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National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
Incorporating Human Geography into GEOINT STUDENT GUIDE (SG)
National Geospatial-Intelligence College The School of
Geospatial-Intelligence
5855 21st Street, Suite 101 Fort Belvoir, VA 22060
Version: 1.6
Effective Date: 12 September 2011
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Analysis Concepts
Course Introduction ii Student Guide v1.6
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Change History Table
Version Description of Change Date
1.0 Development and Dry Run are complete. This document is
approved for classroom use. 24 August 2010
1.5 Post-Dry Run conference is complete and changes incorporated
into SG. 21 June 2011
1.6 Final Edits. This document is approved for classroom
use.
12 July 2011
1.6 Final Edits from July 2011 course run. This document is
approved for classroom use.
12 September 2011
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Introduction This course provides an overview of incorporating
Human Geography into GEOINT at NGA, with the intention of providing
a foundation of the knowledge, skills, and application capabilities
for the NGA GEOINT analyst. By the end of the course, you will:
• Understand the relevance and need to incorporate Human
Geography into GEOINT
• Be familiar with Human Geography concepts and data
• Be able to apply the NGA workflow process, including Human
Geography data needs, acquisition, and challenges
Incorporating Human Geography into GEOINT A blending of
socio-cultural dynamics into traditional analyses is in high demand
among NGA stakeholders.
• Peers and Partners with vested interest include:
o DoD
• USD (I)
• Combatant Commands (CENTCOM, PACOM, AFRICOM, etc.)
• Military Services (Army, Marines, etc.)
• Service Intel Centers (MCIA, NGIC, etc.)
o Intelligence Community
• DNI
• OSC
• CIA, DIA, NSA, etc.
• Upper-level groups with vested interest include:
o USG – Dept of State, Dept of Treasury, Dept of Commerce
(Census Bureau), Dept of Justice (FBI)
o Academia
o Private Industry
o US Allies (ASG)
IHGG Course Overview
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Course Objectives Upon completion of this course, you will be
expected to:
• Describe Human Geography in the context of GEOINT. • Describe
how Human Geography concepts, perspectives, and data can assist in
solving
geospatial intelligence problems at NGA. • Identify Human
Geography data sources and types of information needed for GEOINT •
Demonstrate how Human Geography-based data can inform GEOINT
analysis of an intelligence
question.
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Course Outline and Table of Contents
IHGG Course Overview……………………………………………………………………………….. iii
Module One: Incorporating Human Geography into GEOINT
• Lesson One: GEOINT and Human
Geography..................................................................
1-1-1
• Lesson Two: Understanding Human
Geography.................................................................
1-2-1
Module Two: Data Factors and Intelligence Issues
• Lesson One: Human Geography-Based Foundation
Data…………………………………... 2-1-1
• Lesson Two: Human Geography-Based Mission-Specific
Data…………………………….. 2-2-1
Module Three: Discovering, Evaluating, and Integrating Data
• Lesson One: Human Geography-Based Data Sources……………………………………….
3-1-1
• Lesson Two: Evaluating Data Sources…………………………………………………………..
3-2-1
• Lesson Three: Integrating Multiple Data
Sources……………………………………………… 3-3-1
Module Four: Guided Exercise
• Ethiopia: Human Geography-Based Guided Exercise………………………………………
4-1-1
Appendix A (Foundation Workflow)………………..………………………………………………………
A-1
Appendix B (Mission-Specific
Workflow)……………..…………………………………………………... B-1
Appendix C (Human Geography-Based Theme
Guide)……………...………………………………... C-1
Appendix D (Acronym
List)……………..............................................………………………………...
D-1
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Lesson One: GEOINT and Human Geography
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Change History Table
Version Description of Change Date
1.0 Development and Dry Run are complete. This document is
approved for classroom use. 24 August 2010
1.5 Post-Dry Run conference is complete. Changes
incorporated.
21 June 2011
1.6 Final edits. This document is approved for classroom use. 12
July 2011
1.6 Final edits from July 2011 course run. This document is
approved for classroom use. 12 September 2011
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Critical Characteristics
Any attributes or features of a concept such as HTA that MUST BE
PRESENT in order for something to be considered a valid example of
that concept.
Human Terrain
The spatial differentiation and organization of human activity
and its interrelationships with the physical environment.
Human Terrain Analysis A multi-intelligence multidisciplinary
scientific approach to describe and predict spatial and temporal
patterns of human behavior by analyzing the attributes, actions,
reactions, and interactions of groups and individuals in the
context of their environment.
Operational Environment The composite of the conditions,
circumstances, and influences that affect the employment and
capabilities and bear on the decisions of the commander. It
encompasses physical areas and factors (of the air, land, maritime,
and space domains) and the information environment. Including
adversary, friendly, and neutral systems that are relevant to a
specific joint operation.
Key Terminology
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Introduction This lesson provides a brief introduction into how
Human Geography is incorporated into GEOINT, with a focus on the
relevance of this analytical methodology in support of NGA mission
requirements. This lesson will also briefly discuss the concept of
Human Terrain as it is used by other agencies within the
Intelligence Community (IC).
Objectives Upon completion of this lesson, students will be able
to:
• Identify how other organizations and agencies define and
conceptualize the ‘Human Terrain’ and Human Terrain Analysis
(HTA).
• Describe how NGA incorporates Human Geography into GEOINT •
Describe how incorporating HG themes support the broad spectrum of
NGA GEOINT requirements. 21st Century GEOINT As a key component of
GEOINT, an understanding of Human Geography is critical to the 21st
century’s national security paradigm, helping to:
• Address challenges across the operational environment.
• Understand the cultural drivers of human behavior.
• Understand the attributes of culture.
• Interpret the world from a non-Western perspective.
• Force awareness and examination of our inherent cultural
biases and perspectives.
The operating environment of the 21st Century poses a number of
challenging mission sets to include:
• Overseas Contingency Operations
• Warfighters / Counterinsurgency / Asymmetrical Warfare
• Homeland Defense
• Humanitarian Assistance
• Disaster Relief
• Stability / Reconstruction
• Counter-WMD Proliferation
• Peacetime Engagement
Lesson One: GEOINT and Human Geography?
21st Century GEOINT
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• Epidemics / Medical
• Counternarcotics
• Human Smuggling
Human Terrain Defined Incorporating Human Geography into GEOINT
can be used to support efforts to understand the human terrain. But
what is ‘human terrain’?
One definition describes human terrain as “the social,
ethnographic, cultural, economic, and political elements of the
people among whom a force is operating.”1
Human terrain is not a new concept; the need for understanding
the behavior of adversaries and their culture, as well as that of
the local populations with whom our military forces, diplomats, and
aid organizations work, has been identified before:
General Petraeus noted that “You have to understand not just
what we call the military terrain… the high ground and low ground.
It’s about understanding the human terrain, really understanding
it.”
• World War II / Korea
• JANIS: Joint Army Navy Intelligence Studies
• Vietnam
• Hamlet Evaluation System
• Attempt to measure the socio-economic, political, security
conditions in a COIN environment
HT Analysis (HTA) is an evolving concept, and is often modified
to meet specific organizational needs, requirements, and
missions.
(U) Current efforts and challenges include creating a:
• Standardized doctrine
• Centralized database
• Shared lexicon
• Single HTA qualification course
• Product standardization
• Workflow methodology
Figure 1.1.1 Joint Publication 2-03
1 Kipp, Jacob, and Lester Grau. 2006. The Human Terrain System:
A CORDS for the 21st Century. Military Review (September-October):
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Efforts to develop and implement greater understanding of the
‘human terrain’ across the IC include:
• Defense Intelligence Agency
• DISCCC: Defense Intelligence Socio-Cultural Capabilities
Council
• Human Factors Analysis Division
• US Combatant Commands
• Human Terrain Analysis Team
• Cultural and Human Environment Team
• US Special Operations Command
• National Air and Space Intelligence Center
• Service Intelligence Centers
Goal for NGA “Create new value by broadening and deepening our
analytic expertise. By providing deeper, contextual analysis of
places informed not only by the earth’s physical features and
imagery intelligence, but also by ‘human geography’.”
GEOINT is synonymous with a deep contextual understanding of
places…of locations on the Earth. This understanding is informed
by:
• what we know about the Earth’s physical features
• what structures people build
• how people use those structures – their activities
• human geography – data and information that can be understood
spatially and depicted visually that further deepens and enriches
our understanding of a “place.”
Letitia A. Long, Director, NGA Putting the Power of GEOINT in
Your Hands GEOINT Symposium 2 November 2010
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Incorporating Human Geography into GEOINT NGA incorporates Human
Geography (HG) into traditional GEOINT in order to:
• establish a multi-intelligence, multidisciplinary scientific
approach
• describe and predict spatial and temporal patterns of human
behavior
• analyze the attributes, actions, reactions, and interactions
of groups and individuals
• in the context of their environment.
.
Figure 1.1.2 Incorporating HG into GEOINT Incorporating Human
Geography into GEOINT requires a multi-intelligence,
multidisciplinary scientific approach
• Draws from and builds upon data and research from: •
Government • Non-Government • Academia
Figure 1.1.3 Incorporating HG into GEOINT – Multi-INT and
Multidisciplinary
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Incorporating Human Geography into GEOINT requires a scientific
approach in order to describe, analyze, and predict spatial and
temporal patterns of human behavior.
Figure 1.1.4 Incorporating HG into GEOINT – A scientific
approach
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GEOINT and Human Geography Incorporating HG data for the
identification, depiction, and interpretation of human patterns of
behavior and cultural influences in a geospatial context.
• Predictive Analysis
• Capabilities Analysis
• Statistical Analysis
• Temporal Analysis
• Spatial Analysis
• Social Network Analysis
• Migration Analysis
• Resource Analysis
Figure 1.1.5 GPE: Geospatial-Intelligence Preparation of the
Environment
HG in the GPE Framework
Figure 1.1.6 The Components of GPE
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Analysis informed by human geography-based data is the
progression of GEOINT GEOINT analysis has historically incorporated
a wide variety of physical science and sensors, metrics, and
techniques to depict and assess geospatial terrain and
infrastructure. Human Geography augments these traditional GEOINT
approaches with the addition of data and models that describe the
behavior, attitudes, perceptions, and relationships of people in
the context of their environment.
Human Geography data will be expressed as a mix of vectors
(e.g., maps and GIS) and words to visualize and describe beliefs,
customs, political, and economic differentiations as they are
manifested on the spatial and temporal landscape. In many
instances, NGA tradecraft has settled for using only basic
geospatial techniques for visualization and descriptive support. HG
builds upon traditional GEOINT as traditional GEOINT does not
include HG themes.
The Human Geography-based themes listed below provide a
framework to establish a cultural baseline for a particular place
or region. These themes were derived by the Pilot Study group,
drawing from research in geography and the social sciences. These
themes are not all inclusive and include subcategories that will be
discussed in detail in Module 2, Lesson 1.
Figure 1.1.7 Traditional GEOINT Focus and Human Geography-Based
Themes
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Human Geography employs analysis across a range of scales. The
scale of the analysis will often depend on the mission requiremetns
as well as the available data.
Figure 1.1.8 Scales of Analysis
Impact of Cultural Bias When incorporating HG-based data into
GEOINT, analysts must be guarded against incorporating cultural
bias into their analysis. This is especially important when those
who have been raised in the Western world are examining non-western
populations and their behaviors. Conflicts between Western and
non-Western concepts can arise in many areas to include:
Rationality, Justice, Fairness, Legitimacy, Morality, Religion,
Nation-state, Jihad, History, Significant Events.
Figure 1.1.8 Mitigating Ethnocentrism
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Integrating HTA Themes History of civil and ethnic violence in
comparison with government presence and population density can be
demonstrated with integrated HTA products.
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As you begin to incorporate HTA into your GEOINT tradecraft,
keep in mind that Human Terrain Analysis must evolve as a
collective effort. A collaborative approach will help ensure that
this capability matures in alignment with NGA’s strategic intent
and in concert with the capabilities and expectations of NGA’s
partners.
In this lesson we covered the following topics:
• 21st Century GEOINT
• The Operational Environment
• The ‘Human Terrain’
• Incorporating Human Geography Concepts into GEOINT
• HG in the GPE Framework
• Incorporating HG into GEOINT
• Example Analysis
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Lesson One Review
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References are as follows and can also be found on the HTA
Concepts course Wikipedia page:
• NGA Pilot Group, “Human Terrain Analysis Handbook and
Reference Guide,” (HTA HB), Version 1-0, November, 2009
• Fawcett, Grant S., “Cultural Understanding in
Counterinsurgency: Analysis of the Human Terrain System,” United
States Army Command and General Staff College, School of Advanced
Military Studies, Ft. Leavenworth, KS, May 2009
• Gates, Robert M., “A Balanced Strategy: Reprogramming the
Pentagon for a New Age,” Foreign Affairs, January/February 2009
• Joint Publication 2-01.3, “Joint Intelligence Preparation of
the Operational Environment;” 16 June 2009
• Kipp, Jacob, and Lester Grau. 2006. The Human Terrain System:
A CORDS for the 21st Century. Military Review (September-October):
8-15.
• Quadrennial Defense Review Report, United States Department of
Defense, 06 February 2006
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Module One: Incorporating Human Geography into GEOINT
Lesson Two: Understanding Human Geography
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Change History Table
Version Description of Change Date
1.0 Development and Dry Run are complete. This document is
approved for classroom use. 24 August 2010
1.5 Post-Dry Run conference is complete. Changes
incorporated.
21 June 2011
1.6 Final edits. This document is approved for classroom use. 12
July 2011
1.6 Final editsfrom July 2011 course run. This document is
approved for classroom use. 12 September 2011
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Human Geography
Social Science. Human Geography studies people and places, and
explore the imprint of human activity on Earth. It examines how
people make places, how society is organized spatially, how people
interact in places and across space and the processes that create
these patterns.
Physical Geography
Natural Science. Physical Geography focuses on understanding the
processes and patterns of the natural environment. The emphasis of
this sub-discipline is the study of the variable character of the
Earth’s surface and atmosphere as the home for humanity.
Key Terminology
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Introduction This lesson provides an introduction to the
discipline of Geography and focuses on Human Geography as an
academic perspective. Specifically, this lesson briefly explores
the differences between Physical and Human Geography and introduces
a variety of systematic Geography subjects, with emphasis on those
which make the analysis of the cultural landscape possible. This
lesson introduces concepts and topics within Human Geography and
the various subfields to illustrate how these provide the
foundation for incorporating Human Geography into GEOINT.
Objectives Upon completion of this lesson, students will be able
to:
• Differentiate between Physical and Human Geography
• Understand how basic concepts, theories, and approaches within
Human Geography can inform GEOINT within NGA.
• Categorize the thirteen Human Geography foundation themes at
NGA..
Lesson Two: Understanding Human Terrain
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Geography Overview Geography is an academic discipline which is
defined by a perspective—not a topic or subject matter— implying
that every subject can be studied geographically or at least has
some spatial extent that can be studied.
• The level of analysis can be varied by adjusting the scale of
analysis.
• Geographers employ the spatial perspective, which
explores:
o The temporal and spatial distribution of phenomena on the
Earth’s surface
o The processes that creates those distributions
o The interaction between humans and the environment
• Geographers analyze the world seeking to answer the question,
“What is where and why is it there?” by asking “How and why
phenomena are distributed spatially on the surface of the
Earth?”
Scale
One aspect that differentiates Geography from other disciplines
is how geographers employ the concept of scale. Scale can be viewed
as the level of representation, experience, and organization of
events and processes.
Hierarchy of scales:
Body
Home
Community
Urban
Regional
National
Global
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Geography Overview
Figure 1.2.1 GRLS application of scale.
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Overview
Figure 1.2.2 Major Divisions of Geography
The application of the geographic perspective and associated
tools allows for the holistic analysis of peoples and places.
During analysis, elements are often categorized as either Physical
Geographic elements, which are most associated with the natural
environment, or Human Geographic elements, which includes the
environment as modified by humans.
Two Major Divisions of Geography Geography is divided into two
major divisions:
• Physical Geography/Physical Science. Focuses on understanding
the processes and patterns of the natural environment. The emphasis
of this sub-discipline is the study of the variable character of
the Earth’s surface and atmosphere as the home for humanity.
• Human Geography/Social Science. Human Geography studies people
and places, and explores the imprint of human activity on Earth. It
also examines how people make places, how society is organized
spatially, how people interact in places and across space, and the
processes that create these patterns.
Major Divisions of Geography
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Physical Geography
Physical Geography is primarily focused on elements of the
physical terrain. Components that relate to the natural environment
include:
• Landforms that are a result of the natural processes that
occur at or near the surface of the Earth. This includes internal
processes which build up the Earth and external process which
weather, erode, and shape the Earth’s surface.
• Vegetation includes any type of flora.
• Climate and weather contribute the hydrological systems which
in turn, act as a major gradational agent when discussing the
components of Physical Terrain in the natural environment.
Human Geography
Environment Modified by Humans The environment as modified by
human activity is a geographic concept known as the Cultural
Landscape. The effects on the landscape are relatively easy to map
or image through remote sensing. Examples of humans modifying the
landscape include:
• Features built by humans on the natural landscape, such as
cities, buildings, roads, bridges, power/utility lines, and
airfields.
• Landscape as altered by human activity, such as farms,
orchards, irrigation channels, deforestation, dams, and open-pit
mining.
Attributes of human societies Human Geography also explores the
spatial patterns and distribution of human activities and societies
as well as the processes which create these patterns.
• Socio-economic, cultural, political, demographic activates and
patterns. • Changes over time.
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Systematic Fields of Human Geography Systematic geographies
represent topical approaches employed to understand human
activities and patterns. As listed in Table 1.2.1 below, they are
integrative and a result of multidisciplinary approaches. The
approach the geographer takes is to examine the spatial aspects and
expressions of each topic in detail:
Table 1.2.1 Systematic Fields of Human Geography
Subfields of Geography Related Disciplines
Population Geography Demography
Cultural Geography Anthropology & Sociology
Political Geography Political Science
Medical Geography Health Sciences
Economic Geography Economics
Urban Geography Urban Planning
Behavioral Geography Psychology
Historical Geography History
Bottom line: These are but a few of the systematic sub-fields of
Geography. As you can imagine, since almost every phenomenon has a
spatial component or can be mapped, just about any subject can be
studied systematically by a geographer.
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Population Geography Focuses on the spatial aspects of
demography. Examines the location, spatial distribution, and
processes that create these patterns:
• The effect or influence of demographic changes in particular
places
Topics considered/addressed:
• Population trends
• Population density
• Migration/mobility
• Composition of society
• Education levels/literacy
Population Trends
• Growth rates
• Birth/Death rates
• Fertility rates
• Infant mortality
• Life expectancy
• Age-sex compositions
• Doubling time
• Carrying capacity
• Demographic transitions
• Population pyramids & profiles
• Dependency ratios
Education, Migration / Mobility, and Composition
Figure 1.2.3: Population pyramids (or profiles) depict the age
gender compositions of societies.
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Cultural Geography Examines the spatial aspects of human
cultures.
Culture:
• Shared patterns of learned behavior
• Learned patterns of thought and behavior characteristics of a
population
• Way of life
Components of Culture:
• Ideological: Ideas, beliefs, and knowledge
• Sociological: Patterns of interpersonal relations
• Technological: Materials, objects, and the techniques to
use
Topics/Concepts:
• Religion
• Language
• Ethnicity/tribal
• Multiculturalism: Degree of homogeneity/heterogeneity
• Culture hearth
• Cultural traits, complexes, systems, regions
• Cultural diffusion
Cultural Diffusion Cultural Diffusion is the spread of a
phenomenon over space and through time. It is the process by
which
a concept, practice, or substance spreads from point of origin
to new territories.
Types of Diffusion:
• Expansion:
• Contagious: through direct contact
• Hierarchical: through a hierarchical structure
• Stimulus: modification of an idea, innovation
• Relocation: movement to new locations
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Political Geography Examines:
• Spatial expressions of political behavior
• Interaction of geographic space and political process
• Spatial patterns of political phenomena and processes
Topics/Concepts:
• Political systems, beliefs, and attitudes
• Electoral geography: voting patterns, districting
• Organization, administration, control of
territory/territoriality
• Territorial morphology of states
• Boundaries and borders
Medical Geography Examines:
• Spatial aspects of health and disease
• Sources, diffusion, and distribution of
diseases and health related issues
Topics/Concepts:
• Geographic variables that contribute
to the outbreak and spread of disease
• Types, causes and prevalence of
diseases
• Health care: level of care, accessibility
to that care
• Mortality rates
• Malnutrition, undernutrition indices
• Cultural practices that enable onset / diffusion of
diseases
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Economic Geography Examines:
• The ways people earn a living
• How economic systems and the means of production vary from
place to place
• The location of economic activity and the spatial organization
and growth of economic systems
• Use and consumption of economic/natural resources
• How economic activities are interrelated and connected across
space
Topics/Concepts:
• Sectors of the economy:
• Primary: Mining, Agriculture
• Secondary: Industry
• Tertiary: Services
• Quaternary: Information
• Agricultural production: subsistence, commercial
• Industrial production
• Extraction/use of natural resources
• Per capita incomes
• Commodity chain analysis
Urban Geography Examines:
• Spatial evolution and structure of cities and urban
systems
Topics/Concepts:
• Urban networks and hierarchies
• Communications patterns and networks
• Business districts
• Urbanization rates, urban growth
• Conurbation and urban sprawl
• Regional city models
Figure 1.2.4: New and improved model of Latin American City
Structure.
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GeographicalSpace
Work
Home
GroceryStore
Time
11:30
11:00
10:30
10:00
9:30
9:00
8:30
8:00
7:30
7:00
6:30
6:00
Historical Geography Examines:
• Past geographies to provide understandings of the present
• How and why landscapes change over time
Topics/Concepts:
• Regional geography approach
Behavioral Geography Examines:
• Psychology that underlies people’s spatial behavior
• Locational / spatial decision-making of individuals, groups,
and institutions
Topics/Concepts:
• Distance decay
• Mental maps
• Time-Space Geography
Figure 1.2.5: Time-space geography.
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Human Geography as a Framework for Analyzing the Human Terrain
(Haiti Earthquake of 2010) Human Geography can be used as a
framework for analyzing the Human Terrain. Human Geography is a
means of understanding the complexities of the real world. The
recent earthquake in Haiti was devastating to its peoples. This
residence (Figure 1.2.4) in the hills south of Port-au-Prince
(Haiti’s capital), like many others was destroyed during the
earthquake of 12 January 2010. But what factors of Human Geography
played a role in the extreme devastation and suffering?
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Figure 1.2.6 Devastation from the 2010 Haiti Earthquake
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Although discussed throughout the lesson, by now you should be
able to see that the 13 Human Geography-based foundational themes
origins are well founded in Human Geography.
Figure 1.2.7 Thirteen Human Geography-based Foundation
Themes
Generally speaking, these themes:
• Can be viewed as a “manageable number of layers” among a vast
array of data
• Comprise the core foundation data needed to conduct HTA
• Themes will vary per Area of Interest (AOI)
• Can be difficult to map
• May be linked to other themes
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13 Foundation Themes of HTA
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Geography is a blend of characteristics of the physical Earth,
human structures, and human patterns on the Earth. Geography, as an
academic discipline, examines the physical and human landscapes.
The many systematic geographic subfields allow analysts to examine
peoples and places through a set of lenses at varying scales. These
lenses are represented by the Human Geography-based foundation
themes.
In this lesson we covered the following topics:
• Human Geography as an academic discipline
◦ Geography Overview
◦ Two Major Divisions of Geography
◦ Systematic Fields of Human Geography
◦ Human Geography concepts, theories, and approaches
• 13 Foundation Themes
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Lesson Two Review
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References are as follows and can also be found on the HTA
Concepts Course Wikipedia page:
• NGA Pilot Group, “Human Terrain Analysis Handbook and
Reference Guide” (HTA HB), Version 1-0, November, 2009
Lesson Two References
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Module Two: Data Factors and Intelligence Issues
Lesson One: Human Geography-Based Foundation Data
Version: 1.6
Date: 12 July 2011
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Change History Table
Version Description of Change Date
1.0 Development and Dry Run are complete. This document is
approved for classroom use. 24 August 2010
1.5 Post-Dry Run conference is complete. Changes
incorporated.
21 June 2011
1.6 Final edits. This document is approved for classroom use. 12
July 2011
1.6 Final edits from July course run. This document is approved
for classroom use. 12 September 2011
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Consuetudinary This term applies to law, where the rule of law
is determined by long-standing custom as opposed to case law or
statute.
Human Geography-Based Foundation Data
Human geography-based foundation data is the essential,
slow-changing ethnic, social, cultural, economic, and demographic
data describing the patterns and characteristics of human
activities and communities of an Area of Interest (AOI),
consolidated into human geography-based themes for building,
maintaining, and sharing core human geography-based foundation data
layers.
Key Terminology
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Introduction This lesson describes the components of the Human
Geography-based foundation data and the 13 themes of foundation
data needed for GEOINT. Additionally, it describes the 13 themes
and accompanying subcategories, explains the Human Geography data
process, and provides examples of how data makes it possible for
GEOINT analysts to address geospatial intelligence issues at
NGA.
Objectives Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able
to:
• Describe the factors and subcategories that make up the Human
Geography-Based foundation data
• Identify how incorporating and analyzing foundation data can
assist in addressing geospatial intelligence issues at NGA
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Lesson One: Foundation Data
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Human Geography-Based Foundation Data Defined Before we can talk
about Human Geography-based foundation data, we need to first
define and briefly explain what foundation data is and understand
its relevance to GEOINT.
Critical Characteristics
In order to enhance your understanding of foundation data, take
a closer look at its critical characteristics: • Essential,
relatively stable ethnic, social, cultural, and demographic data •
Can be used to analyze the patterns and characteristics of human
activities and communities
over space and time • Consolidated into Human Geography-Based
themes • Build, maintain, and share core spatially enabled HG data
layers
NGA’s Intent The NGA intent in incorporating Human Geography
foundation data as the basis for data layers is twofold:
• Acquire and fuse existing data that spatially and temporally
depict entities, attributes, and events relevant to the cultural
baseline of an AOI.
• Acquire and integrate textual description of people, events,
and relationships, and spatially enable these as data layers.
The IC expects the NGA to provide spatially enabled HG
foundation data in support of a wide array of customers. Therefore,
gathering HG-based foundation data—through both open and classified
sources—is a key component in GEOINT success.
There are hundreds of potential data types and layers that could
be included in any particular GEOINT effort. Accordingly,
comprehensive HG-based foundation data efforts will likely build
and investigate most of these in the course of producing
descriptive analyses (for understanding), capability analyses (for
knowledge), and predictive analyses (for decision making).
As you begin collecting the data, keep in mind that HG-based
foundation data requires a broad and diverse collection of data
types and layers; once constructed, these data layers can be used
for analysis once the cultural descriptors of people, events, or
beliefs are represented geospatially.
Open sources are the primary locations for foundation data, a
business process to acquire semi-and unstructured data. NGA is
developing this capability with several partners.
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What Is A Foundation Data?
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Foundation Data Overview Successful HG-based foundation data is
the amalgamation of three ongoing bedrock components, and all three
are inextricably linked together:
• Foundation data
• Workflow process
• Data layers Let’s take a few minutes to examine and discuss
what you’re looking in the graphic below. In the top center is the
workflow process, which we’ll be discussing later in the lesson.
For right now, just understand that the workflow process is the HG
foundation data methodology that you will follow.
At the bottom are the 13 HG-based foundation data themes. The
data themes are how the NGA has decided to codify, structure, and
organize the enormous volume of data that you will be
collecting.
Much of the information in those data themes will be used to
produce layers that depict the human infrastructure and patterns of
human activity—much in the same way that you already do for
depicting the Earth, physical features, and structures.
The key take-away is for you to understand that the HG-based
foundation data collected and stored in their respective categories
are integrated into the workflow process to produce the necessary
data layers that are essential to HG-based foundation data.
Figure 2.1.1 Foundation Data Themes and GPE
Human Geography-Based Foundation Data Elements
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Human Geography-Based Foundation Data Process This graphic
depicts the major steps within the Human Geogrpahy-based data
process, from data discovery to storage and maintenance of the
acquired data. The data requirements will be identified during the
planning phase of the workflow process,
Figure 2.1.2 Human Geography-Based Foundation Data Process
Commodity Data
Storage Solution
Research
Discovery
Access
Evaluation
Acquisition
Geo-enable/Geo-reference
Management
DATASTANDARDS
SAMPLEEVALUATION
Storage
HG Data Requirements
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Figure 2.1.3 Human Geography-Based Foundation Data Process
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Human Geography-Based Foundation Data Challenges Building
foundation data presents unique and unprecedented challenges to NGA
analysts. To be successful, you will need to expand your tradecraft
and get outside of your ‘GEOINT comfort zone’ to find the type and
amount of data you will need.
Indeed, you can very easily find yourself overwhelmed by the
massive volume of HG-based foundation data that is available from
the broad range of open and classified sources. Therefore, planning
your information and data collection efforts will be of paramount
importance. Successful HG-based foundation data is the spatial and
temporal fusion of this information into a reliable predictive
analysis tool. A key feature is the use of GEOINT techniques to
visualize, overlay, merge, and compare this foundation data in a
common frame of reference (location).
Data challenges include (but are certainly not limited to):
• Determining what data is needed
• Discovering where that data is
• Acquiring the data
• Evaluating the data
• Geospatially enabling the data
• Storing the massive amount of data
• Provisioning the data
• Managing the data
The foundation data provides the cultural baseline to
incorporate into GEOINT. Without data, there is nothing to punch
into the workflow process, and consequently there would be no data
layers. 13 Human Geography-Based Foundation Data Themes (Overview)
Before delving into the 13 foundation themes, it is important to
remember that they are based in Human Geography, which constitutes
the academic foundation of GEOINT.
When working with and compiling the data themes, keep in mind
the following points:
• Data themes comprise the core foundation data needed to
conduct HG-based foundation data analysis.
• Data themes are regarded as a manageable number of layers
culled from a vast amount of volume.
• Data layers may be difficult to map.
• One theme may be linked to other themes.
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Generally speaking, there are literally hundreds of potential
Human Geography data sets that could be populated. This number must
be reduced and the data types aligned with NGA mission
requirements. A corresponding number of ‘layers’ must then be
defined that NGA can build, maintain, and share as HG-based
foundation data layers and cultural baselines.
In collecting HG-based foundation data, analysts should be
guided by the need to collect and visualize the data elements that
best characterize the people and their culture within the context
of their environment. In other words, this HG-based foundation data
must consist of factors that are fairly time-stable, are important
enough to define key elements of the area, and can be spatially
represented and organized. Accordingly, the NGA has identified 13
categories (or themes) of data that comprise the core HG-based
foundation needed to support any GEOINT effort. HG-based foundation
data cannot be collected and just stored in a data base—it must be
turned into themes that subsequently become layers.
In collecting, processing, and incporporating these data inot
GEOINT, analysts should remember that:
• Themes / topics derived from academic research in Human
Geography and other social sciences
• Starting point for incorporating Human Geography into
GEOINT
• Provides a cultural base line for understanding peoples and
places
• Not a complete or exhaustive list
• Designed to prompt analysts about factors to consider in their
analysis
• Themes and subcategories will evolve as needed to address
lessons learned
Figure 2.1.4 GEOINT Data Layers
The NGA has identified 13 data elements or themes, rooted in
Human Geography, that best characterize the people and their
culture within the context of their environment:
1. Demographics and Population Measures
2. Language
3. Religion
4. Ethnicity
5. Education
6. Medical / Health
7. Political Affiliation & Ideology
8. Economy
9. Land Use, Cover and Ownership
10. Transportation
11. Water Supply & Control
12. Communications & Media
13. Significant Events
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Demographics and Population Measures This theme describes the
size, composition (e.g. age and gender), and trends of the
population. Population growth (e.g. migration and births) or loss
(e.g. mortality and emigration) factors and how these vary across
the AOI among different groups (e.g racial composition) are
important to understand. Much of these data may be gathered from
census data, where available.
Topics and Subcategories include: • Birth and mortality rates •
RNI/carrying capacity/demographic transition/ life expectancy •
Migration (emigration, immigration) • Population density • Racial
composition • Urban/rural composition • Gender • Birth control
practices (low-level) • Age distribution • Census data • Population
movement (temporary, seasonal, refugee)
Language A key concern for the cutltural baseline of an area
depicts the linguistic groups present in the AOI, where the
language or dialect is spoken, and how prevalent they are.
Innovative tactical visualization or approximations may be needed
to represent where language groups mix or overlap.
Topics and Subcategories include:
• Ethno-linguistic groups • Linguistic groupings • Number of
speakers • Languages used for education, broadcast, publications,
business, religion, social activities, and
politics • Dialects, slang • Dual languages (primary,
secondary)
Religion Analysts need to understand the religious affiliation
of the area, including sects and subgroups. How these groups relate
and how/ where they communicate and influence their members may be
important to understand. The analyst needs to understand the formal
and informal leadership structures and where / how these leaders
are trained and influenced. Places of worship, support structures,
and associated training areas should be plotted and related to the
population and area of influence. The secular power of laders and
groups, including their control or authority over organzed forces
or miliaits are also important considerations.
Topics and Subcategories include: • Religious composition •
Sacred/holy locations (including places of worship) • Holidays,
ceremonies, services, celebrations (timelines) • Taboos and customs
• Religious history (including conflicts) • Religious laws
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Ethnicity This theme depicts the ethnic groups in the AOI, their
mutual associations and conflicts with other groups, their historic
roles and influence, and their distribution within the area. Key
concepts of this theme are to define, geo-locate, and characterize
the community social structure and relationships across the
area.
Topics and Subcategories include: • Gender-based practices of
ethnic groups • Leadership, relationships, power structure, council
of elders • Religion of clan • Youth-elder relationships and social
norms for these relations • Systems (patriarchal/matriarchal) for
tracking lineage of leaders • Property ownership and inheritance
systems • Influential personalities (storytellers and healers) •
Prejudices and characterizations of others (inferiority, outside
actors, supervisors) • Rivalries and alliances established over
time • Ethnic and tribal relationships • Colonial legacy
(historical alliances with external powers) • Customs and
traditions • Laws, rules, and governance • Livelihood, housing, and
terrain characteristics where appropriate • Racial or ethnic
composition where appropriate • Acculturation and assimilation
Education This theme describes the educational and literacy
characteristics of people and groups in the area. How do standards
and proficiencies vary across gender, race, religion, ages, and
ethnicities? What access do individuals and groups have to
education facilities and services? Locations of schools and
universities should be plotted and associated with political,
religious, and ethnic groups.
Topics and Subcategories include: • School levels (preschool,
primary, secondary, university) • Literacy • School location,
information, types (trade, religious, formal, informal) • School
curricula • School-level attributes • Education by gender •
Percentage illiterate (by province, district, state) • School
enrollment as a percentage of age group
Medical & Health This theme depicts the health situation in
the area based on medical resources present, how they are
distributed, and the popu1ation's access to services. What diseases
are present? Who is affected and how is it spread? What factors
influence, improve, or diminish health in the area? What peoples
and areas are most affected. Clinics and hospitals should be
plotted and key attributes (e.g. beds, doctors, medical staff,
etc.) associated with them.
Topics and Subcategories include: • Disease conditions,
incidence, and locations (endemic regions) • Disease vectors and
spread (human, animal, insect, and plant) • Disease due to
sanitation and/or malnutrition/under-nutrition
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• Environmental hazards (pollution and industrial waste) •
Medical facility attributes (beds, operating rooms, doctors, staff,
conditions) • Doctors per capita, skill levels, and distribution •
Health workers and skills (including nurses) • Access to healthcare
• Unmet Basic Needs Index (BNI) • Health beliefs • Diet and
nutrition • Medical facility locations • Morbidity (Death as a
result of disease)
PoliticalAffiliation & Ideology This teme describes
political entities, leadership, their support groups and
allegiances. In addition to formal structures, it is also important
to understand the presence and roles of secondary entities, such as
unions, guilds, and other associations that lobby for selective
policies.
Topics and Subcategories include: • Voting patterns or behavior
• Civic and welfare organizations (NGOs, relief operations,
religious-sponsored) • Administrative boundaries and regions
(political units, cities, populated places) • Political groups •
Borders (actual, perceived, crossings) • Government methods
(elections, appointments, etc.) • Government structures and
facilities • Type of nation-state • Leadership • Judicial system –
rule of law • Military/police • Political/ideological perception
and attitudes • Political instability
Economy This theme describes the standard of living in the area
and how various peoples and groups support themselves? How are
different areas and groups characterized by differing economic
factors or livelihoods? What groups or organizations control or
influence economic standards in the area? Major industries, key
facilities, and markets should be plotted and associated with their
supply and consumer nets.
Topics and Subcategories include: • Financial base (banking,
currency, GNP, GDP, inflation, remittances) • Goods and services
(tourism, imports, exports, prices) • Energy/electricity •
Standards of living (distribution of wealth, poverty, and land
ownership) • Workforce characterization (wages, occupation,
livelihood) • Industrial base (raw materials, processing, and
distribution) • Markets (formal, black, informal, physical, and
non-physical)
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Land Use, Cover, and Ownership This theme characterizes
urban/rural areas, agricultural, forestry, pastoral and other
general categories of human use of the land. Natural resources may
be included here and linked as appropriate to the Economy
layers.
Topics and Subcategories include: • Vegetation • Biomes •
Seasonal impacts • Soils • Climate • Landforms • Natural resources
• Hydrography/hydrology (floods, water security, irrigation) •
Agriculture and crops • Terrain (elevation and line of sight) •
Fauna • Land ownership / tenure
Transportation This is a collection of data layers that describe
the means by which goods, people, and ideas circulate within an
AOI. Transportation capabilities will affect most other HG-based
layers; for instance, they may reflect where people live and work
and connect economic areas. NGA maintains a substantial collection
of worldwide transportation features that can be used as the
initial representation of transportation. Analysts will need to
fill gaps (spatial and temporal) in this initial network and search
for and add human-factor attributes that will relate the network to
the people and groups that build, use, and maintain it.
Topics and Subcategories include: • Transportation services
available (air, bus, train, etc.)
• How regular and reliable is the service? • How expensive? •
Who uses the service?
• Companies in each form of transportation • Who owns them? •
Profitability and legality of activities? • Where are shipping
hubs, transshipment points and, rest/service stops?
• Economic value of internal and external transport of goods and
services • Are there roads, transport routes, or transportation
services controlled by groups (government,
insurgents, clans, political entities)?
Water Supply & Control This theme depicts information about
the supply of ground and surface water in a given area, including
its ownership, access, and control. A potential database would
include point, line, and polygon features of aqueducts, dams,
wells, springs, cisterns, pipelines, canals, sluices, ditches,
water treatment plants, tanks and reservoirs, catchment areas,
watersheds. Such data would also include ownership and control of
water supply features, as well as access to and maintenance of
water supply features. These will affect most of other data theme
layers.
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Topics and Subcategories include: • Main water sources in the
area? • Number / locations of wells? • Water quality (potable,
salinity) and impact on use / agriculture? • Who controls / owns
the water source? • What irrigation systems are in use? •
Seasonality of use / availability? • When is maximum / minimum
supply available? • How is the water treated? • Who maintains the
drainage / water system? • Downstream impacts of sluices, dams on
population? • Disputes over water rights / use? • Quantity of water
available – capacity of reservoirs, springs? • What / where are the
catchment areas / basins for the AOI?
Communications & Media This theme describe how information
is distributed; who controls the content and spread of information;
what access different groups and different regions have to the flow
of information? The location and capabilities of broadcast media,
print media, and internet access should be plotted along with key
attributes, describing the ownership, control, range, and coverage
of these resources.
Topics and Subcategories include: • Media influence and control
• Press freedom • Cellular communications • Print media
communications • Communication coverage area (satellite, TV, cell,
emergency, radio) • Media type and distribution • Oral traditions
or word of mouth • Social networks (groups, associations, impacts)
• Internet access and coverage • Percent with access to radios •
Percent of households with at least one phone • Percent of
households with at least one radio
Significant Events This theme describes historical events and
incidents that have shaped the area and continue to do so. Major
historical events of influence should be understood - especially
those that endure in traditions and ceremonies. Current events that
are deemed 'newsworthy' (reported in the press should be clustered
into related groupings and tracked and temporally visualized.
Topics and Subcategories include: • Conflicts (ethnic,
religious, boundary, political) • History/timeline of events •
Natural disasters • Violent events • Humanitarian disasters
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Human Geography-Based Foundation Data Gathering It is true that
NGA analysts have experience reading reports and extracting
relevant information relative to their GEOINT analysis. However,
they typically manage such tasks as a one-off effort based on a
relatively small list of sources. This current practice will not
scale to the enterprise demands of the HG-based foundation data
needs. In fact, general observations indicate that without
automated assistance, analysts spend approximately 80 percent or
more of their time and effort working to find and manage social,
cultural, economic, and demographic data needed to support
analysis. Obviously, this imbalance leaves little time for the
analysis itself.
One of the reasons that HG-based foundation data requires a
team-centric approach is the immense amount of data and information
that must be identified, gathered, vetted, and assessed to conduct
effective and meaningful HG-based foundation data analysis. Much of
the required social, cultural, and demographic data does not exist
in a finished state and must be extracted from multiple and
disparate sources.
• HG data is based on less-defined characteristics that may
often not be easily derived from images or depicted on maps.
• Determine proxies for hard to define / attain data • Finding
and organizing this data is a difficult, labor-intensive process. •
A mix of manual and automated discovery tools are required.
o Manual geo-referencing is expected o Automated efforts are
underway
Spatially Enabling Human Geography-Based Foundation Data A key
component of the HG data workflow is the process of geoparsing free
and unstructured text. This time-intensive task occurs during both
manual and automated extraction of physical feature,
human/infrastructure, and socio-demographic data, and entity,
incident, and event intelligence.
Geolocating content with machine assistance comprises two
parts:
(1) Token identification
(2) Geographic disambiguation
Spatially enabling unstructured data manually requires greater
reasoning (critical thinking) and geographic extract-transform-load
(ETL) skills because data is combined from multiple sources into a
single spatial layer for display and analysis in a GIS.
Human Geography-Based Foundation Data Gathering and Spatially
Enabling
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Figure 2.1.5 Spatially Enabling Data
The graphic above depicts the methods encountered for spatially
enabling unstructured text and data for use in an HG-based
foundation data product. They primarily include:
• Vectorization
• Geocoding
• Converting tabular data to shapefile
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This map plots, by month, incidents of violence against
journalists in Somalia from January 2007 to September 2009. A
histogram and color ramp for each month is used to show locations.
While not exact, these locations could be geocoded to the nearest
city or town in which they occurred.
Figure 2.1.6 Foundation Data as GEOINT
Violence against journalists does not usually fall within the
purview of traditional intelligence—GEOINT or otherwise. It is,
however, an issue that can be addressed via HG-based foundation
data.
• What are these violent attacks indicative of? What could these
attacks mean?
• Could they be a surrogate for government oppression and
control of free speech in the region?
• What foundation data theme does this example cover?
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Foundation Data as GEOINT
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This lesson described the components of HG-based foundation data
and the 13 themes of foundation data needed for HG-based data
analysis. Additionally, it described the 13 themes and accompanying
subcategories, explained the Human Geography data workflow process,
and provided examples of how these data have enabled GEOINT
analysts to address geospatial intelligence issues at NGA.
In this lesson we covered the following topics:
• What Is Foundation Data
o Foundation Data Defined and Critical Characteristics
• Foundation Data Elements
o Foundation Data Challenges
o Pathways of Data Collection
o 13 Human Geography Foundation Data Themes
o Individual Data Themes
• Data Acquisition and Use
o Foundation Data Sources
o Foundation Data Gathering
o Spatially Enabling Foundation Data
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Lesson One Review
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References are as follows and can also be found on the HTA
Concepts Course Wikipedia page:
• Random House. "Dictionary". 11 July 2010
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Consuetudinary
• NGA Pilot Group, “Human Terrain Analysis Handbook and
Reference Guide,” (HTA HB), Version 1-0, November, 2009
• Gates, Robert M., “A Balanced Strategy: Reprogramming the
Pentagon for a New Age,” Foreign Affairs, January/February 2009
• Joint Publication 2-01.3, “Joint Intelligence Preparation of
the Operational Environment;” 16 June 2009
• Quadrennial Defense Review Report, United States Department of
Defense, 06 February 2006
Lesson One References
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Module Two: Data Factors and Intelligence Issues
Lesson Two: Human Geography-Based Mission-
Specific Data
Version: 1.6 Date: 12 September 2011
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Change History Table
Version Description of Change Date
1.0 Development and Dry Run are complete. This document is
approved for classroom use. 24 August 2010
1.5 Post-Dry Run conference is complete. Changes
incorporated.
21 June 2011
1.6 Final edits. This document is approved for classroom use. 12
July 2011
1.6 Final edits after July 2011 course run. This document is
approved for classroom use. 12 September 2011
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Data Fusion Combining data from multiple sources or platforms to
form one composite theme or layer depicting the environment.
Human Geography-Based Mission-Specific Data
Data that supports intelligence or operational customers who
need to understand local individuals or groups in order to
influence or affect them.
Key Terminology
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Introduction While the foundation data themes discussed in the
previous lesson provide the cultural baseline for incorporating
Human Geography into GEOINT, this lesson describes mission-specific
data and the mission-specific w