomposition, erosion and deposition, and the melting of glaciers and icecaps. The melting contributes to crustal uplift and sea level changes. Climatic conditionsare also transient and the direction of change is reversible.

It is important to be aware of these transient factors, which can invoke significantchanges within relatively short time spans, such as a few years or several decades. Theycan impact significantly on conclusions drawn from statistical analysis for flood-control orseismic-design studies based on data that extend back only 50, 100, or 200 years, as wellas for other geotechnical studies. To provide a general perspective, the Earth, global tec-tonics, and a brief history of North America are presented.

A.2 The Earth

A.2.1 General

Age has been determined to be approximately 4 1/2 billion years.Origin is thought to be a molten mass, which subsequently began a cooling process that

created a crust over a central core. Whether the cooling process is continuing is not known.

A.2.2 Cross Section

From seismological data, the Earth is considered to consist of four major zones: crust, man-tle, and outer and inner cores.

Crust is a thin shell of rock averaging 30 to 40 km in thickness beneath the continents, but only 5 km thickness beneath the seafloors. The lower portions are a heavy basalt (γ =3 t/m3, 187 pcf ) surrounding the entire globe, overlain by lighter masses of granite (γ = 2.7t/m3, 169 pcf) on the continents.

Mantle underlies the crust and is separated from it by the Moho (Mohorovicic disconti-nuity). Roughly 3000 km thick, the nature of the material is not known, but it is muchdenser than the crust and is believed to consist of molten iron and other heavy elements.

Outer core lacks rigidity and is probably fluid.

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Inner core begins at 5000 km and is possibly solid (γ ≈ 12 t/m3, 750 pcf), but conditionsare not truly known. The center is at 6400 km.

A.3 Global Tectonics

A.3.1 General

Since geologic time the Earth’s surface has been undergoing constant change. Fracturesoccur from faulting that is hundreds of kilometers in length in places. Mountains arepushed up, then eroded away, and their detritus deposited in vast seas. The detritus iscompressed, formed into rock and pushed up again to form new mountains, and the cycleis repeated. From time to time masses of molten rock well up from the mantle to form hugeflows that cover the crust.

Tectonics refers to the broad geologic features of the continents and ocean basins as wellas the forces responsible for their occurrence. The origins of these forces are not wellunderstood, although it is apparent that the Earth’s crust is in a state of overstress as evi-denced by folding, faulting, and other mountain-building processes. Four generalhypotheses have been developed to describe the sources of global tectonics (Hodgson,1964; Zumberge and Nelson, 1972).

A.3.2 The Hypotheses

Contraction hypothesis assumes that the Earth is cooling, and because earthquakes do notoccur below 700 km, the Earth is considered static below this depth, and is still hot and notcooling. The upper layer of the active zone, to a depth of about 100 km, has stopped cool-ing and shrinking. As the lower layer cools and contracts, it causes the upper layer to con-form by buckling, which is the source of the surface stresses. This hypothesis is counter tothe spreading seafloor or continental drift theory.

Convection-current hypothesis assumes that heat is being generated within the Earth byradioactive disintegration and that this heat causes convection currents that rise to the sur-face under the mid-ocean rifts, causing tension to create the rifts, then moves toward thecontinents with the thrust necessary to push up mountains, and finally descend again

beneath the continents.

Expanding Earth hypothesis, the latest theory, holds that the Earth is expanding becauseof a decrease in the force of gravity, which is causing the original shell of granite to breakup and spread apart, giving the appearance of continental drift.

Continental drift theory is currently the most popular, but is not new, and is supported by substantial evidence. Seismology has demonstrated that the continents are blocks oflight granitic rocks “floating” on heavier basaltic rocks. It has been proposed that all ofthe continents were originally connected as one or two great land masses and at the endof the Paleozoic era (Permian period) they broke up and began to drift apart as illustratedin sequence in Figure A.1. The proponents of the theory have divided the earth into“plates” (Figure A.2) with each plate bounded by an earthquake zone as shown in Figure

11.1. (Note that more plates have been identified in Figure A.2 than are shown in Figure11.1.)

Wherever plates move against each other, or a plate plunges into a deep ocean trench,such as that exists off the west coast of South America or the east coast of Japan, so that itslides beneath an adjacent plate (see Figure 11.2), there is high seismic activity. This

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concept is known as “plate tectonics” and appears to be compatible with the relativelynew concept of seafloor spreading, as shown in Figure 11.2.

A.4 Geologic HistoryA.4.1 North America: Provides a General Illustration

The geologic time scale for North America is given in Table A.1, relating periods to typi-cal formations. A brief geologic history of North America is described in Table A.2. These

Appendix A 999

(a) (b)

(d)(c)

(e)

L A U R A S I A

G O N D W A N A

P

A

N

G A E

a

s s

s

s

a a

a

a

FIGURE A.1The breakup and drifting apart of the original land mass, Pangaea: (a) Pangaea, the original continental land

mass at the end of the permian, 225 million years ago; (b) Laurasia and Gondwana at the end of the Triassic,

180 million years ago; (c) positions at the end of the Jurassic, 135 million years ago (North and South America beginning to break away); (d) positions at the end of the Cretaceous, 65 million years ago; (e) positions ofcontinents and the plate boundaries at the present. (From Dietz, R.S. and Holden, J.C., J. Geophys. Res., 75,4939–4956, 1970. With permission.)




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EURASIAN

PLATE

PHILLIPINE

PLATE

EQUATOR

PACIFIC

PLATE

COCOS

PLATE

NAZCA

PLATE

SCOTIA PLATE

AFRICAN

PLATE

AUSTRALIAN

PLATE

EURASIAN

PLATE

ARABIAN

PLATE

SOUTH AMERICAN

PLATE

ANTARCTIC

PLATE

NORTH AMERICAN

PLATE

JUAN DE FUCA

PLATE

AUSTRALIAN

PLATE

INDIAN

PLATE

CARIBBEAN

PLATE

FIGURE A.2Major tectonic plates of the world. (Courtesy of USGS, 2004.)

TABLE A.1

Geologic Time Scale and the Dominant Rock Types in North America

Era Period Epoch Dominant Formations Age (millions of

years)

Cenozoic Quaternary Holocene Modern soils 0.01Pleistocene North American glaciation 2.5–3

Neogene Pliocene 7Miocene “Unconsolidated” coastal-plain sediments 26

Tertiary Oligocene 37Paleogene Eocene 54

Paleocene 65 Mesozoic Cretaceous Overconsolidated clays and clay shales 135

Jurassic Various sedimentary rocks 180Triassic Clastic sedimentary rocks with diabaseintrusions

Paleozoic Permian Fine-grained clastics, chemical 225precipitates, and evaporites. Continentalglaciation in southern hemisphere

Pennsylvanian Shales and coal beds 280Mississippian Carboniferous Limestones in central United States.

Sandstones and shales in east 310Devonian Red sandstones and shales 400Silurian Limestone, dolomite and evaporites, 435

shalesOrdovician Limestone and dolomite, shales 500

Cambrian Limestone and dolomite in late 600Cambrian, sandstones and shales inearly Cambrian

Precambrian Precambrian Igneous and metamorphic rocks About 4.5 billionyears


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Appendix A 1001

TABLE A.2

A Brief Geologic History of North Americaa

Period Activity

Precambrian Period of hundreds of millions of years during which the crust was formed and the conti-

nental land masses appearedCambrian Two great troughs in the east and west filled with sediments ranging from detritus at the

bottom, upward to limestones and dolomites, which later formed the Appalachians, theRockies, and other mountain ranges

Ordovician About 70% of North America was covered by shallow seas and great thicknesses of lime-stone and dolomite were depositedThere was some volcanic activity and the eastern landmass, including the mountains ofNew England, started to rise (Taconic orogeny)

Silurian Much of the east was inundated by a salty inland sea; the deposits ranged from detritus tolimestone and dolomite, and in the northeast large deposits of evaporites accumulated inlandlocked arms of the seasVolcanos were active in New Brunswick and Maine

Devonian Eastern North America, from Canada to North Carolina, rose from the sea (Arcadian

orogeny). The northern part of the Appalachian geosyncline received great thicknesses ofdetritus that eventually formed the Catskill MountainsIn the west, the stable interior was inundated by marine waters and calcareous depositsaccumulatedIn the east, limestone was metamorphosed to marble

Carboniferous Large areas of the east became a great swamp which was repeatedly submerged by shallowseas. Forests grew, died, and were buried to become coal during the Pennsylvanian portionof the period

Permian A period of violent geologic and climatic disturbances. Great wind-blown deserts coveredmuch of the continent. Deposits in the west included evaporites and limestonesThe Appalachian Mountains were built in the east to reach as high as the modern Alps(Alleghanian orogeny)The continental drift theory (Section A.3.2) considers that it was toward the end of thePermian that the continents began to drift apart

Triassic The Appalachians began to erode and their sediments were deposited in the adjacent non-marine seasThe land began to emerge toward the end of the period and volcanic activity resulted in sillsand lava flows; faulting occurred during the Palisades orogeny

Jurassic The Sierra Nevada Mountains, stretching from southern California to Alaska, were thrust upduring the Nevadian disturbance

Cretaceous The Rocky Mountains from Alaska to Central America rose out of a sediment-filled troughFor the last time the sea inundated much of the continent and thick formations of clays weredeposited along the east coast

Tertiary The Columbia plateau and the Cascade Range rose, and the Rockies reached their presentheightClays were deposited and shales formed along the continental coastal margins, reachingthicknesses of some 12 km in a modern syncline in the northern Gulf of Mexico that has

been subsiding since the end of the Appalachian orogenyExtensive volcanic activity occurred in the northwest

Quaternary During the Pleistocene epoch, four ice ages sent glaciers across the continent, which had ashape much like the presentIn the Holocene epoch (most recent), from 18,000 to 6,000 years ago, the last of the great icesheets covering the continent melted and sea level rose almost 100 mSince then, sea level has remained almost constant, but the land continues to rebound fromadjustment from the tremendous ice load. In the center of the uplifted region in northernCanada, the ground has risen 136 m in the last 6,000 years and is currently rising at the rateof about 2 cm/year (Walcott,1972)Evidence of ancient postglacial sea levels is given by raised beaches and marine deposits oflate Quaternary found around the world. In Brazil, for example, Pleistocene sands and grav-els are found along the coastline as high as 20 m above the present sea level

a The geologic history presented here contains the general concepts accepted for many decades, and still gen-erally accepted. The major variances, as postulated by the continental drift concept, are that until the end ofthe Permian, Appalachia [a land mass along the U.S. east coast region] may have been part of the northwestcoast of Africa [Figure A.1a], and that the west coast of the present United States may have been an archipel-ago of volcanic islands known as Cascadia. (From Zumberge, J.H. and Nelson, C.A., Elements of Geology, 3rded., Wiley, New York, 1972. Reprinted with permission of Wiley.)


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relationships apply in a general manner to many other parts of the world. Most of the peri-ods are separated by major crustal disturbances (orogenies). Age determination is basedon fossil identification (paleontology) and radiometric dating.

The classical concepts of the history of North America have been modified in con-formity with the modern concept of the continental drift hypothesis. The most significant

modification is the consideration that until the end of the Permian period, the eastcoast of the United States was connected to the northwest coast of Africa as shown inFigure A.1.

A.4.2 Radiometric Dating

Radiometric dating determines the age of a formation by measuring the decay rate of aradioactive element.

In radioactive elements, such as uranium, the number of atoms that decay during agiven unit of time to form new stable elements is directly proportional to the number ofatoms of the radiometric element of the sample. This decay rate is constant for the variousradioactive elements and is given by the half-life of the element, i.e., the time required forany initial number of atoms to be reduced by one half. For example, when once-livingorganic matter is carbon-dated, the amount of radioactive carbon (carbon 14) remainingand the amount of ordinary carbon present are measured, and the age of a specimen iscomputed from a simple mathematical relationship. A general discussion on dating tech-niques can be found in Murphy et al. (1979). The various isotopes, effective dating range,and minerals and other materials that can be dated are given in Table A.3.

In engineering problems the most significant use of radiometric dating is for the datingof materials from fault zones to determine the age of most recent activity (see Section

11.3.1). The technique is also useful in dating soil formations underlying colluvial depositsas an indication as to when the slope failure occurred.


TABLE A.3

Some of the Principal Isotopes Used in Radiometric Dating

Isotope

Parent Offspring Parent Half-Life Effective Dating Material That Can Be Dated

(years) Range (years)

Uranium 238 Lead 206 4.5 billion 10 million to 4.6 billion Zircon, uraninite, pitchblendeUranium 235 Lead 207 710 millionPotassium 40a Argon 40 1.3 billion 100,000 to 4.6 billion Muscovite, biotite

Calcium 40 hornblende, intact volcanicrock

Rubidium 87 Strontium 87 47 billion 10 million to 4.6 billion Muscovite, biotite,microcline, intactmetamorphic rock

Carbon 14a Nitrogen 14 5,730±30 100 to 50,000 Plant material: wood, peatcharcoal, grain.

Animal material: bone,tissue.

Cloth, shell, stalactites,groundwater and sea-water.

a Most commonly applied to fault studies: Carbon 14 for carbonaceous matter, or K–Ar for noncarbonaceous

matter such as fault gouge.






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References

Hodgson, J.H., Earthquakes and Earth Structure, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1964.

Murphy. P.J., Briedis, J., and Peck, J. H., Dating techniques in fault investigations, geology in thesiting of nuclear power plants, in Reviews in Engineering Geology IV , The Geological Society ofAmerica, Hatheway, A.W. and McClure, C.R., Jr., Eds, Boulder, CO, 1979, 153–168.

Zumberge, J.H. and Nelson, C. A., Elements of Geology, 3rd ed., Wiley, New York, 1972.

Further Reading

Dunbar, C.O. and Waage, K.M., Historical Geology, 3rd ed., Wiley, New York, 1969.

Guttenberg, B. and Richter, C.F., Seismicity of the Earth and Related Phenomenon, Princeton UniversityPress, Princeton, NJ, 1954.

Walcott, R.L., Late quaternary vertical movements in eastern North America: quantitative evidenceof glacio-isostatic rebound, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 10, 849–884, 1972.

Appendix A 1003


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Appendix B

USGS Quads, Aerial Photographs, Satellite andSLAR Imagery

FIG Topographic Maps (USGS Quadrangle Maps)

2.3 Hamburg, New Jersey. Portion of USGS Hamburg. Various bedrock types inglaciated area.

2.14 Wallington, Connecticut River valley in glaciated metamorphic rocks.2.17 Barton River Valley, Orleans, Vermont. General engineering geology map prepared

for interstate highway through a valley with glacial lacustrine soils.6.18 Elizabeth Quad, New York. Topographic expression of a batholith in a glaciated

area. Adirondack Mountains, New York.6.19 Berkeley Heights, New Jersey. Landforms of diabase sills intruded into Triassic

sandstones and shales.6.20 Warren County, Pennsylvania. Humid climate landform in horizontally bedded

sandstones and shales.6.21 Grand Canyon. Arid climate landform: horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks.6.25 Versailles, Kentucky. Limestone landform in a relatively cool moist climate.6.26 Manati, Puerto Rico. Limestone landform developing in a tropical climate.6.59 Passaic County, New Jersey. Topographic expression along the Ramapo fault

between crystalline rocks in uplands and sedimentary rocks in lowlands.6.71 Kensington, Maryland. Landform expressions developing from decomposition of

metamorphic rocks in a warm humid climate (see Test Boring log, Figure 7.5).6.73 Stone Mountain Georgia. Differential erosion between a granite mass and sur-

rounding foliated metamorphic rocks has resulted in the formation of a monadnock.7.21 Rock Creek, Dist of Columbia. Example of landform of a young stream eroding

metamorphic rocks in nonglaciated area.7.23 Prairie du Chen, Iowa. Example of a braided stream. Upland areas on both sides of

the valley show the fine-textured relief that develops in loessial soils.7.31 Canada del Oro, Tucson, Arizona. Topographic expression of a bajada dissected by

the floodplain of a wash in an arid climate.7.48 Ormond Beach, Florida. Beach ridges of an emerging shoreline.7.49 Point Reyes, California. Features of a structurally shaped coastline and a sub-

merged bay.7.55 Topango, California. Topographic expression of a dissected coastal plin with unsta-

ble natural slopes.

7.67 Lake Michigan. Topographic expression of parabolic (U-shaped sand dunes alongshoreline.

7.68 Sand Hills, Antioch, Nebraska. Topographic expression of ancient sand sheet.

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7.81 Rockford, Minnesota. Landform of a pitted till glacial plain.7.82 Palmyra, New York. Landform of drumlins on a till plain.7.86 Patchogue, New York. Landform of the terminal moraine and outwash plain on

Long Island.7.88 West Nyack, New York. Topographic expression of a freshwater swamp over a gla-

cial lakebed, and adjacent glaciated high ground.7.91 Mt. Toby, Massachusetts. Landform in a glaciated valley, geologic history of region

is shown in Figure 7.90.

FIG Stereo-Pairs of Aerial Photos

2.7 NASA high-altitude stereo-pair of an area northwest of Tucson, Arizona (scale1:125,000).

2.11 Landform developing in metamorphic rocks from subtropical weathering showingslimp slides in Brazil (scale 1:40,000).

2.12 A portion of Figure 2.12 showing slump slides (scale 1:8,000).2.17 Old slide scars apparent in glacial lakebed terrace soils (see Figure 2.17).2.18B Aerial photo of West Nyack.2.19 Stereo-pairs of West Nyack.7.16 Aerial photo mosaic of the life cycle of a river, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.7.17 Stereo-pairs of the stage in the fluvial cycle of a river.7.24 The pastoral zone of a meandering river on the coastline of Brazil.9.23 Tension cracks of incipient slides along the California coast near Portuguese Bend.

9.26 Slump failure landform in Brazil.9.37 Stereo-pair of aerial photos of Portuguese Bend, California area.10.20 Sinks and depressed areas from partial collapse of shallow limestone near Round

Rock, Texas.10.31 Stereo-pair of aerial photos of area of porous clays showing possible ancient col-

lapse zones, San Paulo, Brazil.

FIG Satellite and SLAR Imagery

2.5 ERTS image of New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania.2.6 SLAR image of northern New Jersey.6.27 ERTS image mosaic of Florida showing central lake district, a region of extensive

sink hole development.6.28 Landsat image of state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Metamorphic rocks in humid climate.6.29 ERTS image of Bridgeport-Hartford, Connecticut area. Metamorphic rocks in cool,

moist climate.6.38 SLAR image of landform expression of plunging folds, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.6.63 ERTS image of the San Francisco Bay area showing fault lineaments.7.33 LANDSAT image of portion of Mississippi River delta, including New Orleans and

Lake Pontchartrain.7.36 Mosaic of LANDSAT images of the U.S. east coast from New York City to

Richmond, Virginia Illustrating the drowned river valleys of the region.7.66 Portion of ERTS image showing crescentric dunes of a megabarchan desert in Saudi

Arabia.










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Appendix C

English to Metric to the International Systema

Unitsb English Metric SI

Length 1 mi=1760 yd=5280 ft 1.609 km or 1609 m1 ft=12 in 0.3048 m or 30.48 cm1 in 2.54 cm or 25.4 mm

Area 1 mi2=640 acres 2.59 km2 or 2.59×106 m2

1 acre=43,560 sq ft2 0.4047 ha or 4047 m2

1 ft2=144 in2 0.0929 m2 or 929.0 cm2

1 in2 6.452 cm2 6.452 cm2

Volume 1 acre ft=43,560 ft3 1233.49 m3 1233.49 m3

1 yd3=27 ft3=1728 in3 0.7646 m3 0.7646 m3

1 ft3=7.48 gal 0.0283 m3 or 28.32 L1 U.K. gal 4546 cm3 or 4.546 L1 U.S. gal=231 in3 3785 cm3 or 3.785 L1 in3 16.387 cm3 16.387 cm3

Mass 1 ton (short)=2000 lb 0.9072 t or 907.18 kg1 ton (long)=2240 lb 1.016 t or 1016 kg1 lb=16 oz 0.4536 kg or 453.6 g1 oz 28.352 kg 28.352 g

Density 1 pcf 16.019 kg/m3 0.157 kN/m3

Force 1 tf (short) 0.9072 tf 8.897 kN

1 tf (long) 1.016 tf 9.964 kN1 lbf 0.4536 kgf 4.448 NPressure or stress 1 tsf (short)=2000 psf 9.764 t/m2 95.76 kPa

1 tsf (short)=13.89 psi 0.9764 kg/cm2 95.76 kPa1 tsf (long)=2240 psf 10.936 t/m2 107.3 kPa1 psf=0.00694 psi 0.000488 kgf/cm2 0.04788 kPa1 psi=144 psf 0.0703 kgf/cm2 6.895 kPa1 bar=2089 psf 1.02 kg/cm2 105 Pa1 atm=33.9 ft of water (39.2°F) 76 mm mercury at 0°C1 atm=1.058 tsf=14.7 psi 1.033 kgf/cm2 1.0133 bar

Velocity 1 ft/year=1.9025×10−6 ft/min 0.9659×0−6 cm/sec2 0.9659×10−8 m/sec2

Acceleration of gravity 1 ft/sec2 0.3048 m/sec2 0.3048 m/sec2

32 ft/sec2 980 cm/sec2 980 galFlow 1 gal/min=192 ft3/day 0.0038 m3/min 3.8 L/min

Temperature t°F=1.8 t°C+32 t°C=(t°F−32)/1.8Water, unit weight 62.4 pcf 1 g/cm3=1 t/m3 9.81 kN/m3

Velocity 1 ft/day×0.000283=cm/sec×3528=ft/day

Metric to English to SI

Length 1 km=1000 m 0.6214 mi 1 km1 m=100 cm 3.28 ft=39.37 in. 1 m1 cm=10 mm 0.3937 in. 1 cm

Area 1 km2=100 ha 0.386 mi2 1 km2

1 ha=10.000 m2 2.47 acres 1 ha1 m2=10.000 cm2 10.764 ft2=1550 in2 1 m2

Volume 1 m3=1000 L 1.31 yd3=35.315 ft3 1 m3

1 L=1000 cm3 0.264 gal=61 in3. 1 LMass 1 t=1000 kg 2204.6 lb 1 t

1 kg=1000 g 2.205 lb 1 kgDensity 1 t/m3=1 g/cm3 62.428 pcf 9.807 kN/m3

Force 1 tf=1000 kgf 1.10 tf (short) 9.807 kN

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1 kgf1 kilopound1000 g 2.205 lbf 9.807 NUnit weight 1 t/m31 g/cm3 62.428 pcf 9.807 kN/m3

Pressure or stress 1 t/m20.1 kg/cm2 0.1024 tsf (short) 9.807 kPa1 kg/cm2 1.024 tsf14.223 psi 98.07 kPa1 kg/cm2 0.9678 atm1.019 kg/cm2 14.495 psi 1 bar (100 kPa)

Velocity 1 cm/sec 1.9685 ft/min 1 cm/secAcceleration dueto gravity 1 cm/sec20.01 m/sec2 0.3048 ft/sec 1 galFlow 1 m3 sec1000 L/sec 15,800 gal/min 1 m3/sec

1 L/sec 15.8 gal/min0.263 gal/sec

a Metric and SI units are generally the same except for force and pressure; therefore, under the SI column some

additional useful metric conversions are given. b For abbreviations see symbols at the end of the table.

mo—month in—inch mm—millimeters N—newton (force)hr—hour ft—foot cm—centimeters Pa—pascal=N/m2

(pressure)min—minute yd—yard m—meters 1 N0.2248 lbs—second mi—mile km—kilometers 0.102 kg102 g

oz—ounce ha—hectares 1 kPa0.0104 tsf (short)lb—pound g—grams 0.145 psiT—ton kg—kilograms 0.102 kgf/cm2

gal—gallon t—ton 1 bar100 kPapsi—lb/in2 f—forcetsf—ton/ft2

pcf—lb/ft3

Pressureatm—atmosphere

Note: Mmega (106

), kkilo (103

), hhecto (10)2

, dadeka(10), ddeci (10−1

), ccenti (10−2

), mmilli (10−3

),µ micro (10−6).

Summary Table of Conversions

System of Units Mutual Proportion

Name Symbol SI Metric Imperial SI Metric Imperial

Length l mm mm in 1 1 0.03937m m ft 1 1 3.281

Area A mm2 mm2 in2 1 1 1.55×103

m2 m2 ft2 1 1 10.764Volume V mL cm3 in3 1 1 0.061

m3 m3 ft3 1 1 35.315Velocity v mm/sec mm/s In./sec 1 1 0.03937

m/sec m/s ft/sec 1 1 3.281Rate of flow Q mL/sec cm3/sec ft3/sec 1 1 3.531×10−3

m3/sec m3/sec ft3/sec 1 1 35.315Mass m g g lb 1 1 2.205×10−3

t t lb 1 1 2205Density ρ kg/m3 kg/m3 lb/ft3 1 1 0.06243

t/m3 t/m3 lb/ft3 1 1 62.4Force P, F N kgf lbf 1 0.101971 0.22481

kN kgf lbf 1 101.971 224.81MN tf kips 1 101.971 224.81

Stress pressure σ , p kN/m2

kgf/cm2

lbf/in2

1 0.0101971 14.504MN/m2 tf/m2 tf/tf2 1 101.971 9.3238

Unit weight kN/m3 gf/cm3 lbf/ft3 1 0.10197 6.3657



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Appendix D

Symbols

Symbol Represents Section

A Activity of clay 5.3.3 A Amplitude 11.2.2 A Area 3.3.1 A Pore-pressure parameter 3.4.2

A Angstrom 5.3.3a Acceleration 11.2.2av Compressibility coefficient 3.5.4B Bulk modulus 3.5.2B Pore-pressure parameter 3.4.2C Compressibility 3.5.4C Pore-pressure parameter 3.4.2Cc Compression index 3.5.4CN Depth correction factor 3.4.5Cu Uniformity coefficient 3.2.3CR Gradation range 3.2.3CD Consolidated drained triaxial test 3.4.4CU Consolidated undrained triaxial test 3.4.4

CBR California bearing ratio 3.4.5CPT Cone penetrometer test 3.4.5Ca Secondary-compression coefficient 3.5.4C Cohesion 3.4.2c− , c′ Cohesion based on effective stresses 3.4.2ca Apparent cohesion 3.4.2cp Compression-wave velocity 3.5.5cs Shear-wave velocity 3.5.5cv Consolidation coefficient 3.5.4D Constrained modulus 3.5.2D Damping ratio 3.4.2D Diameter 3.4.3

DR Relative density 3.2.3D10 Diameter at which 10% of soil is finer 3.3.2D15 Diameter at which 15% of soil is finer 8.4.5D85 Diameter at which 85% of soil is finer 8.4.5D Pipe diameter 3.3.4E Moment arm 9.1.4E Young’s modulus 3.5.2Ec Compression modulus 3.5.4Ed Dynamic Young’s modulus 3.5.2Ei Initial tangent modulus 3.5.2Er In situ static rock modulus 3.5.3Es In situ static soil modulus 3.5.2E

seSecant modulus 3.5.2

Esr Static recovery modulus 3.5.2Et Tangent modulus 3.5.2

(Continued)

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Eseis Dynamic field modulus from V p 3.5.3E Void ratio 3.2.3E0 Initial void ratio 3.5.4

ef Final void ratio 3.5.4F Force 3.4.2F Ground amplification factor 11.2.6FR Friction ratio 2.3.4FS Factor of safety 9.1.4 f Coefficient of friction 3.4.1 f Frequency 11.2.2 f s Shaft friction, CPT 2.3.4G Shear modulus 3.5.2Gd Dynamic shear modulus 3.5.2Gs Specific gravity of solids 3.2.1Gw Specific gravity of water 3.2.1GWL Groundwater level, static 2.3.7

g Acceleration due to gravity 11.2.3 H Hydraulic head 3.3.4 H Height 9.1.4 H Stratum thickness 3.5.2 H c Capillary rise 3.3.1 H A Abrasion test hardness 3.2.1 H R Schmidt hardness 3.2.1 H T Total hardness 3.2.1h Hydraulic head 3.3.3he Elevation head 8.3.2hp Pressure head 8.3.2ht Total hydraulic head 8.3.2

I , I 0 Epicentral intensity 11.2.4I s Site intensity 11.2.5I s Point-load index 3.4.3i Angle of slope with horizontal 9.3.2i Angle of joint asperities 6.4.4i Hydraulic gradient 3.3.1icr Critical hydraulic gradient 8.3.2 JRC Joint roughness coefficient 6.4.4 j Seepage force per unit volume 8.3.2K Permeability coefficient (geology) 8.3.2K Dynamic bulk modulus 3.5.2K Pressure meter constant 3.5.4K Stiffness or spring constant 11.4.2Ka Active stress coefficient 3.4.2Ko At-rest Earth pressure coefficient 3.4.2Kp Passive stress coefficient 3.4.2k Permeability coefficient 3.3.1kh Horizontal k 3.3.4kmean Average k 3.3.4kv Vertical k 3.3.4k, ks Joint stiffness 6.4.4kn Normal joint stiffness 6.4.4ks Subgrade reaction modulus 3.5.4ksh Horizontal ks 3.5.4ksv Vertical ks 3.5.4

kt ks from test 3.5.4L Long waves 11.2.2L Length 3.3.3LI Liquidity index 3.2.3LL Liquid limit 3.2.3

(Continued)





































































































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M Magnitude 11.2.4 M Mass 11.4.2MM Modified Mercalli scale 11.2.4

m Mass 11.4.2mv Volume-change coefficient 3.5.4N Normal force component 3.4.1N Standard penetration test (SPT) resistance 3.5.4N ′ , N t N (SPT) corrected for 3.5.4N c Bearing capacity factor 3.4.5N f Number of flow channels 8.3.3N e Number of equipotential drops 8.3.3N _

Effective normal force 9.3.2n Porosity 3.2.1ne Effective porosity 8.3.2O Origin 9.1.4Oc Center of gravity 9.1.4

OCR Overconsolidation ratio 3.5.4P Force, pressure 3.4.1P Primary waves 2.3.2P′ Effective overburden pressure 3.4.4Pa Atmospheric pressure 8.3.2Pa Active force 3.4.2Pp Passive force 3.4.2PI Plasticity index 3.2.3PL Plasticity limit 3.2.3PL Limiting pressure 3.5.4 p Unit pressure 3.5.2 pc Preconsolidation pressure 3.5.4

po Overburden pressure 3.5.4 ps Seepage pressure 8.3.3Q Load 3.5.1Q Rate of flow 3.3.3Q Quick, or CU, UU triaxial test 3.4.4Qall Allowable bearing value 5.2.7q Rate of flow per unit area 3.3.1qc Cone point resistance (CPT) 2.3.4R Radius 8.3.3R CU triaxial test 3.4.4R Resultant force 9.1.4R Rayleigh waves 2.3.2R Distance from the source 11.2.5RQD Rock quality designation 2.4.5r Radius 3.3.4rw Well radius 8.3.3S Saturation percent 3.2.3S Settlement 3.5.2S Shear waves 2.3.2S Shearing resistance, strength 3.4.2S Slow or CD triaxial test 3.4.4$ Shape factor 8.3.3Smax Maximum shearing resistance 9.3.2SL Shrinkage limit 3.2.3SS Split-barrel sampler 2.4.2

SPT Standard penetration test 3.5.4St Sensitivity 3.4.2sr Remolded undrained shear strength 3.4.2su Undrained shear strength 3.4.2sv Spectral velocity 11.4.4

(Continued)

Appendix D 1011














































































































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sa Spectral acceleration 11.4.4sd Spectral displacement 11.4.4T Shear force 3.4.1

T Period 11.2.2T Transmissibility 8.3.2T v Theoretical time factor 3.5.4t Time 3.5.4U Average consolidation ratio 3.5.4U Total pore pressure 9.3.2Uc Unconfined or uniaxial compressive strength 3.4.3Uult Ultimate unconfined strength 3.4.3UD Undisturbed sample 2.4.2UU Unconsolidated undrained triaxial test 3.4.4u Unit pore pressure 3.4.2uw Unit pore-water pressure 3.4.2V Total volume of sample 3.2.3

V a Volume of air or gas 3.2.3V s Volume of solids 3.2.3V v Volume of voids 3.2.3V w Volume of water 3.2.3V t Total flow volumeV Joint water pressure 9.3.2V Velocity 2.3.2V p Compression-wave velocity 2.3.2V s Shear-wave velocity 2.3.2V r Rayleigh-wave velocity 3.5.5V F Field Vp 3.5.3V L Laboratory Vp 3.5.3

V Fs Field Vs 5.2.7V Ls Laboratory Vs 5.2.7v Flow velocity 3.3.4v Particle or vibration velocity 11.2.3vd Discharge velocity 8.3.2vs Seepage velocity 8.3.2W Total weight 9.1.4W s Weight of solids 3.2.3W w Weight of water 3.2.3W t Total sample weight 3.2.3W D Sample weight, dense 3.2.3W L Sample weight, loose 3.2.3W N Sample weight, natural 3.2.3w Water content 3.2.3wn Natural water content 3.2.3x Distance along the x-axis 11.2.2 y Distance along the y-axis 11.2.2 y Displacement 11.2.2 y Unit deflection 3.5.4Z, z Depth 3.5.1zc Depth of tension crack 9.3.2zw Water depth 8.3.2α Angle of obliquity 3.4.1α Compression modulus factor 3.5.4α Inclination of force angle 3.4.1

β Modulus reduction factor 3.5.3γ D Maximum density 3.2.3γ L Loose density 3.2.3γ N Natural density 3.2.3γ t Total unit weight 3.2.3

(Continued)



























































































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γ d Dry unit weight 3.2.3γ b Buoyant unit weight 3.2.3γ s Saturated unit weight 3.2.3γ

w Unit weight of water 3.2.3∆, δ Change or increment 3.4.2ε Strain 3.5.2ζ Unit shear strain 3.5.2θ Angle between failure surface and horizontal 9.3.2θ Angle between normal stress and major principal stress 3.4.1θ cr Slope of failure surface 3.4.1λ Damping ratio 3.4.2λ Wavelength 11.2.2µ Microns 10.6.2µ r Loading time rate correction factor, vane shear test 3.4.2v Poisson’s ratio 3.4.1ρ Mass or bulk density 3.2.1

ρ Consolidation settlement 3.5.4∑ Sum 3.5.2σ , σ n Normal stress 3.4.1σ _

, σ _

n Effective normal stress 3.4.2σ nf Normal stress at failure 3.4.1σ 1, σ 2, σ 3 Principal stresses 3.4.1σ d Deviator stress 3.4.2σ h Horizontal stress 3.4.1σ v Vertical stress 3.4.1σ _

o, σ _

va Effective vertical overburden stress 3.5.4σ j Joint uniaxial compressive strength 6.4.4τ Shear stress 3.4.1

τ Joint shear strength 6.4.4τ max Maximum shear stress 3.4.2φ Friction angle 3.4.2φ _

, φ′ Effective friction angle 3.4.2φ r Residual strength friction angle 3.4.2ω Circular frequency 11.2.2

Note: Not included are symbols for minerals or chemical elements (Chapter 5), classification systems (Chapter 5),

or dimensions (Appendix C).

Appendix D 1013






























































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Appendix E

Engineering Properties of Geologic Materials:Data and Correlations

Properties

Materials Classa Details Reference

Rock

General I-B Range in total hardness Figure 3.1P, C, S General engineering properties of common rocks Table 5.16P Typical values for k Table 3.12P k, navg, specific yield Table 8.1C RQD vs. Er (rock mass) Figure 3.75C Qall for various rock types (NYC Bldg. Code) Table 5.22S Uc vs. consistency Figure 3.39S Uc vs. Schmidt hardness Figure 3.40S Uc and rock classification Figure 5.7

Decomposed C Qall for various rocks (NYC Bldg. Code) Table 5.22S c, c′, φ , φ ′, φ r for various rock types Table 3.35

Marine and clay shales I-B, S γ d, w, LL, PI, C, φ , φ

rTable 3.38

I-B, S LL vs. φ r; marine shales of NW United States Figure 6.91I-B γ d, wn, LL, PI, minus 0.074 mm, activity (LA area) Table 7.9

Coal S Triaxial compression tests: load vs. σ 3 Figure 10.12S Uc for various conditions Table 10.2

Joints S φ , φ r, j for rock mass discontinuities Table 3.34S φ , φ τ for joint fillings Table 3.35

Gouge S φ , φ r for foliation shear, mylonite seams, faults Table 3.35S φ r vs. PI Figure 3.32

Minerals I-B Gs, hardness (Moh’s scale) Table 5.4I Characteristics Table 5.5

Soils: By Gradations

Various P, C, E, S General engineering properties Table 5.31P K ranges for general formations Table 3.12P K values for various soil types Table 3.14P k ranges; soil formations classified by origin Table 3.13P k, n, and specific yield Table 8.1P k, i vs. flow rate Table 8.2P kv ranges and methods of measurement Table 3.11P k ranges vs. D10 vs. H c and frost heave susceptibility Table 3.10C E, v Table 3.25C, S Ec, PL (from pressuremeter) Table 3.29S Pore-pressure parameter A at failure Table 3.17S CBR vs. soil class vs. rating as subgrade, etc. Figure 3.65

Compacted fills L-B, P, C, S γ d, optimum moisture, % compression, c, φ , k, CBR and ks Table 3.39(Continued)

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Properties


Cohesionless (see also various)I-B General gradation characteristics Figure 3.11

I-B, S Gradation and DR vs. N , γ d, e, φ Table 3.36P k vs. D10 Figure 3.13P k vs. DR vs. gradation Figure 3.14C Compactness vs. DR and N Table 3.23C kt, subgrade reaction Table 3.31C Strain modulus relations (E and G) Figure 3.91S qc/N60 vs. D50 Figure 3.62S qc vs. p′ vs. φ Figure 3.61S φ vs. DR vs. gradation Figure 3.93S Susceptibility to liquefaction during strong seismic shaking Table 11.10S Gradation vs. liquefaction susceptibility Figure 11.34S Cyclic stress ratio vs. N and liquefaction Figure 11.35

Cohesive (see also various and soils classified by origin)I-B Plasticity chart (LL vs. PI vs. classification) Figure 3.12C, I-B e–log p curves for various clays, γ d, w, LL, PI Figure 3.81

Soil

C kt, subgrade reaction Table 3.32E Clay fraction and PI vs. activity Figure 10.40E % 0.001 mm, PI, SL vs. % volume change for p=1 psi Table 10.4E % 0.002 vs. activity and % swell for p=1 psi Figure 10.41S Sensitivity classification (su/sr) Table 3.18I-B, S Consistency vs. N , γ s, Uc Table 3.37S N vs. Uc vs. plasticity classes Figure 3.94

I-B, S γ d, wn, LL, PI, su, Φ , c-, φ r various materials Table 3.38

Soils: Classified by Origin

Residual I-B, C Gneiss, humid climate: N , e, general character Table 7.5I-B Gneiss, humid climate, w, PL, LL, pc vs. depth Figure 7.4I-B Igneous and metamorphics: N , w, PI vs. depth Figure 7.5I-B Porous clays, general: gradations Figure10.27I-B Porous clays, general: PI vs. LL Figure 10.28I-B Porous clays, basalt: γ t, LL, PI, w, e vs. depth Figure 10.29C Porous clays, basalt: saturation effect, e-log p Figure 10.30I-B Porous clays, clayey sandstone: w, LL, PL, n vs. Z Figure 7.7I-B, S γ d, w, LL, PI, ,, Φ , (natural w and soaked) Table 3.38

I-B Sedimentary rocks: N , w, PI, LL vs. Z Figure 7.9C, I-B Gneiss, basalt e–log p curves, γ d, w, LL, PI Figure 3.81I-B, S Basalt and gneiss N, LL, PI, e, φ , c; Table 7.5

Colluvium I-B, S γ d, w, LL, PI, ,, Φ , φ t Table 3.38Alluvial I-B, C Fluvial: γ d, wn, LL, PI, e–log p curves Figure 3.81

I-B, C Fluvial (backswamp): γ d, wn, LL, PI, e–log p curve Figure 3.81I-B, S Fluvial (backswamp): γ d, wn, LL, PI, su Table 3.38I-B, S Fluvial (backswamp): wn, LL, PI, su Figure 7.27I-B Estuarine: N , LL, PI, wn Figure 7.39I-B, S Estuarine: γ d, wn, LL, PI, su (various) Table 3.38I-B, S Estuarine: wn, LL, PL, su, p′ (Maine) Figure 7.40I-B, S Estuarine: γ , wn, LL, PL, pc, su, St (Thames River) Figure 7.41

I-B Coastal: N, wn, LL, PI Figure 7.47I-B Coastal plain: N , wn, LL, PI (Atlantic) Figure 7.53I-B, S Coastal plain: wn, LL, PL, su, mv (London) Figure 7.57I-B, C Coastal plain: γ d, wn, LL, PI, e–log p (Texas) Figure 3.81I-B, S Coastal plain: γ d, wn, LL, PI, su, ,, Φ , Φ r, e Table 3.38

(Continued)




































































































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Properties


I-B, S, E Coastal plain: wn, PI, SL, Uc, Pswell, ∆V (Texas) Section 7.4.4I-B, C Lacustrine, Mexico City; γ d, wn, LL, PI, e–log p Figure 3.81

I-B, S Lacustrine, Mexico City: γ d, wn, LL, PI, su, St Table 3.38I-B, S Lacustrine, Mexico City: N , wn, Uc, p′ Figure 7.60I-B, S Marine, various: γ d, wn, LL, PI, su Table 3.38C Valley alluvium (collapsing soil): e–log p (sat.) Figure 10.24

Loess I-B Gradation and plasticity: Kansas–Nebraska Figure 7.70C γ d vs. P compression curves: prewet, wet Figure 7.71C Settlement upon saturation vs. γ Table 7.11I-B, S γ d, wn, LL, PI, c- φ

-: Kansas–Nebraska Table 3.38

S τ vs. σ n vs. density; wet Figure 7.73Glacial I-D Till: typical N values, various locations Figure 7.83

C Till: Ec (pressuremeter) Table 3.29I-B, S Till: γ d, wn, LL, PI, su(Uc) Table 3.38

I Stratified drift, N values Figure 7.87I-B Lacustrine, various locations: N, wn, LL, PI vs. Z Figure 7.96I-B Lacustrine, East Rutherford, NJ: N, wn, LL, PI vs. Z Figure 7.97I-B, C Lacustrine, New York City: wn, LL, PI, e–log p Figure 3.81I-B, S Lacustrine, various: γ d, wn, LL, PI, su, Table 3.38I Lacustrine. New York City: plasticity chart Figure 7.99S Lacustrine, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut: Figure 7.100

OCR vs. su/ p′

S Lacustrine. Chicago: wn, LL, PL, Uc vs. Z Figure 7.95I-B, C, S Lacustrine. New York City: wn, LL, PI, D10, e, pc, Cv, Table 7.13

OCR, Cα , su (clay and silt varves)I-B, S Marine, various: γ d, wn, LL, PI, su, St Table 3.38I-B, S Marine, Norway: γ , wn, LL, PL, c/ p St Figure 7.101I-B, S Marine. Norway: γ , wn, LL, PL, su, c/ p, St Figure 7.102I-B, S Marine, Canada: wn, p′, pc, St, γ Figure 7.103I-B, C, S Marine, Boston: wn, LL, PL, Cc, pc, p′, su Figure 7.104

Groundwater

Indicators of corrosive and incrusting waters Table 8.3Effect of sulfate salts on concrete Table 8.4Effect of aggressive CO2 on concrete Table 8.5

a I-B — index and basic properties, P — permeability, C — compressibility, S — strength.

Appendix E 1017































































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