2015/4/21 1 The Manchu and the Qing Dynasty (1645-1911) Barfield, Thomas, The Perilous Frontier, ” Ch. 7, "Steppe Wolves and Forest Tigers," pp. 250-294;

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The Manchu and the The Manchu and the Qing Dynasty (1645-1911)Qing Dynasty (1645-1911)

Barfield, Thomas, Barfield, Thomas, The Perilous Frontier,The Perilous Frontier,”” Ch. Ch. 7, "Steppe Wolves and Forest Tigers," pp.7, "Steppe Wolves and Forest Tigers," pp.   250-294; 250-294;

OROR Pamela Crossley, Pamela Crossley, ““Thinking about Ethnicity in Thinking about Ethnicity in

Early Modern China,Early Modern China,”” Late Imperial ChinaLate Imperial China 11.1 (1990); 11.1 (1990);

OROR Rawski, Evelyn S., Rawski, Evelyn S., ““Imperial WomenImperial Women”” in in The The

Last Emperors, Last Emperors, pp. 127-159pp. 127-159

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The Manchu and the The Manchu and the Qing Dynasty (1645-1911)Qing Dynasty (1645-1911)

IntroductionIntroduction The Rise of the ManchuThe Rise of the Manchu The establishment of the QingThe establishment of the Qing The Qing DynastyThe Qing Dynasty SuccessionSuccession Marriage PatternsMarriage Patterns Recruitment of Palace WomenRecruitment of Palace Women Imperial WomenImperial Women Manchu WomenManchu Women Manchu impact on Chinese womenManchu impact on Chinese women The End of the QingThe End of the Qing

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IntroductionIntroduction The Ming rulers were always very nervous about the The Ming rulers were always very nervous about the

possible return of the Mongol were fighting them and so possible return of the Mongol were fighting them and so used a less aggressive policy against the Jurchen.used a less aggressive policy against the Jurchen. The Ming tried to pacify them by giving them The Ming tried to pacify them by giving them

honorary titles and trade agreements but not to all of honorary titles and trade agreements but not to all of their demands.their demands.

They tried to keep the Jurchen divided by supporting They tried to keep the Jurchen divided by supporting different tribes against each other. different tribes against each other.

The Ming dynasty (The Ming dynasty (1368 – 16441368 – 1644 ) had to collect higher had to collect higher taxes to finance its wars against the Mongol and so taxes to finance its wars against the Mongol and so faced rebellions.faced rebellions. There were peasant rebellions that they could not There were peasant rebellions that they could not

control.control. The Jurchen, who had ruled China under the dynastic The Jurchen, who had ruled China under the dynastic

name of Jin (Gold)name of Jin (Gold) 金 金 GoldGold (1122-1234 ), took this (1122-1234 ), took this opportunity to again unite.opportunity to again unite.

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Introduction (2)Introduction (2) Li Zicheng Li Zicheng 李自成 李自成 , the leader of the most , the leader of the most

powerful Chinese rebel armies entered Beijing and powerful Chinese rebel armies entered Beijing and declared a new Shun declared a new Shun 顺 顺 dynasty (April to May, dynasty (April to May, 1644). 1644). He then led an army of 60,000 to confront Wu He then led an army of 60,000 to confront Wu

Sangui Sangui 吳三桂吳三桂 ; the general guarding the ; the general guarding the mountain pass, Shanhaiguan (mountain pass, Shanhaiguan ( 山海關山海關 ). ).

Wu, caught between Li and the Manchu, Wu, caught between Li and the Manchu, decided to ally with the Manchu and led the decided to ally with the Manchu and led the Manchu into China.Manchu into China.

Wu was first rewarded by the Manchu but Wu was first rewarded by the Manchu but later revolted against them and tried to later revolted against them and tried to establish his own dynasty but died the same establish his own dynasty but died the same year. (The last Ming loyalists battled for year. (The last Ming loyalists battled for another seventeen years.)another seventeen years.)

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The rise of the ManchuThe rise of the Manchu The Jurchen lived in today’s The Jurchen lived in today’s

Helongjiang and Jilin.Helongjiang and Jilin. They began to use the name Manchu They began to use the name Manchu

after Nurhaci, founder of the after Nurhaci, founder of the Manchu state, fManchu state, f 努爾哈赤 努爾哈赤 (1559-(1559-1626), formally adopted the name 1626), formally adopted the name ManchuManchu (1635) for the territory (1635) for the territory under his rule. under his rule. It is possible that the using the It is possible that the using the

name Manchu, instead of Jurchen, name Manchu, instead of Jurchen, dated back to 1605 which is why dated back to 1605 which is why Nurhaci took the name of Manchu Nurhaci took the name of Manchu when he established the state.when he established the state.

Nurhaci’s son and successor, Nurhaci’s son and successor, Huang Taiji Huang Taiji 皇太極 皇太極 (r.1626-1643), forbade the people to call themselves Jurchen.

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The rise of the Manchu (2)The rise of the Manchu (2)

Nurhaci was the son of a noble Nurhaci was the son of a noble family in present-day North family in present-day North Korea.Korea. He had been a hostage in the He had been a hostage in the

household of the Ming household of the Ming general – in charge of peace general – in charge of peace and relations with the Jurchen and relations with the Jurchen – and was educated in the – and was educated in the Confucian classics.Confucian classics.

When young, he traveled to When young, he traveled to Beijing to pay homage to the Beijing to pay homage to the Ming rulers, to trade, and to Ming rulers, to trade, and to receive honorary titles in receive honorary titles in return for helping them return for helping them against the Japanese in Korea.against the Japanese in Korea.

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The Rise of Manchu (3)The Rise of Manchu (3)

Early Manchu history, under Nurhaci, can be Early Manchu history, under Nurhaci, can be divided into:divided into: Tribal phase – Tribal phase –

Ends in 1619 when he tried to control and Ends in 1619 when he tried to control and unite the tribes using traditional methods unite the tribes using traditional methods such as marriage alliances and the Chinese such as marriage alliances and the Chinese tributary system.tributary system.

Border conquest phase – Border conquest phase – Ends at his death (1626) when he was Ends at his death (1626) when he was

continuing to unite the tribes and, at the continuing to unite the tribes and, at the same time, incorporate Chinese territory.same time, incorporate Chinese territory.

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The Rise of the Manchu (4)The Rise of the Manchu (4) In 1609, Nurhaci broke off from the Ming dynasty In 1609, Nurhaci broke off from the Ming dynasty

claiming that the Ming had attacked and claiming that the Ming had attacked and humiliated members of his family and had tried to humiliated members of his family and had tried to wreck his economic base.wreck his economic base. During the next 10 years, he increased his During the next 10 years, he increased his

power by dominating neighboring Jurchen and power by dominating neighboring Jurchen and Mongol tribes or by allying with them through Mongol tribes or by allying with them through marriage.marriage.

He established a two-tier government:He established a two-tier government: Separate quarters for Jurchen were set up in Separate quarters for Jurchen were set up in

towns.towns. The Chinese were treated as servants.The Chinese were treated as servants. Jurchen were required to have weapons but Jurchen were required to have weapons but

Chinese and Mongol were forbidden to do so.Chinese and Mongol were forbidden to do so.

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The Rise of the Manchu (5)The Rise of the Manchu (5) In 1616, Nurhaci declared In 1616, Nurhaci declared

himself the ruler of a himself the ruler of a second Jin (Gold) dynasty second Jin (Gold) dynasty – descendants of the – descendants of the Jurchen rulers.Jurchen rulers.

He had organized his He had organized his troops and their families troops and their families into 8 banners -- large into 8 banners -- large civil-military units that civil-military units that replaced the former replaced the former hunting groups.hunting groups.

The banners became The banners became administrative units for administrative units for registration, conscription, registration, conscription, and taxation.and taxation.

Qing Flag: 1862-1890Qing Flag: 1862-1890 Qing Flag: 1890-1911/12Qing Flag: 1890-1911/12

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The Establishment of the The Establishment of the QingQing Huang Taiji (r.1626-1643), succeeded Huang Taiji (r.1626-1643), succeeded

Nurhaci, and declared a Qing dynasty.Nurhaci, and declared a Qing dynasty. He centralized power and diluted the He centralized power and diluted the

power of the tribal leadership by:power of the tribal leadership by: Making the tribes subordinate to the Making the tribes subordinate to the

dynasty.dynasty. Removing senior leaders of the Removing senior leaders of the

banners.banners. Reducing banner autonomy.Reducing banner autonomy. Creating additional banners (3 Creating additional banners (3

Mongolian banners and 1 Chinese) Mongolian banners and 1 Chinese) and attaching them to directly to the and attaching them to directly to the Central Government.Central Government.

Increasing the number and authority Increasing the number and authority of the Chinese bureaucracy.of the Chinese bureaucracy.

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The Establishment of the The Establishment of the Qing (3)Qing (3)

Huang Taiji Huang Taiji consolidated the empire and laid the groundwork for the conquest of the Ming. As emperor of the Manchu state, he continued continued

the expansion of Manchuria, pushing deeper into the expansion of Manchuria, pushing deeper into Mongolia and raiding Korea and Ming China.Mongolia and raiding Korea and Ming China.

He added another 8 Mongol and 8 Chinese added another 8 Mongol and 8 Chinese banners (for those who came over to the Manchu, banners (for those who came over to the Manchu, in, or before 1644).in, or before 1644).

The eventual conquest of China was achieved The eventual conquest of China was achieved by these 24 banners in which less than 16% of by these 24 banners in which less than 16% of the soldiers were of Manchu origin (1648).the soldiers were of Manchu origin (1648).

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The Qing DynastyThe Qing Dynasty The Qing Dynasty is considered the most successful The Qing Dynasty is considered the most successful

of all conquest dynasties.of all conquest dynasties. Its boundaries are those of today’s China.Its boundaries are those of today’s China.

The conquest of the Ming was won by a multi-ethnic The conquest of the Ming was won by a multi-ethnic force so it was important to bind them to the Qing force so it was important to bind them to the Qing government.government. Early Qing rulers claimed both Manchu and Early Qing rulers claimed both Manchu and

Mongol descent by intermarriage with the Mongol Mongol descent by intermarriage with the Mongol -- especially with the descendants of Genghis Khan.-- especially with the descendants of Genghis Khan.

They organized the tribes in southern Mongolia They organized the tribes in southern Mongolia and incorporated them into the banner system.and incorporated them into the banner system.

The old tribes became the new banners and The old tribes became the new banners and established Mongol leaders received positions of established Mongol leaders received positions of rank in the Qing administration , leading their rank in the Qing administration , leading their own people.own people.

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Qing Dynasty (2)Qing Dynasty (2) Qing rulers focused on preserving their lineage and Qing rulers focused on preserving their lineage and

culture but also promoted the cultures of the many culture but also promoted the cultures of the many different peoples they ruled.different peoples they ruled. Most Qing rulers were multilingual; they studied Most Qing rulers were multilingual; they studied

Mongolian, Manchu and Chinese. Some even Mongolian, Manchu and Chinese. Some even learned Tibetan and Uighur.learned Tibetan and Uighur.

Like all non-Han rulers, they incorporated Han-type Like all non-Han rulers, they incorporated Han-type bureaucracies but at the same time they changed bureaucracies but at the same time they changed the Chinese model to suit their own circumstances. the Chinese model to suit their own circumstances.

They concentrated on controlling an empire with They concentrated on controlling an empire with different races across Inner and East Asia. different races across Inner and East Asia.

Different laws applied to different peoples and Different laws applied to different peoples and officials were recruited from different groups. officials were recruited from different groups.

All ethnic groups resisted Sinicization and developed All ethnic groups resisted Sinicization and developed their own written languages. their own written languages.

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Qing Dynasty (3)Qing Dynasty (3) As a non-Han dynasty, Qing adopted ideas of ruler-ship As a non-Han dynasty, Qing adopted ideas of ruler-ship

from the cultures of their subject peoples.from the cultures of their subject peoples. The Qing emperor was also referred to as the “Great The Qing emperor was also referred to as the “Great

Khan”.Khan”. He was identified as the ruler of five peoples – Manchu, He was identified as the ruler of five peoples – Manchu,

Mongol, Tibetans, Uyghurs and Chinese.Mongol, Tibetans, Uyghurs and Chinese. These five languages were accepted as the official These five languages were accepted as the official

languages.languages. Qing’s success, in empire building, was due to its ability Qing’s success, in empire building, was due to its ability

to understand the different cultures and peoples within its to understand the different cultures and peoples within its empire and to administer them appropriately.empire and to administer them appropriately. While they tried to be fair, they always gave special While they tried to be fair, they always gave special

privileges to the banner nobles and imperial kinsmen privileges to the banner nobles and imperial kinsmen who formed boards that were above the Han Chinese who formed boards that were above the Han Chinese bureaucracy.bureaucracy.

The eunuchs were supervised by bond servants from The eunuchs were supervised by bond servants from the banner companies.the banner companies.

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Qing Dynasty (4)Qing Dynasty (4) The Qing tried to change Han society:The Qing tried to change Han society:

They required the people to adopt a Manchu hairstyle.They required the people to adopt a Manchu hairstyle. They passed a law forbidding the footbinding of women They passed a law forbidding the footbinding of women

–the law was repealed three years later as it was not –the law was repealed three years later as it was not effective.effective.

Manchu women were forbidden to have their feet Manchu women were forbidden to have their feet bound.bound.

The Qing embraced many Chinese elements:The Qing embraced many Chinese elements: Manchu marriage practices were changed from levirate Manchu marriage practices were changed from levirate

to serial monogamy with concubinage.to serial monogamy with concubinage. Funeral practices were changed from cremation to Funeral practices were changed from cremation to

burial.burial. Filial piety was raised to new heights.Filial piety was raised to new heights. The Confucian classics were used in civil service The Confucian classics were used in civil service

examinations.examinations. The rulers patronized Chinese art and literature.The rulers patronized Chinese art and literature.

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SuccessionSuccession The succession issue was first raised in 1622 when The succession issue was first raised in 1622 when

Nurhaci’s sons asked their father whom he had Nurhaci’s sons asked their father whom he had chosen to succeed him. chosen to succeed him.

Nurhaci said:Nurhaci said: Naming a successor would give that person Naming a successor would give that person

added power which he might abuse. added power which he might abuse. The eight banner lords should select the best The eight banner lords should select the best

leader among themselves.leader among themselves. Authority should be shared by the four senior Authority should be shared by the four senior

banner leaders – his three sons and his nephew. banner leaders – his three sons and his nephew. When Nurhaci died in 1626, the immediate danger When Nurhaci died in 1626, the immediate danger

was that if they followed his suggested system there was that if they followed his suggested system there was a possibility of a division of the empire with was a possibility of a division of the empire with each banner leader becoming an independent ruler.each banner leader becoming an independent ruler.

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Succession (2)Succession (2) Nurhaci’s will provided that each of his three sons by Nurhaci’s will provided that each of his three sons by

Abaha – his third empress — Dorgon, Dodo, and Aige Abaha – his third empress — Dorgon, Dodo, and Aige — receive a banner; it was also rumored that he had — receive a banner; it was also rumored that he had named Dodo as heir.named Dodo as heir.

The older sons were afraid that the three sons of the The older sons were afraid that the three sons of the Empress, together with the mother, would dominate Empress, together with the mother, would dominate the government.the government. They forced the Empress to commit suicide and be They forced the Empress to commit suicide and be

buried with Nurhaci and gave banners only to buried with Nurhaci and gave banners only to Dorgon and Dodo.Dorgon and Dodo.

The youngest son, Aige, was denied a banner The youngest son, Aige, was denied a banner because of his youth.because of his youth.

During the struggles over succession, the eighth son, During the struggles over succession, the eighth son, Huang Taiji seized authority.Huang Taiji seized authority.

Huang Taiji took Aige’s banner for himself, then asked Huang Taiji took Aige’s banner for himself, then asked the eldest and most powerful of Nurhaci’s son to lead the eldest and most powerful of Nurhaci’s son to lead the banner leaders in electing him. the banner leaders in electing him.

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Succession (3)Succession (3) Huang Taiji’s death started another succession crisis.Huang Taiji’s death started another succession crisis.

Banner nobles and officials met to elect his Banner nobles and officials met to elect his successor. successor.

The large number of Nurhaci’s sons made The large number of Nurhaci’s sons made fraternal/lateral succession a possibility. fraternal/lateral succession a possibility.

Huang Taiji’s eldest son, Hooge Huang Taiji’s eldest son, Hooge 豪格豪格 ; 1609-1648), was ; 1609-1648), was a major contender against his uncle, Dorgon a major contender against his uncle, Dorgon 多爾袞多爾袞 (1612-50) , 14(1612-50) , 14thth son of Nurhaci and brother of Huang son of Nurhaci and brother of Huang Taiji.Taiji. Dorgon was a great military leader and was Dorgon was a great military leader and was

supported by a number of banner leaders, but supported by a number of banner leaders, but Hooge was also supported by Chinese officials who Hooge was also supported by Chinese officials who recognized lineal succession.recognized lineal succession.

The struggle was along banner lines but both The struggle was along banner lines but both candidates had equal numbers of banners.candidates had equal numbers of banners.

Rival claims split the Manchu elite.Rival claims split the Manchu elite.

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Succession (4)Succession (4) A compromise was reached in which the 5-year old son of A compromise was reached in which the 5-year old son of

Huang Taiji, Fulin (Emperor Shunzi Huang Taiji, Fulin (Emperor Shunzi 順治順治 : 1643-1661), : 1643-1661), instead of the eldest, was named emperor with Dorgon as a instead of the eldest, was named emperor with Dorgon as a co-regent.co-regent.

Dorgon consolidated his personal power and removed his co-Dorgon consolidated his personal power and removed his co-regent in 1647 on charges of usurping imperial prerogatives. regent in 1647 on charges of usurping imperial prerogatives. He ruled from 1644 until his death on a hunting trip He ruled from 1644 until his death on a hunting trip

(1650).(1650). It was rumored that he married the mother of Shunzi, It was rumored that he married the mother of Shunzi,

Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang 孝莊文皇后孝莊文皇后 (1613-1688).(1613-1688). She was of the lineage of Genghis Khan.She was of the lineage of Genghis Khan.

The emperor disliked Dorgon and stripped him of his titles The emperor disliked Dorgon and stripped him of his titles upon his death (he was rehabilitated during the reigns of upon his death (he was rehabilitated during the reigns of the next emperors and given the posthumous rank of the next emperors and given the posthumous rank of Emperor).Emperor).

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Succession (5)Succession (5)

Shunzhi died of smallpox in his twenties but had Shunzhi died of smallpox in his twenties but had designated as heir, a younger son, Kangxi designated as heir, a younger son, Kangxi 康熙康熙 , , (r.1661-1722), as the young boy already had smallpox. (r.1661-1722), as the young boy already had smallpox. The designation of an heir broke with the tradition The designation of an heir broke with the tradition

of election. of election. Shunzhi had selected four regents as Kangxi was not Shunzhi had selected four regents as Kangxi was not

yet seven so power was in the hands of the Grand yet seven so power was in the hands of the Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang 孝莊文皇后孝莊文皇后 and the four and the four regents.regents.

None of the regents were members of the imperial None of the regents were members of the imperial lineage:lineage: One died soon after his granddaughter was made One died soon after his granddaughter was made

empress;empress; Two fought with each other.Two fought with each other.

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Succession (6)Succession (6) The fourth regent, Oboi, soon took over and The fourth regent, Oboi, soon took over and

became as powerful as Dorgon used to be.became as powerful as Dorgon used to be. Instead of centralizing power under the Instead of centralizing power under the

emperor, Oboi tried to preserve and increase emperor, Oboi tried to preserve and increase the powers of the Manchu banner elite under the powers of the Manchu banner elite under the pretense of returning to traditional the pretense of returning to traditional Manchu customs.Manchu customs.

In 1669, with the help of his grandmother (the In 1669, with the help of his grandmother (the Grand Empress Dowager Xiao Zhuangwen Grand Empress Dowager Xiao Zhuangwen 孝莊文皇孝莊文皇后后 ) Kangxi was able to arrest Oboi, and take ) Kangxi was able to arrest Oboi, and take control.control.

Kangxi is known as one of the greatest emperors in Kangxi is known as one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history; his reign of 61 years makes him Chinese history; his reign of 61 years makes him the longest-reigning Emperor of China. the longest-reigning Emperor of China.

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Succession (7)Succession (7)

The Kangxi emperor installed his first son by the The Kangxi emperor installed his first son by the Empress as heir but found him unfit for office and Empress as heir but found him unfit for office and demoted him. demoted him. A fierce power struggle began among the other sons A fierce power struggle began among the other sons

for the position and Kangxi said, “at my deathbed for the position and Kangxi said, “at my deathbed some of you will fight each other for the throne, some of you will fight each other for the throne, swinging your swords over my corpse!”swinging your swords over my corpse!”

After Kangxi’s death, the fourth son announced that he After Kangxi’s death, the fourth son announced that he was his father’s dying choice and declared himself was his father’s dying choice and declared himself emperor, Yongzheng.emperor, Yongzheng. He then arrested those brothers whom he suspected He then arrested those brothers whom he suspected

would not support him.would not support him. As emperor, he announced that he would put the name As emperor, he announced that he would put the name

of his successor in a sealed box to be opened upon his of his successor in a sealed box to be opened upon his death. death.

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Succession (8)Succession (8) Of the 11 Manchu emperors who ruled from 1644 to Of the 11 Manchu emperors who ruled from 1644 to

1911 only one (the Daoguang 1911 only one (the Daoguang 道光 道光 emperor, son of emperor, son of Jiaqing Jiaqing 嘉慶 嘉慶 emperor) was the son of an empress. emperor) was the son of an empress. The birth mothers of emperors Yongzheng The birth mothers of emperors Yongzheng 雍正 雍正 , ,

Qianlong Qianlong 乾隆 乾隆 , Jiaqing , Jiaqing 嘉慶 嘉慶 came from lowly came from lowly servant backgrounds. servant backgrounds.

The rejection of the eldest-son succession principle, The rejection of the eldest-son succession principle, and the secret naming of the heir to be announced and the secret naming of the heir to be announced after the emperor’s death resulted in fierce after the emperor’s death resulted in fierce succession struggles.succession struggles. The contest for succession divided brother from The contest for succession divided brother from

brother, with the victor exterminating his rivals. brother, with the victor exterminating his rivals. Although the emperor could only have one Although the emperor could only have one

empress at a time, there would be a number of empress at a time, there would be a number of empress dowagers as the first act of an emperor empress dowagers as the first act of an emperor was to name his birth mother as empress was to name his birth mother as empress dowager.dowager.

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Marriage PatternsMarriage Patterns Manchu marriages with Mongol nobles increased as Manchu marriages with Mongol nobles increased as

the Qing armies expanded into central Asia in the late the Qing armies expanded into central Asia in the late 17C and early 18C. 17C and early 18C. 25% of empresses, 16% of princes’ wives, and 55% 25% of empresses, 16% of princes’ wives, and 55%

of princesses’ spouses were Mongol. of princesses’ spouses were Mongol. Empresses and principal wives of princes and Empresses and principal wives of princes and

husbands of princesses came from a small number of husbands of princesses came from a small number of favored houses. favored houses. Of the 641 Manchu clans, only 31 were favored Of the 641 Manchu clans, only 31 were favored

with marriage. with marriage. The number of empresses and concubines, The number of empresses and concubines,

important enough to have biographies, ranged important enough to have biographies, ranged from Kangxi with 40 to Guangxu with only 3 – from Kangxi with 40 to Guangxu with only 3 – Kangxi lived a long life and Guangxu did not.Kangxi lived a long life and Guangxu did not.

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Marriage Patterns (2)Marriage Patterns (2)

For political purposes, the early Manchu emperors took For political purposes, the early Manchu emperors took wives descended from the descendants of Genghis wives descended from the descendants of Genghis Khan, so that their descendants would also be seen as Khan, so that their descendants would also be seen as legitimate heirs of the Mongolian Yuan dynasty.legitimate heirs of the Mongolian Yuan dynasty. The imperial family only married with banner The imperial family only married with banner

families.families. All Manchu, not only the imperial family, were All Manchu, not only the imperial family, were

forbidden to marry Han Chinese who were not in the forbidden to marry Han Chinese who were not in the Eight Banners.Eight Banners.

Any who disobeyed this rule would be punished Any who disobeyed this rule would be punished and their offsprings expelled from the lineage.and their offsprings expelled from the lineage.

Han Chinese, not in the banners, could be taken in Han Chinese, not in the banners, could be taken in as concubines. as concubines.

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Recruitment of Palace Recruitment of Palace WomenWomen

Recruitment of women into the palace was done every Recruitment of women into the palace was done every three years through drafting of daughters of officials in three years through drafting of daughters of officials in the banners. the banners. Except for certain individuals, every girl, between the Except for certain individuals, every girl, between the

ages of 13 to 14 ages of 13 to 14 sui. sui. had to appear in Beijing for had to appear in Beijing for consideration before her marriage.consideration before her marriage.

After 1653, young girls between 13-14 had to be After 1653, young girls between 13-14 had to be presented to the palace in Beijing before they could be presented to the palace in Beijing before they could be betrothed. betrothed.

Those who caught the emperor’s eye would be Those who caught the emperor’s eye would be selected for the harem. selected for the harem.

Some were be chosen to be wives for the princes, Some were be chosen to be wives for the princes, others served in the palace for a five-year term. others served in the palace for a five-year term.

Palace maids selected through a separate draft could be Palace maids selected through a separate draft could be promoted into the harem – 16% became imperial promoted into the harem – 16% became imperial consorts.consorts.

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Imperial WomenImperial Women The influence of imperial women was feared by the The influence of imperial women was feared by the

Manchu. Manchu. In the struggle for power, Nurhaci’s senior widow, In the struggle for power, Nurhaci’s senior widow,

Abahai, was forced to commit suicide and was Abahai, was forced to commit suicide and was buried with her husband. buried with her husband.

Huang Taiji might have been acceptable as his Huang Taiji might have been acceptable as his mother had died by the time he became the leader of mother had died by the time he became the leader of the Manchu and there would be no strong maternal the Manchu and there would be no strong maternal influence during his rule. influence during his rule.

The mother of Yongzhen emperor was separated The mother of Yongzhen emperor was separated from her son soon after his birth, so Yongzhen was from her son soon after his birth, so Yongzhen was raised by another imperial woman (d.1689) who was raised by another imperial woman (d.1689) who was of noble ancestry and whose only daughter had died.of noble ancestry and whose only daughter had died.

Yongzhen was very close to his foster mother.Yongzhen was very close to his foster mother.

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Imperial Women (2)Imperial Women (2) To prevent palace women and their families from To prevent palace women and their families from

power, palace regulations made it almost impossible power, palace regulations made it almost impossible for an imperial consort to remain close to her natal kin. for an imperial consort to remain close to her natal kin. Visits home were rare and demanded that her Visits home were rare and demanded that her

parents and grandparents kneel before her. parents and grandparents kneel before her. Imperial permission was needed for meetings with Imperial permission was needed for meetings with

parents – when a woman was pregnant or when her parents – when a woman was pregnant or when her parents were elderly.parents were elderly.

Special permission was needed for them to send Special permission was needed for them to send servants to their family homes as messengers.servants to their family homes as messengers.

They were forbidden to give or receive gifts from They were forbidden to give or receive gifts from family members. family members.

Motherhood usually brought promotion to the woman Motherhood usually brought promotion to the woman but the title of Empress Dowager was usually but the title of Empress Dowager was usually conferred upon her by her son should he become conferred upon her by her son should he become emperor. emperor.

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Imperial Women (3)Imperial Women (3)

The women who survived the power struggles became The women who survived the power struggles became very influential:very influential: After the death of Huang Taiji (1643), the mother After the death of Huang Taiji (1643), the mother

of the infant (Fulin: Shunzi), who was descended of the infant (Fulin: Shunzi), who was descended from Genghis khan became very important. from Genghis khan became very important.

She allied herself with prominent Manchu nobles She allied herself with prominent Manchu nobles who were not imperial kinsmen but had been active who were not imperial kinsmen but had been active in the conquest.in the conquest.

She brought up her grandson, the future Kangxi She brought up her grandson, the future Kangxi emperor, and helped him get rid of the regent, emperor, and helped him get rid of the regent, Oboi, and rule in his own right. Oboi, and rule in his own right.

Her political role during her son’s infancy and the Her political role during her son’s infancy and the regency of her grandson could be compared with regency of her grandson could be compared with that of Empress Dowager Cixi who dominated the that of Empress Dowager Cixi who dominated the last 50 years of the dynasty.last 50 years of the dynasty.

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Imperial Women (4)Imperial Women (4)

Two regents, Cian (1837-1881) and Cixi (1835-1908), Two regents, Cian (1837-1881) and Cixi (1835-1908), dominated the final years of the Qing and ruled dominated the final years of the Qing and ruled together after the death of Emperor Xianfeng together after the death of Emperor Xianfeng together with the emperor’s half-brothers.together with the emperor’s half-brothers. Cian was the daughter of a Duke and was the Cian was the daughter of a Duke and was the

empress of Xianfeng emperor (r.1850-1861).empress of Xianfeng emperor (r.1850-1861). She became a regent as she was the former She became a regent as she was the former

empress.empress. She had been named empress at the age of She had been named empress at the age of

16.16. She had no sons and so the 6 year-old son of She had no sons and so the 6 year-old son of

a concubine (Cixi) succeeded to the throne as a concubine (Cixi) succeeded to the throne as Emperor Tongzhi (1856-1875).Emperor Tongzhi (1856-1875).

Cixci, Xianfeng’s concubine, became regent as she Cixci, Xianfeng’s concubine, became regent as she was the biological mother of empeor Tongzhi.was the biological mother of empeor Tongzhi.

As Empress Dowager, Cixi was de facto ruler As Empress Dowager, Cixi was de facto ruler during the last years of the Qing dynasty.during the last years of the Qing dynasty.

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Manchu WomenManchu Women

Manchu women had greater freedom and authority. Manchu women had greater freedom and authority. They were forbidden to bind their feet and They were forbidden to bind their feet and

walked in public places, rode horses, practiced walked in public places, rode horses, practiced archery and participated in hunts. archery and participated in hunts.

Princess Hexiao — the youngest daughter of Princess Hexiao — the youngest daughter of Qianlong — dressed in man’s clothing, Qianlong — dressed in man’s clothing, practiced archery and accompanied her father practiced archery and accompanied her father on hunts. on hunts.

The emperor was recorded as saying that if The emperor was recorded as saying that if she had been a boy he would have made her she had been a boy he would have made her the heir.the heir.

Women were occasionally active on the Women were occasionally active on the battlefield: a few were even named banner battlefield: a few were even named banner lieutenant during the conquest. lieutenant during the conquest.

They held key roles in religious services at court.They held key roles in religious services at court. Manchu and Mongol nobles of both sexes had the Manchu and Mongol nobles of both sexes had the

right to divorce. right to divorce.

Manchu Impact on Chinese Women

The Manchu tried but was not able to stop The Manchu tried but was not able to stop footbinding in the early Qing.footbinding in the early Qing.

The lecture on Mongolorization of women The lecture on Mongolorization of women showed that the Manchu reduced the number showed that the Manchu reduced the number and pattern of widow suicide.and pattern of widow suicide.

During the Qing, prostitution was abolished and During the Qing, prostitution was abolished and all sex work were considered criminal acts.all sex work were considered criminal acts.

All All

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Manchu Impact on Chinese Manchu Impact on Chinese Women:Women:

ProstitutionProstitution For centuries the state managed sex workers.For centuries the state managed sex workers.

The sex service was a form of slavery like that The sex service was a form of slavery like that of comfort women during the Second World of comfort women during the Second World War.War.

In the Han dynasty, the wives and daughters of In the Han dynasty, the wives and daughters of some criminals were sentenced to serve in state-some criminals were sentenced to serve in state-managed military brothels.managed military brothels. Their status would be passed on to their Their status would be passed on to their

descendants – hereditary prostitution.descendants – hereditary prostitution. Beginning with the Sui dynasty (Beginning with the Sui dynasty (580-618 )580-618 ), state , state

managed sex workers were referred to as managed sex workers were referred to as yue yue renren 樂人樂人 (singers, dancers, maids, etc.) and (singers, dancers, maids, etc.) and worked within worked within yue huyue hu 樂戶 樂戶 – – music households. music households.

Manchu Impact on Chinese Manchu Impact on Chinese Women: Prostitution (2)Women: Prostitution (2)

The practice of sentencing wives and daughters The practice of sentencing wives and daughters to prostitution continued from the Tang through to prostitution continued from the Tang through the Ming. the Ming. In some periods of history, prisoners of war In some periods of history, prisoners of war

and their families were similarly sentenced.and their families were similarly sentenced. Under Ming law, there were two kinds of Under Ming law, there were two kinds of

prostitution – the one supervised by the state and prostitution – the one supervised by the state and private unofficial ones that were regarded as private unofficial ones that were regarded as unlawful.unlawful. The private ones were:The private ones were:

Widows, discarded concubines, and Widows, discarded concubines, and divorced women who had to survive by divorced women who had to survive by becoming prostitutes under the pretense of becoming prostitutes under the pretense of being Daoist and Buddhist nuns.being Daoist and Buddhist nuns.

The wives or daughters of poor men to help The wives or daughters of poor men to help earn money for the family.earn money for the family. 3434

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Manchu Impact on Chinese Manchu Impact on Chinese Women: Prostitution (3)Women: Prostitution (3)

Yuan law prohibited commoner males from forcing a Yuan law prohibited commoner males from forcing a wife, concubine, adopted daughter or a domestic wife, concubine, adopted daughter or a domestic slave to be a prostitute. slave to be a prostitute. The man was also prohibited from forcing a wife The man was also prohibited from forcing a wife

concubine or adopted daughter to sing and dance concubine or adopted daughter to sing and dance to entertain others.to entertain others.

In the Ming, the emperor periodically announced In the Ming, the emperor periodically announced amnesties to release descendants of political amnesties to release descendants of political prisoners from their status.prisoners from their status.

Emperor Yongzheng of the Qing abolished the Emperor Yongzheng of the Qing abolished the yue huyue hu households and made them commoners in 1723.households and made them commoners in 1723. All former sex workers were held to the same All former sex workers were held to the same

standard of chastity as the commoners.standard of chastity as the commoners. Prostitutes, their pimps (often their husbands), and Prostitutes, their pimps (often their husbands), and

those who used their services all became criminals.those who used their services all became criminals. All sex work became criminal acts.All sex work became criminal acts.

The result was the complete prohibition of The result was the complete prohibition of prostitution.prostitution.

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The End of the QingThe End of the Qing

The two Opium wars with the West (1839-1842) The two Opium wars with the West (1839-1842) (1856-1860), the internal rebellions such as the (1856-1860), the internal rebellions such as the Taiping Taiping 太平 太平 Rebellion (1851-1864) and the Boxer Rebellion (1851-1864) and the Boxer Uprising from (1899-1901) made the Qing weak Uprising from (1899-1901) made the Qing weak politically and economically.politically and economically. By 1908, both Cixi and Emperor Guangxu died By 1908, both Cixi and Emperor Guangxu died

leaving a powerless and unstable central leaving a powerless and unstable central authority. authority.

Puyi was named emperor at the age of two the day Puyi was named emperor at the age of two the day before the deaths of Cixi and Guangxu.before the deaths of Cixi and Guangxu. His father was regent and ruled together with an His father was regent and ruled together with an

"Imperial Family Cabinet” – a ruling council of "Imperial Family Cabinet” – a ruling council of the Imperial Government almost entirely the Imperial Government almost entirely consisting of relatives of Puyi’s lineage.consisting of relatives of Puyi’s lineage.

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The End of the Qing (2)The End of the Qing (2)

With permission from Empress Dowager Longyu (wife of Emperor Gungxu and niece of ED Cixi), negotiations were held with the rebels led by Sun Yatsen. Empress Dowager Longyu issued the edict

abdicating the child emperor Puyi. In 1931, the Japanese created a puppet state created a puppet state

named named Manchuguo with Puyi as emperor. By this time Manchuria was overwhelmingly Han By this time Manchuria was overwhelmingly Han

Chinese, and even among the Manchu, this Chinese, and even among the Manchu, this project failed to generate much genuine interest. project failed to generate much genuine interest.

Manchuguo was abolished at the end of World War Manchuguo was abolished at the end of World War II and the land was given back to China.II and the land was given back to China.

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The End of the Qing (3)The End of the Qing (3)

The reasons for the decline and fall of the Qing were The reasons for the decline and fall of the Qing were different from those that brought down the earlier different from those that brought down the earlier dynasties.dynasties. Externally, Qing China was drawn into modern world Externally, Qing China was drawn into modern world

politics by the West whose culture was in many ways politics by the West whose culture was in many ways equal to hers and whose technology was superior. equal to hers and whose technology was superior.

Internally, the population explosion created social Internally, the population explosion created social and economic problems which the Qing was unable and economic problems which the Qing was unable to cope.to cope.

The feeling of nationalism and the development of a The feeling of nationalism and the development of a “Han identity” by the majority population, influenced “Han identity” by the majority population, influenced by western thought made it impossible to accept a by western thought made it impossible to accept a foreign conquest dynasty – Manchu -- to rule China.foreign conquest dynasty – Manchu -- to rule China.

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The End of the Qing (4)The End of the Qing (4)

The reformists had tried to had tried to establish a The reformists had tried to had tried to establish a constitutional monarchy like that in Japan and in England.constitutional monarchy like that in Japan and in England.

When this effort failed and Guangxu was imprisoned by When this effort failed and Guangxu was imprisoned by Cixi they gave up the idea and decided to form a new Cixi they gave up the idea and decided to form a new nation.nation.

The new communists and nationalists believed that China The new communists and nationalists believed that China was backward because of feudalism – the oppression of was backward because of feudalism – the oppression of men and women by Confucian practices, especially that of men and women by Confucian practices, especially that of women through footbinding and the lack of education.women through footbinding and the lack of education.

The liberation of women, therefore, became part of the The liberation of women, therefore, became part of the liberation of society from feudal practices.liberation of society from feudal practices.

The women’s movement, therefore, had to be supported The women’s movement, therefore, had to be supported by all regardless if they were communists or nationalists.by all regardless if they were communists or nationalists.