2020 Industry Report: Coffee

2020 Industry Report:CoffeeNovember 2020

Market Intelligence Team

Written by

Executive Summary 2

• COVID-19hashitglobalcoffeeindustrieswithstringentregulationsandrestrictionsongoodsandlaboracrossborders.Brazil,however,hasperformedrelativelywell incomparisonto itscompetitors.Thecountryhasmaintaineditscoffeeexport levelsduringthepandemicandexpandeditsreachtodifferentmarketswhilecompetingcountriesstruggledwith lowharvests and logistical setbacks.However,it remains tobeseenwhether thecountrycouldkeepastrongperformanceaswithdecreasingdemandfromtheUS.

• InVietnam,coffeeproductionhadaregressiveyearin2020duetoadrystartoftherainyseasonandinadequaterainfalllevelsthroughoutthemajorityofcoffeegrowingareasinthecountry.Majorproducingregions inVietnamsuchasDakLak,DakNong,andKonTum,allexperiencedlowrainfall.

• PremiumqualityblendswithhighArabicacontentaretypicallyservedincoffeeshopsandotherout-of-homeestablishments,whilethein-homechoiceisthelowerqualitypackagedcoffee,containingahigherquantityofRobusta.COVID-19haspropelledsignificantchanges inthecoffeeconsumermarket,withconsumptionpatternsleaningmoretowardsin-homeconsumption.

Worldwide Exports of HS Code 090111 Coffee (excluding roasted and decaffeinated)

Chart 1.Source:ITCTradeMap.

3

Executive Summary

Worldwide Exports of HS Code 090112 Decaffeinated Coffee (excluding roasted)

Chart 2.Source:ITCTradeMap.

Contents

Part I - Product Information ················································································ 6

1.1 Varieties

1.2 General vs Specialty Coffee

1.3 Grades

1.4 Global Coffee Supply Chain

Part II - Global Market Dynamics ······································································· 12

2.1 Brazil

2.2 Colombia

2.3 Vietnam

Part III - Sources ····································································································· 21

Part I

Product Information

1.1 Varieties

1.2 General vs Specialty coffee

1.3 Grades

1.4 Global Coffee Supply Chain

Coffeebeansareofvarioussubspeciesobtainedthroughselectivebreedingornaturalselection.Thus,whiletherearealotofvarietiesbothintermsofwildandcultivatedcoffeebeans,thereareonlyafewthatarecommerciallyusefulduetofactorssuchasresistanceto illnessesandyield.

ThetwomainvarietiesofcoffeebeansareArabicaandRobusta.GrownthroughoutLatinAmerica,CentralandEastAfrica,India,andIndonesia,Arabicacoffeeaccountsforapproximatelythree-quartersofthecoffeecultivatedworldwide.SomesubspeciesofArabicacoffeeareBourbon,Caturra,andTimor.RobustacoffeeisgrowninWestandCentralAfrica,SoutheastAsia,andtosomeextentinBrazil.WhilethereisathirdvarietycalledLiberica,itrepresentslessthan1%oftheglobalcoffeeproductionduetoitsbittertaste.

Specialtycoffee is thehighestcoffeegradeavailable. It is thoughttobemainstream incountriessuchasAustraliaandNewZealand.Consumptionofspecialtycoffeehasconsistentlybeenon the rise,becomingEurope’sfastest-growingmajorrestaurantcategory in2016.Asia,inparticular,ispoisedtoholdthebiggestconsumptionshareinthespecialtycoffeemarket.AllspecialtycoffeesareoftheArabicavariety.

Grade Description

1 Specialty Grade Coffee Beans: no primary defects, 0-3 full de-fects, sorted with a maximum of 5% above and 5% below speci-fied screen size or range of screen size, and exhibiting a distinct attribute in one or more of the following areas: taste, acidity, body, or aroma. Also must be free of cup faults and taints. Zero quakers allowed. Moisture content between 9-13%.

2 Premium Grade Coffee Beans: Same as Grade 1 except a maxi-mum of 3 quakers. 0-8 full defects.

Part. I 6

Product Information

Varieties

General vs Specialty Coffee

Grades

Part. I

7

Product Information

Global Coffee Supply Chain

Grade Description

3 Exchange Grade Coffee Beans: 50% above screen 15 and less than 5% below screen 15. Max of 5 quakers. Must be free from faults. 9-23 full defects.

4 Standard Grade Coffee Beans: 24-86 full defects.

5 Off Grade Coffee Beans: More than 86 full defects.Table 1.Source:CoffeeResearchInstitute

Chart 3. Source: InternationalCoffeeAssociation– ICO(2018),USDA(2018)eUNCTAD(2011)

CoffeePlantations Roasters

DomesticImporters

InternationalAuctions

InternationalImportingCompanies

Seed

Sand

Irrigation

Fertilizer

Labor

Machinery

INPUTS

PRODUCTION (DEVELOPING CONTRIES)BRAZIL, VIETNAM, ETHIOPIA, ETC.

CONSUMERS (DEVELOPED CONTRIES)U.S, ITALY, GERMANY, SWITZERLAND, ETC.

Harvesting

Processing (wet or method)

Parchment coffee

Exporters Branded manufacture / blends

Facilitate Trade

International Trade

Marketing Board

Roasting

Grinding

Blending

Brewing

Supermarket

Food Services

Coffee Shops

GRWOING/PROCESSING

MEDIATORS ROASTERS RETAIL

Part. I

8

Product Information

InputsAgriculturalinputsareakeypartofthecoffeevaluechain,assistingintheproductionofqualitycrops.Theseinputsareprovidedbythesupportingindustry throughplayerssuchascoffeeseedlingproviders, fertilizersellers,andplantsellers.

Growing/ProcessingThegrowersareresponsibleforthecultivationandprocessingofcoffee.Over70%ofcoffeeproducers in theworldaresmall farmers fromdevelopingcountriessuchasBrazil,Vietnam,andEthiopia.Asaresult,manyofthesefarmerstendnottobefullysystemized, lackingmarketinformationandbargainingpower,andthushavevery littlesay inthepriceofcoffee.Forcoffeebeans,thetreestake4to7yearstoyieldcropsfitforharvestandtheharvestingprocessisverylabor-intensive.Afterharvesting,thebeansarethendriedandpackagedintolargesacksreadyforexport.

MediatorsEach regionhasspecificchannels inwhich trade ispermittedandfacilitated,withnouniversaltradingsystem.

AuctionsAuctionsareheldby importersandcoffeeorganizationseitheron-siteorviatheinternet.Thisisoftenconductedasameansforproducerstopromotetheirfarmsandgetbetterprices.

On-siteauctions typically takeplaceateventshostedby industrystakeholderssuchasexporters.Theprocessallowsthesupplierandbuyerto interactwitheachother,sometimesinvolvingon-sitevisitstofarms.Whilethesekindsofauctionscanpromotelongtermrelationshipsbetweensuppliersandbuyers, itcanbecostly for theproducers toparticipate.

Onlineauctionsofferproducersandbuyerseasieraccesstothecoffeemarket.Afterthecoffeehasbeenjudgedandscored,buyersacrosstheworldbidontheproductsononlinemarkets.Roasterscanalsoreceivesamplesthatassisttheirdecisionmaking.Onlineauctions,however,canalsobelesspersonalthantheiron-sitecounterparts.

Part. I

9

Product Information

RoastersLarge industrial transnationalcompaniesareresponsiblefor roasting,blending, and selling the finishedcoffeeproduct.Most of thesecompaniesare located indevelopedcountries,suchas theUSandEurope.Thismarket isheavilyconcentrated,with itscompetitivenessgearedtowardsbrandpower.

RetailRetailoutletsreceivethefinishedcoffeeproductfromroastersandsellittotheendconsumers.Theseoutletsincludesupermarkets,coffeeshops,andavarietyoffoodservices.

VietnamVietnamiscurrentlytheworld'ssecond-largestproducerandexporterofcoffee.Coffeeproduction in thecountry ismostlydonebysmallfamily-ownedplantations,with95%ofthetotalgrowingareainVietnamdominatedby thesesmall private farms.Mostof these farmsaresignificantlysmallinsize,with85%ofthembeinglessthanonehectare.Uponcompletionoftheharvest,collectorsvisitthefarmers’warehousestopurchasethecoffeebeans.Thecollectorsmayalsochoosetodryandgradethebeanstoensurestandardmoisturecontentandsize.Thesecollectorsareresponsibleforsellingtheproducttolargerprocessorsandexporters.Thecountrycurrentlyhasapproximately150registeredcoffeeprocessorsandexporters.60-65%oftheseprocessorsandexportersareengagedinjointventureswithinternationalpartners.TheleadingplayersinthemarketareVinacafe,Nestle,andTrungNguyen.

PeruPeruisoneofthelargestproducersandexportersofcoffeeintheworld,withmorethan110Kcoffeegrowersinthecountry.Mostofthesefarmersaresmall-scalefarmers,withlandthat isonaverage2to3hectaresinsize.Followingharvest, thesefarmerscarrytheripecherriestohandpulpersandwoodenfermentationtanks,aspartofthemicro-wet-millingoperation,whichispopularinthecountry.Afterthisprocessingoperation,thefarmerstransportthebeansthemselvestotheplazabythenearesttown.Thisplazaactsasabuyingandsellingstationforall thecoffeefarmerswithintheregion.Exportersthenpurchasethecoffeebeansdirectlyfromthefarmersthentransporttheproducttothecoastwhereitisdry-milledandreadiedforexport.

Part. I

10

Product Information

ThepastdecadehasseentheriseofsmallholdercooperativesinPeru.Thesecooperativeshaveassisted thecoffee farmers inbecomingorganizedanditisestimatedthat15-25%ofthecountry’scoffeefarmersnowbelongtotheseorganizations.ThesecooperativeshavepartneredwithentitiessuchasEqualExchangeandworkwith InternationalFairTrade,becoming thesecond-largestsuppliersofFairTradecoffee.Throughthischannel,farmersreceivehigherpricepremiums.

IndiaThecoffeesupplychaininIndiaismadeupoffourmajorplayers:planters,exporters,whocontractwithinternationaltradinghousesandroasters,domestic roasterswhosupplycoffee for thedomesticmarket,andintermediarieslikeagentsandbrokers.Liberalizationofthecoffeemarketoccurredin1995andisthusnowprivatizedwiththeCoffeeBoard,whichhadpreviouslyregulatedcoffee,nowactingasanadvisoryandresearchorganization.

Part II

Global Market Dynamics

2.1 Brazil

2.2 Colombia

2.3 Vietnam

Export-ers

Value export-ed in 2019 (USD thou-sand)

Trade balance in 2019 (USD thou-sand)

Quantity exported in 2019

Quantity Unit

Unit value (USD/unit)

Annual growth in value between 2015-2019 (%)

Annual growth in quantity between 2015-2019 (%)

Annual growth in value between 2018-2019 (%)

Share inWorld Exports (%)

World 1752215 -1152049 7598969 Tons 2306 -2 1 -6 100

Brazil 4543771 4543766 2214595 Tons 2052 -5 2 4 25.9

Co-

lombia

2272874 2202100 750843 Tons 3027 -3 1 0 13

Viet

Nam

2135113 2070904 1388466 Tons 1538 -2 -5 -24 12.2

Hon-

duras

954728 954689 411802 Tons 2318 3 11 -14 5.4

Indo-

nesia

872355 816626 355766 Tons 2452 -8 -10 8 5

Ethio-

pia

817886 817796 236548 Tons 3458 2 7 -2 4.7

Guate-

mala

662546 662490 216168 Tons 3065 0 5 -3 3.8

Import-ers


Trade balance 2019 (USD thou-sand)

Share in Brazil’s exports (%)

Quantity export-ed in 2019

Quantity unit

Unit val-ue (USD/unit)

Growth in exported value between 2015-2019 (%, p.a.)


coun-tries in world imports (%)

World 4543771 4543766 100 2214595 Tons 2052 -5 4 100

USA 903459 903459 19.9 437396 Tons 2066 -7 17 23.5

Ger-

many

790829 790829 17.4 382456 Tons 2068 -8 6 13.6

Italy 466859 466859 10.3 213930 Tons 2182 -4 1 7.3

Japan 340384 340384 7.5 146280 Tons 2327 -7 5 6.1

Bel-

gium

302648 302648 6.7 149091 Tons 2030 -7 0 3.9

Turkey 135225 135225 3 68365 Tons 1978 4 1 0.8

Cana-

da

109350 109350 2.4 47993 Tons 2278 -6 -4 3.2

United

King-

dom

104779 104779 2.3 50275 Tons 2084 -3 -24 2.6

Part. II 12


Brazil

Table 2.ITCTradeMapHSCode090111Coffee(excludingroastedanddecaffeinated)

Table 3.Source:ITCTradeMapBrazilianExportsofHSCode090111Coffee(excludingroastedanddecaffeinated)

Part. II

13

Chart 4.Source:USDA


one-thirdof theglobalsupply.Thecountrygrowscoffeeacross12differentstatesonapproximately300Kcoffeeplantationsownedbymostlysmall-scalefarmers.ThetwomainvarietiesgrowninthecountryareArabicaandRobusta.CoffeetradeinBrazilisfacilitatedandregulatedthroughtheBrazilianCoffeeExportersCouncil(Cecafé),anentitycreatedtorepresenttheBraziliancoffeeexport industry.Thecoffee industrycontributessignificantlytothecountry'sGDPandforeignexchange.

As theWHOdeclaredCOVID-19aglobalpandemic inMarch2020,itwasexpected that theglobal coffee industrywouldwitnessanunprecedentedsupplyanddemandshock.Mostcountriesworldwidewerepressedtoimposestringentregulationsandrestrictionsonlaborers'physicalmovementsandtradetomitigatethespreadofthevirus.Therehavebeennumerousdeliveryandshippingconstraints,alongwithalackofdemandforcoffee.Manycoffeeshops,whicharesignificantbuyersfortheproduct,remainedclosedaroundtheworld.

Brazilwasnoexceptionfromtheaftermathsofthepandemic,havingfacedlockdowns, lackofcontainers,andbottlenecksatshippingports.However,thecountry'scoffeeindustrymanagedtosustainitselfduringthepandemic; itscoffeeshipmentswererelativelystablewhileworldfiguresplummeted,evenhittinga2-yearrecordinMay2020,whenthevirusstartedtoexacerbate.ThestrongperformanceofBraziliancoffeemainlystemsfrom1)StockpilingDemand2)AlternativeDemand3)Afavorableexchangerate.

Part. II

14


Chart 5.Source:Tridge

AccordingtotheBrazilianCoffeeExportersCouncil(CECAFE),Braziliancoffeeexportsescalatedduetotheuncertaintyaboutthe intensityoflockdownsacrosstheworld.Coffeeimportersfromsomeofthelargestcoffeeconsumingcountrieswerestockpiling,bringingforwardordersbyuptoamonthtoavoidshortagesinthefuture.Thesebuyerswereconcernedaboutanyfurtherdisruptionsinthesupplychainduetothestrictnationwidelockdownsresultinginadditionallockdowns.

Vietnam'slowcoffeeharvestmarginallyhelpedBraziliancoffeeexportsduetolow-rainfallcomplimentedbyhigher-than-averagetemperatures.Brazil'sRobustacoffeevariety,a lower-qualitycropthantheArabica,filledthegapintheglobalcoffeemarketduetoreducedimportsfromVietnam.

Part. II

15



Brazil'sweakcurrencyfurtherinflatedexports.TheBrazilianRealhashadoneoftheworstaveragedollarexchangeratesinthepastfewmonthsastheBRL/USDratedecreasedbyapproximately30%YTD.ThisgavecoffeegrowersandtradersanattractiveexchangerateforglobalsalesinUSdollarsandencouragedthemtoengage inmoreexportswithcompetitivelypricedproducts.

As such,Brazil's coffee industry hasbeen supportedby severalexogenousfactors,andalthoughamarginalfallinexportswasrecordedduetothepandemic,theindustryhasperformedrelativelywellcomparedtotheglobalindustry.Brazilmanagedtotrumpanyexportopportunitiesandexpandeditsmarketsascompetitorcountrieswitnessedlowcropandlockdowns.

However,thecountry isfacingsignificantchallengesinsustainingthisstreak inthe long-term.Oneofthe industry'sprimaryconcerns istheUS,whichaccountsformorethan20%oftheBrazilian importmarketshare.HighnumbersofCOVID-19cases,coupledwiththeunemployment

Part. II

16



Table 4.Source:ITCTradeMapColombianExportsofHSCode090111Coffee(excludingroastedanddecaffeinated)

rate,havereducedthedemandforcoffeedrasticallyinthecountryanddecreasedBrazilian importsdespitecompetitiveprices. It remainstobeseenwhethertheUSwouldkeepdownsizingitscoffeeimports,andwhetherBrazilwouldbeabletodiversifyitsbuyerpoolcouldbethekeytomaintainingthepositiveexporttrendamidstanextendeddurationofthepandemic.

Import-ers



Share in Colom-bia’s exports (%)


Quantity unit




Shareof Exports(%)

World 2272874 2202100 100 750843 Tons 3027 -3 0 100

USA 987726 987726 43.5 326561 Tons 3025 -1 -2 23.5

Ger-

many

192619 192619 8.5 65209 Tons 2954 -3 6 13.6

Japan 183928 183928 8.1 62438 Tons 2946 -10 -6 6.1

Cana-

da

174700 174700 7.7 59991 Tons 2912 1 -3 3.2

Bel-

gium

120954 120954 5.3 36908 Tons 3277 -12 -3 3.9

Korea,

Re-

public

of

85622 85622 3.8 28233 Tons 3033 3 2 2.3

Italy 58844 58844 2.6 19789 Tons 2974 -7 2 7.3

Colombia

Part. II

17


Table 5.Source:ITCTradeMapVietnameseExportsofHSCode090111Coffee(excludingroastedanddecaffeinated)

Colombia,theworld's largestproducerofmildwashedArabicacoffee,experiencedadecentproductionyear.The last 12monthssawtheproductionof14.2millionbags,anincreaseof3%fromthepreviousyearwherein13.8millionbagswereproduced.FromOctober2019toAugust2020theproductionofcoffeeexceeded13.1millionbags,an increaseof3%fromthe12.8millionbagsthatwereproducedduringthesameperiodayearbefore.Previousproductionestimateshadprojectedthat14.3millionbagswouldbeproducedduringthemarketingyear2019/20,however,disruptionstothesupplychainduetoCOVID-19has ledtoprojectionsbeingreviseddownto13.8millionbags.

Colombia’slargestexportmarketsforcoffeearetheUSandEuropeandexportsforthisyearhavebeenforecastedtoreach12.9millionbags,anincreaseof900Kbagscomparedtothepreviousforecastthatestimatedthatexportlevelswouldreach12millionbags.Thisforecastedincreasehasbeenpropelledbyrisingconsumptionlevelsinkeymarketstowardstheendoftheseason.ThisincreaseisapositivedevelopmentgiventheturbulencecausedinthemarketduefromCOVID-19.

Colombia’s coffee exports from 2017/18 to 2020/21(estimated)

(Unit: million 60-kg bags)

Grade Description

2017/18 12.7

2018/19 13.7

2019/20 12.9

2020/21 13.5

Part. II

18


Table 6.Source:ITCTradeMap

Table 7.Source:USDA,ForeignAgriculturalServices

Import-ers

Quantity unit


Share in Viet Nam’s exports (%


Quantity unit




coun-tries in world imports (%)

World 2135113 2070904 100 1388466 Tons 1538 -2 -24 100

Ger-

many

345468 345423 16.2 228905 Tons 1509 -1 -20 13.6

Italy 218624 218624 10.2 139269 Tons 1570 2 -9 7.3

USA 208509 206303 9.8 133620 Tons 1560 -8 -30 23.5

Spain 188384 188382 8.8 124372 Tons 1515 -1 -4 3

Japan 144509 144509 6.8 92835 Tons 1557 -1 -18 6.1

Rus-

sian

Feder-

ation

119350 119350 5.6 78384 Tons 1523 13 -18 2.2

Bel-

gium

115267 115198 5.4 72877 Tons 1582 -2 -12 3.9

Theproductionofcoffeehadaregressiveyear in2020duetoadrystartoftherainyseasonandinadequaterainfall levelsthroughoutthemajorityofcoffeegrowingareasinthecountry.MajorgrowingregionsinVietnamsuchasDakLak,DakNong,andKonTum,allexperiencedlowrainfall.BasedontheinformationprovidedbytheVietnamMeteorologyandHydrologyAdministration,theCentralHighlandsexperiencedabove-averagetemperatures,whileexperiencinglowerthanaveragecumulativerainfallduringthefirst5monthsof2020.Asaresult,coffeeproductioninthecountrywasforecastat30.2millionbags,adecreaseof1.1millionbagsfromthepreviousyear’sharvest.Therewerealsonoincreasesincultivatedareas,whichisforecasttoremainthesameastheyearbefore.95%ofthecountry’stotaloutputconsistsoftheRobustavariety.

Vietnam Production Forecast (Unit: Million 60 kg bags)

Grade Description

2019/20 31.3

2020/21 30.2

Vietnam

Part. II

19


Chart 8.Source:ITCTradeMap

AlargenumberofVietnamesecoffeegrowersoptednottoincurirrigationcostsduringthedrymonths,runningfromFebruarytoMay,duetolowcoffeepriceswhichservedasadisincentive.This ledtoareductioninyieldsformanygrowers.Asameanstomaintainandmanageproductionareasinthecountry,theMinistryofAgricultureandRuralDevelopmentstatedthattheyaimtomaintaingrowingareasatapproximately600Khectaresandforareasthatexperienceunfavorableconditionsforcoffeecultivation,theMinistryaimstoencouragefarmerstoswitchtoproducingothercropssuchasdurians,mangoes,avocados,andpassionfruit.

COVID-19has leftanundesirablemark in thecoffeeexportmarket,affectingdemandandcausing logisticshiccupsfollowingwidespreadlockdowns innumerouscountriesaroundtheglobe.Asa result, themarketingyear2019/20experienceda6to7percentdeclineincoffeeexportscomparedtothepreviousyear,with12.8millionbagsexportedthisyear. It isexpectedthatglobalconsumption levelsareset forarevivaloncesocialdistancingprotocolsare loosenedalthoughglobaldemandmaytake longertoreturntopre-pandemic levels.Thetop3importmarketswereGermany,theUS,andItaly,asimilarscenariotothepreviousyear.

BeforeCOVID-19,premiumqualityblendswithhighArabicacontentwereserved incoffeeshopsandotherout-of-homeestablishments,whilethein-homechoicewasthelowerqualitypackagedcoffee,containingahigherquantityofRobusta.COVID-19haspropelledsignificantchangesinthecoffeeconsumermarket,withconsumptionpatternsleaningmoretowardsin-homeconsumption.ThishasledtoArabicaexportslosingitsmarketsharetoRobustaintheshorttomid-term.Asaresult,greenbean

Part. II

20


Arabicaexportsdeclinedby7%duringthefirstsixmonthsofMY2019/20,comparedtothepreviousyear,reaching11.9millionbags.Projectionsforthemarketingyear2020/21,however,showaslightreboundofgreenbeancoffeeexportsat24millionbags,withconsumptionlevelsexpectedtograduallyreturntonormalfollowingtheeasingoflockdownrestrictions.

Part. III 21

Sources

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USDA,ForeignAgriculturalService.“Coffee:WorldMarketsandTrade.”

SustainabilityConsortium.“CoffeeSupplyChainDiagram.”

EuromonitorInternational.“CoffeeShopsAroundtheWorld:ThreeKeyInsightsfor2016.”

Unleashed.“SupplyChainObstaclesofCoffee.”

Unleashed.“TheRemarkableSupplyChainoftheCoffeeBean.”

Esri.“BrazilianCoffeeProductionandTrade.”

Cecafe.“Exportation.”

Ipsos.“Vietnam’sCoffeeIndustry.”

EqualExchange.“HISTORYOFCOFFEEINPERU.”

Ipsos.“Vietnam’sCoffeeIndustry.”

EqualExchange.“HISTORYOFCOFFEEINPERU.”

InternationalCommunicafe.“Colombia’scoffeeproductionfalls3%inAugust,exportsdown8%to1.1mbags.”

Quaffee.“Coffeesizingandgrading–anexplanation.”

CoffeeResearchInstitute.“GradingCoffeeBeans.”

InternationalCommunicaffe.“UsdaseescoffeeproductioninVietnamdownby3.5%to30.2millionbagsin2020/21.”

Davies,Shaun(2016-06-01)."'Hipstercoffee'getsAustraliahotandfrothing".

Slurp.“ArabicaandRobusta.”

PerfectDailyGrind.“AGuidetoGreenCoffeeAuctions.”

Statista.“CoffeeexportsfromColombiafrommarketingyear2017/18to2020/21.”

ResearchGate.“TheCoffeeMarketinBrazil:challengesandpolicyguidelines.”

2020 Industry Report: Coffee

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