11 India is blessed with a variety of timber yielding tree species and as many as 1500 species are commercially utilised for diverse purposes. Some of the important plantation tree species grown in India are Tectona grandis, Eucalyptus spp., Acacia spp., Dalbergia sissoo, Swietenia sp. Santalum album, Melia dubia, Ailanthus excelsa, Leucaena leucocephala etc. Productivity of forests in general, and particularly that of commercial forest plantations, is very much affected by frequent outbreak of pests and diseases, besides human interventions and various natural calamities. Among the pests, largely insects belonging to the orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Isoptera and Homoptera are the major ones of significant economic importance that attack trees, right from the seeds to the final product. Wood deterioration by xylophagous insects leads to unhealthy tree growth and malformation of wood in timber yielding forest trees. Some such major pests belong to Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Isoptera. The review of literature pertaining to the attack of xylophagous insects and their management aspects are covered in this chapter. 2.1 Mahogany shoot borer 2.1.1 Incidence of Mahogany borer pest attacks in Tropical and Sub tropical countries Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.) is a large deciduous high timber value tree used for making furniture, paneling, railway sleepers, industrial and domestic wood wares, traditional medicine etc (Wylie, 2001; Lopez et al., 2008). Continuous supply of this species is often constrained by low natural regeneration and difficulty in establishment mainly due to the attack by the shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta Moore and
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India is blessed with a variety of timber yielding tree species and as many as 1500
species are commercially utilised for diverse purposes. Some of the important plantation
tree species grown in India are Tectona grandis, Eucalyptus spp., Acacia spp., Dalbergia
sissoo, Swietenia sp. Santalum album, Melia dubia, Ailanthus excelsa, Leucaena
leucocephala etc. Productivity of forests in general, and particularly that of commercial
forest plantations, is very much affected by frequent outbreak of pests and diseases,
besides human interventions and various natural calamities. Among the pests, largely
insects belonging to the orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Isoptera and Homoptera are the
major ones of significant economic importance that attack trees, right from the seeds to
the final product. Wood deterioration by xylophagous insects leads to unhealthy tree
growth and malformation of wood in timber yielding forest trees. Some such major pests
belong to Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Isoptera. The review of literature pertaining to the
attack of xylophagous insects and their management aspects are covered in this chapter.
2.1 Mahogany shoot borer
2.1.1 Incidence of Mahogany borer pest attacks in Tropical and Sub tropical
countries
Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.) is a large deciduous high timber value tree
used for making furniture, paneling, railway sleepers, industrial and domestic wood
wares, traditional medicine etc (Wylie, 2001; Lopez et al., 2008). Continuous supply of
this species is often constrained by low natural regeneration and difficulty in
establishment mainly due to the attack by the shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta Moore and
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Hypsipyla grandella Zeller in the tropical and sub tropical parts of the world
(Cunningham et al., 2005; Ofori et al., 2007).
In Nigeria, lack of knowledge on the ecology and taxonomy of the shoot-boring
caterpillars Hypsipyla spp. has resulted the foresters not attempting to grow mahogany
(Swietenia spp., Khaya spp., Cedrela odorata L. etc) in many locations within the natural
range of the species (Eidt, 1995). In Indonesia Mahogany trees were affected by H.
robusta and Xylosandrus compactus (Eichoff) (Suratmo, 1996). In Bangladesh, the trees
of Swietenia macrophylla King were affected by two major borer insects - the mahogany
shoot borer, H. robusta and the mahogany collar borer, Pagiophloeus longiclavis
Marshall (Baksha and Islam, 1997).
In the Atlantic region of Costa Rica 90% of Mahogany trees were affected by
attack of H. robusta and showed high shoot proliferation (Lopez et al., 1997). In the
Amazon Basin Roba-mahogany (Carapa guianensis Aubl. and C. procera) the natural
distribution, abundance and phenology were affected by the high seed predation of H.
grandella (Ferraz et al., 2002). In the four species of African mahogany viz., Khaya
anthotheca (Welw.) C.Dc., K. ivorensis, Entandrophragma angolense Tiama, E. utile the
relative susceptibility to H. robusta attack, after 24 months was high in all the tree
species (Opuni et al., 2008). In Sri Lanka, the native tree of Chukrasia velutina M. Roem.
and S. macrophylla were severely damaged by the attack of H. robusta (Edirisinghe and
Tilakaratna, 1997).
In Himachal Pradesh, the larvae of H. robusta feed on fruits and shoots of T.
ciliata, (Verma and Nutul, 2000) and almost 80% of flowering trees surveyed showed
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infestation of the fruit borer in mahogany and cedar plantations in Punjab. In Kerala an
area of 169 ha of S. macrophylla, 70% plants were bored by H. robusta larvae. The attack
of H. robusta on Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. and Toona ciliata M. Roem. were also widely
observed (Varma, 2001; Misra et al., 2003).
2.1.2 Economic significance of Mahogany shoot borer
The productivity of C. odorata was severely reduced by the attacks of stem-borer,
H. grandella (Haggar and Ewel, 1995). In contrast exotic species of Cedrela (C. odorata
and C. fissilis) grown on the New South Wales mid-north coast of Australia were not
attacked by the shoot borer H. robusta (Bygrave and Bygrave, 2001). It was also found
that the 50-96% seed capsules of West Indies mahoganies (S. mahagoni) were damaged
by H. grandella in spring (Howard and Giblin, 1997).
Vennetier (1998) and Soda et al. (2000) atated that as the wood resources are
changing from natural forest to plantation forest, some exotic high price trees of
mahogany S. macrophylla, S. mahagoni and T. ciliata were planted more in Southeast
Asian countries. Kalil et al. (2000) observed that the two shoot borers H. grandella and
H. robusta which are causing greater losses in the South American mahogany by their
attack on young moncultures of the species cause a loss of apical dominance. One of the
most expensive woods in the world the Brazilian mahogany S. macrophylla were unable
to be grown in Central and South America due to the attack of shoot borer H. grandella
(Batista et al., 2007).
In China about 60 to 100% of trees were injured by the attack of H. robusta that
significantly reduced the timber value in the market due to forking of the branches (Chen,
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and Cha, 1998). About 62.5% shoot infestation was recorded in 2-3 m tall trees of T.
ciliate where single larva bored to an average of 65.48 cm shoot length before becoming
fully fed (Verma and Nutul, 2000; Speight and Cory, 2001).
2.1.3 Other hosts of Hypsipyla spp.
Minor pests such as the stem boring moth Zeuzera coffeae Nietner, 1861 and
scolytid shot-hole borers were found to damage young mahogany seedlings (Chan-Hing
and Matsumoto, 2000). In India, about 97.7% shoots of Antelaea azadirachta Adelb.
were infested by Hypsipyla sp and damaging all plants parts (Choudhary, 2001). The
nature and extent of damage of shoot borer, H. robusta, were also observed on C.
velutina plantations and Xylocarpus granatum K.D. Koenig mangrove in all phenological
stages (Hossain et al., 2004a; Jugale and Bhosale, 2007).
2.1.4 Biology and life cycle of H. robusta
Mo et al. (1997a) and (1997b) stated that the temporal pattern of infestation levels
were closely correlated with the increase in the rainfall, the larger the amount of rainfall,
the higher the infestation levels. But the temperature pattern did not appear to affect the
general infestation levels. He also observed, shoots positioned at above 90% of tree
height were attacked twice as often as the lower-positioned shoots.
Floyd and Hauxwell (2001) stated that Hypsipyla spp. is strong flyer that can
locate female and distant host trees. Once they mated with female the female lay between
200 and 450 eggs over 5 to 8 nights (Griffiths, 2001) on terminal shoot. Mo et al. (1997a)
and (2001) found that terminal shoots would be among the first to be attacked once a tree
is infested. There was a gradual shift of feeding loci with respect to host tissues as the
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larva become aged. Feeding by larvae of the first two instars was found most often in
terminal foliage or previously damaged tissues of shoots or tree stems.
Mo and Tanton, (1995) and (1996) studied the diel patterns of adult emergence,
female calling, mating, egg-laying and activity rhythms in the laboratory under controlled
temperature (26± 2° C) and reversed light cycles (14 h light:10 h dark) and found that
most moths (82%) emerged in the early hours of the dark period (0-2.5 h after light-off).
Pith-feeding (tunnelling) started at the later 2nd instar. Mo et al. (1998) and Verma and
Nutul (2001) in their studies on the biology of H. robusta showed, five larval instars and
the full-fed larva pupated in a cocoon after a brief prepupal stage. The pupa has a size of
14.2 mm x 4.07 and lasted for 10-11 days. The species completed four generations in a
year and over wintered as prepupa from October to mid March
2.1.5 Management of Hypsipyla spp.
2.1.5.1 Physical Methods
2.1.5.1.1 Silvicultural
In the field studies of uneven planting of neem (Suharti et al., 1995) and Acacia
mangium Willd. (Matsumoto et al., 1997), physical barrier around S. macrophylla
plantations demonstrated the most effective control of the H. grandella attack. The
improved silvicultural practices such as pruning, weed control, foliar and soil fertilization
showed reduced borer damage and also suggested to use this approach in the improved
integrated pest management programme (Briceno, 1997).
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Mahroof et al. (2001) explained artificial shade trial of the seedlings of S.
macrophylla showed that when plants grown under open conditions were more
vulnerable to attack by H. robusta. The provision of high shade during early growing
period may increase the ability to recover better after shoot-borer attack The pruning of S.
macrophylla upto 29 months after planting, showed significantly better values for form
traits with no apparent difference in growth traits (Cornelius, 2001).
Hauxwell et al. (2001a) correlated the levels of attack with factors such as shade,
planting density, species mixtures, site characteristics, in the plantation of S.
macrophylla, Cedrela odorata and S. mahogoni and showed silvicultural techniques were
usually attributed to more than one mechanism and it is difficult to assess which is the
most important one for minimizing the impact of Hypsipyla spp. In another study Perez
and Esquivel (2008) found that the proportion of infected individuals of S. mahagoni by
H. robusta did not differ between the species used in plantations, either planted as
monocultures or in mixed plantations.
2.1.5.1.2 Using attractants
Field trapping with identified sex pheromones (Z, E)-9,12-tetradecadiene-1-ol-
acetate, (Z)-9-tetradecen-1-ol-acetate and a 5:3:2 mixture of (Z, E)-9,12-tetradecadiene-
1-ol-acetate, (Z)-9-tetradecen-1-ol-acetate and (Z)-11-hexadecen-1-ol- of the mahogany
shoot borer, H. robusta, impregnated with synthetic acetate captured no males, although
these compounds have been identified as sex pheromones of H. robusta (Nakamuta et al.,
2002).
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2.1.5.1.3 By weed management
The use of weed row, weed-free, and maize taungya methods were evaluated in 1-
year-old plantations of the Pacific mahogany (Swietenia humilis Zuccarini) which
showed very less control of the attack of H. grandella (Goulet et al., 2005)
2.1.5.2 Chemical Methods - Insecticides
The efficacy of two systemic granular insecticides (carbofuran 3G and thimet 10G
[phorate]) were tested by Bhandari et al. (1999) against the borer H. robusta in 1-yr-old
agroforestry plantations which showed that the insecticides Thimet at 15-25 g per plant
and two organophosphate insecticides in the soil protected the plants best, reducing the
number of plants attacked at 30 days after treatment. Though the chemical control of
Hypsipyla spp. shoot borers in Meliaceae were attempted for about eight decades in more
than twenty three countries throughout the tropics, there is still no chemical application
technology which will provide reliable, cost-effective and environmentally sound
protection for any of the high-value meliaceous tree species to produce a marketable stem
(Wylie, 2001). In contrast, when two-year-old (Swietenia humilis) trees were treated with
deltamethrin, it provided complete control against the H. grandella attack (Goulet et al.,
2005).
2.1.5.3 Biological methods
2.1.5.3.1 Natural enemies
The liberation of egg parasites Anthocephalus renalis Wtstn., Tetrastichus
spirabilis Waterston., Phanerotoma sp., Trichogrammatoidea nana (Zehntner) and Tr.
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robusta Nagaraja for management of the shoot borer H. robusta and H. grandella at high
pest population level showed that the egg parasitoid, Trichogramma minutum Riley
failed to control H. robusta when transferred from the same host but only Tr. nana and
Tr. robusta were effective (Briceno, 1997; Sands and Murphy, 2001). A parasitic
nematode Hexamermis sp. was found to cause mortality of the H. robusta larvae in the
field and have been frequently isolated from larvae in the field. (Hauxwell et al., 2001b).
The parasitoid Apanteles sp. and Brachymeria conica (Ashmead) were found to parasitize
on larvae and pupae of H. robusta (Blanco et al., 2001).
The nematode Steinernema carpocapsae L. (Misra and Khan, 2003) and twelve
species of Chalcidoid (Antrocephalus hakonensis (Ashmead), A. hypsiphylae,
Brachymeria euploeae, B. hearseyi, B. tachardiae, Kriechbaumerella destructor
(Waterston), Tetrastichus spirabilis Wales, Trichospilus diatraeae Cherian and
Margabandhu, Diomorus orientalis Masi) were found to paratize the eggs and larvae of
H. robusta, (Kazmi and Neena, 2003). The egg parasitoids Solenopsis germinate
(Fabricius), Pheidole radoszkowskii Mayr and Crematogaster spp. were observed on one
developmental stage of H. grandella (Varon et al., 2005).The possibilities of the use of
the predatory ant Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius) was explored by a few workers.
This ant species may protect the trees from attack by the shoot borer and are likely to be
effective in controlling the shoot borer H. robusta (Grace and Laurence, 200l; Peng and
Christian, 2006; Lim et al., 2008).
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2.1.5.3.2 Botanicals
Suharti et al. (1995) in their laboratory study on the effect of extracts of leaves
and seeds of neem at concentrations of 5, 10 and 20% against H. robusta showed that all
the concentrations repelled and killed the insects, and acted as contact poison. Mancebo
et al. (2002) and Goulet et al. (2005) studied the activity of two neem products, Azatin
and Nim 80 on H. robusta. Azatin caused quick direct toxicity and Nim 80 acted as a
growth disruptant, especially at high concentrations in both cases. The antifeedant
activity of plant species, Quassia amara L., Ruta graveolens L., R. chalepensis and
Sechium pittieri (Cogn.) C. Jeffrey. on third instar larvae of H. grandella larvae showed
that the antifeedant activity was high in Q. amara and R. graveolens at 10%
concentration (Mancebo et al., 2000; 2001).
2.1.5.3.3 Entomopathogens
Myres (1935) isolated Cordyceps sp and Metarhizium spp., when the larvae of H.
robusta and H. grandella were incubated in soil samples. Kandasamy (1969), Yamazaki
et al. (1990), Misra (1993) and Hauxwell et al. (2001) isolated Beauveria tenella (Sacc.),
B. brongniartii and B. bassiana with H. robusta. The effect B. bassiana evaluated on H.
grandella in a ten month old Cedrela odorata plantation by Salvatierra and Palm (1972),
Li et al. (1991), Sanchez and Velazquez (1998) and Goulet et al. (2005) showed that B.
bassiana applied in the interval of three months achieved 71% of death of larvae and B.
thuringiensis showed 67% death. Casanova et al. (2001) and Misra et al. (2003)
discussed the integrated management of Toon shoot borer by use of the entomopathogens
such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and reckettsiae.
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2.1.5.3.4 Irrigation and fertilizer application
Castillo et al. (2008) studied the effects of irrigation, fertilizer application (50 g
NPK/ tree) on the growth of 10-month-old cedar trees, showed negative results with
irrigation alone; fertilizer application resulted in the greatest increase in tree height and
diameter, and treatment with fertilizer + irrigation + insecticide gave the effective control
of the infestation H. grandella.
2.2 Arboreal termite, Odontotermes spp.
2.2.1 Distribution of Odontotermes sp.
The distribution of Odontotermes sp. was studied by several workers in tropical
and sub-tropical parts of the world. In Zimbabwe the species of the genera Macrotermes
and Odontotermes were primarily foragers involved in the damage of forest tress
(Mukumbareza, 1994) and in China about ten species of three families of Isoptera and
five genera of Microcerotermes remotes Ping & Xu (basionym) and Odontotermes
hainanensis (Light.) were dominant in a forest area of 0.25 km (Xiao et al., 1996). The
highly adaptable pest species composition and adaptability of Isoptera (Macrotermes
barneyi Light, Odontotermes formosanus Shiraki. and Microtermes dimorphus Tsai &
Chen.) in hilly areas of the mid-subtropics, southern subtropics and northern tropics in
China, varied between the regions, altitudes and niches (Lin et al., 1996).
Parihar (1994 and 1997) studied the nature and extent of damage on the standing
tress in forest by the genera Microtermes, Odontotermes and Coptotermes were identified
in Rajasthan. Thakur (1996 and 1999)and Rathore (1999) observed in the areas of
agriculture, horticulture and forestry in the arid areas of Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana were
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adversely affected by species of Anacanthotermes macrocephalus (Desneux, 1906),
Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann), Odontotermes obesus (Rambur), O. latiguloides
(Roonwal & Verma) and O. distans (Holmgren and Holmgren).
Meyer et al. (1999) observed that the genera of Macrotermes, Cubitermes,
Amitermes, Odontotermes and Trinervitermes were the predominant mound building
termite species in agriculture and forestry area. The diversity of termites in tropical
forests of young eucalyptus plantations in Kerala (Varma and Swaran, 2007) showed that
during the month of April-November, a single species, O. obesus (Rambur) was the most
abundant and O. obesus (Holmgren) and O. feae (Wasmann) were dominant, during
February-March.
2.2.2 Damage and economic loss
Gowda et al. (1995) studied the damage on Grevillea robusta A.Cunm. ex R.Br
and Erythrina lithosperma Miq. by the species of O. obesus, O. redemanni, O. horni,
Macrotermes estherae and Nasutitermes indicola (Holmgren and Holmgren) was a
predominant termite that feeds on the bark and living tissues of the plants in Karnataka.
Mohan (1995) studied the damage of 24-yr-old teak Tectona grandis L.f. plantation in
Maharashtra observed that the termites of O. parvidens and O. distans were mostly
affects the girth classes below 45 cm.
Ali and Chaturvedi (1996) and Han and Ndiaye (1997) observed that the
seedlings, saplings and plantations of Dalbergia sissoo, T. grandis, Moringa oleifera