-
Volume 6 Number 4 2014
185
The Impact of Manager Influence Tactics onInnovation
Implementation of a Knowledge
Management System*Chiu, Holly H., PhD and Fogel, Joshua, PhD
Department of Finance and Business ManagementBrooklyn College of
the City University of New York, Brooklyn, NY, USA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACTInnovations can bring desired benefits to organizations
if implemented successfully.Managers are a critical factor for
influencing employee attitudes and behavior foradoption of
innovations. We study employee (n=237) attitudes and behaviors for
13different manager influence tactics in the innovation
implementation phase of an e-learning system, which is regarded as
the knowledge management system, in amanufacturing company in
Taiwan. With regard to attitudes toward using the e-learningsystem,
the influence tactics of apprising and collaboration were
significantly associatedwith increased attitudes, while exchange
and pressure were significantly associated withdecreased attitudes.
With regard to two separate behavior outcomes of the number of
e-learning courses taken and the number of times online, the
influence tactics of coalition,collaboration, and pressure all had
significant increased associations; while
ingratiation,inspirational appeals, legitimating, and rational
persuasion all had significant decreasedassociations. Also, the
influence tactics of apprising and persistence had
significantincreased associations only for the number of e-learning
courses taken. Managersattempting to adopt innovative practices
should consider the importance of influencetactics when adopting
innovative practices in the corporate workplace.
1. INTRODUCTIONInnovations can contribute many benefits to
organizations. Successful innovation implementation iscrucial
toward obtaining these benefits. When implementing innovations,
individual adoption decisionsare crucial to the innovation outcome
[1, 2]. However, most innovation literature focuses on the factors
atthe organizational level. Only a few studies focus on the
individual employee level. For example, onestudy showed that
individual employees positive attitude mediated the relationship
between anorganizations supportive norm and the employees
innovation-use behavior, and employees technicalabilities mediated
the relationship between an organizations technical support and the
employeesinnovation-use behavior. In addition, an organizations
supportive norm also positively moderated therelationship between
employees positive attitude and the employees innovation-use
behavior [3].Another study found that the individual employees
perceived value fit and ability fit were positivelyrelated to both
their commitment to implementation as well as their implementation
behaviors. Inaddition, employees perceived value fit was more
strongly related to their commitment to implementationwhile
employees perceived ability fit more strongly related to
implementation behavior [4].
In a corporate setting, factors such as organizational structure
[5, 6], available resources [7, 8],organizational culture and/or
climate [3, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13], support systems [3, 5],
andimplementation strategies [7, 14, 15, 16] are believed to
influence the effectiveness of innovationimplementation. Although
not often mentioned, managers have a critical role in the
innovationimplementation process since they are the ones who set up
organizational structure, allocate resources,create organizational
culture and/or climate, and decide how to implement innovations [5,
6, 10, 14, 17,18, 19]. Nonetheless, only limited literature
examines the role of middle managers on innovationimplementation.
One study found that management support of computerized
technologyimplementation had a significant positive impact on the
implementation climate [7]. This suggests thatmanagers behaviors
have an impact on employees perception of the innovation. Another
study foundthat not every employee perceived managerial influence
in the same way. Only those employees who
-
were less innovative, who felt the innovation was less needed
for their task, who felt their task was lessimportant, who had
lower skills, and who were low performers perceived that their
managersencouraged them to use the innovation [14]. In addition,
middle managers are depicted as the grassroots change agents in
innovative firms [19]. These studies provide an overview of the
role of middlemanagers but do not provide the specific pathways for
how middle managers influence their employees.
The study of the influence tactics used by managers provides a
plausible perspective from which toexamine how managers influence
their employees in innovation implementation. Types of
managerialbehaviors used to exert influence on employees are called
influence tactics. A popular taxonomy ofeleven influence tactics
includes: rational persuasion, consultation, inspirational appeal,
collaboration,apprising, ingratiation, exchange, personal appeal,
legitimating, pressure, and coalition [20, 21, 22, 23,24, 25, 26].
Chinese culture can have additional influence tactics than those
studied in western countriesand the United States, and include
socializing, gift giving, informal engagement, use of
writtendocumentation, and persistence [27, 28, 29].
In addition to identifying the influence tactics that middle
managers use, it is important to evaluatethe potential outcome of
these influence tactics. Previous research studies the relationship
of certaininfluence tactics to human resource practices, such as
work outcomes [30], recruiters perception ofapplicants fit and
further hiring recommendation [31], and users safety participation
[32]. Also, thereare studies that take a more comprehensive
approach and use numerous influence tactics rather than aspecific
few to examine the relative effectiveness of influence tactics by
asking respondents to providethe reactions of those on whom the
influence tactics were used [22, 25] or for both task commitmentand
organizational commitment [33]. As there are many influence
tactics, a more comprehensiveapproach for understanding how
innovation is implemented in the corporate setting would be
useful.Also, the studies that take a more comprehensive approach
use scenarios measuring attitudes [22, 25,33] rather than actual
behavioral experiences in the corporate setting. We are not aware
of any studythat uses a comprehensive approach of studying numerous
influence tactics in a specific corporatesetting with regard to
incorporating particular behavioral outcomes.
An idea, practice, and product is regarded as an innovation as
long as it is new to the adopters,regardless how long it has
existed [34]. This study examines the impact of influence tactics
used bymiddle managers at a corporation in the context of
implementation of knowledge management systems,which is the focal
innovation in this study. The corporate setting that we study uses
an e-learning systemas a way to manage internal knowledge. All
courses were designed internally and prepared by eithersenior
employees or experts within the functional department. We examine
13 influence tactics used bymiddle managers as it relates to
employee attitudes of use of an e-learning system as well as
twodifferent employee behaviors of number of e-learning courses
taken and number of times online takinge-learning courses.
2. THEORY AND HYPOTHESES2.1. Influence tacticsThe apprising
tactic is used when an agent explains to the target how the target
will benefit personallyby carrying out the request [22, 25]. As
apprising is individual-specific for success, the agent needs
toknow exactly what the target wants. If the agent does not know
exactly what the target wants, the bestresponse expected from the
target would be compliance. In the context of innovation
implementation,a manager might claim that employees who use an
innovation will have a better chance of advancementin the company.
If the employee greatly values advancement in the company, a
managers use ofapprising will lead to an employees commitment.
Hypothesis 1A: The apprising tactic is positively related to
employee attitude regarding useof an e-learning system in a
corporate setting.
Hypothesis 1B: The apprising tactic is positively related to
employee use of an e-learningsystem in a corporate setting.
The coalition tactic is used when an agent tries to persuade the
target to do what the target wants byusing endorsement from others
[20, 21, 23, 26]. The agent might enlist other people to convince
thetarget to support the request. However, this tactic should be
used cautiously because it can make thetarget feel manipulated
[26]. The coalition tactic often results in the targets resistance
or compliance
186 The Impact of Manager Influence Tactics on Innovation
Implementationof a Knowledge Management System
International Journal of Innovation Science
-
rather than the targets commitment [20]. In the context of
innovation implementation, the use of acoalition tactic by a
manager might involve trying to change an employees attitude or
behaviorconcerning the innovation by telling the employee about
others using the innovation, or asking otheremployees to persuade
the employee.
Hypothesis 2A: The coalition tactic is negatively related to
employee attitude regarding useof an e-learning system in a
corporate setting.
Hypothesis 2B: The coalition tactic is negatively related to
employee use of an e-learningsystem in a corporate setting.
The collaboration tactic is used when an agent promises to
provide the necessary resources andassistance to the target if the
target agrees to complete the request [22, 25]. If the agent
usescollaboration, the target may be more willing to complete the
proposed request because the target thinksthere will be fewer
obstacles ahead; thus, the target is more likely to commit to the
request [22]. In thecontext of innovation implementation, a manager
might be able to provide either technological oremotional support
[35], such as training sessions, which are known factors for
success of technologyimplementation [36, 37]. It stands to reason
that the use of collaboration is likely to create commitmentamong
employees.
Hypothesis 3A: The collaboration tactic is positively related to
employee attitude regardinguse of an e-learning system in a
corporate setting.
Hypothesis 3B: The collaboration tactic is positively related to
employee use of an e-learningsystem in a corporate setting.
The consultation tactic is used when an agent seeks a targets
participation in planning or implementinga strategy, activity, or
change for which the targets support is desired. The target is
encouraged toexpress opinions, concerns, or suggestions regarding
the request [20, 21, 23, 26]. Consultation isexpected to increase
the targets commitment to the request because it creates a sense of
ownership onthe part of the target. It is widely believed that
people will be less likely to reject a project if they
feelthemselves to be part of it [15, 16, 20]. In the context of
innovation implementation, consultation isexpected to be an
effective tactic for managers to convince employees to commit to
use the innovation.
Hypothesis 4A: The consultation tactic is positively related to
employee attitude regardinguse of an e-learning system in a
corporate setting.
Hypothesis 4B: The consultation tactic is positively related to
employee use of an e-learningsystem in a corporate setting.
The exchange tactic is used when an agent offers explicit or
implicit rewards as incentives for the targetto fulfill the request
[20, 21, 23, 26]. This tactic is similar to the concept of
contingent rewardtransactional leadership. A transactional leader
will recognize both what followers need and whatfollowers must do
to attain designated outcomes. The leader then explains how the
followers needswill be fulfilled if the desired outcome is obtained
[38]. In the context of innovation implementation,offering
employees rewards for using new technology can impact successful
implementation becauserewards provide an incentive for employees to
use the new technology [8]. However, use of rewardscan result in
employees compliance but not necessarily their commitment to the
task [39]. It isreasonable to assume that the exchange tactic is
likely to at minimum obtain employees complianceand at maximum to
obtain commitment to use of the innovation.
Hypothesis 5A: The exchange tactic is positively related to
employee attitude regarding useof an e-learning system in a
corporate setting.
Hypothesis 5B: The exchange tactic is positively related to
employee use of an e-learningsystem in a corporate setting.
Chiu, Holly H., PhD and Fogel, Joshua, PhD 187
Volume 6 Number 4 2014
-
The ingratiation tactic is used when an agent tries to place the
target into a good mood or to make thetarget think favorably of the
agent before the agent makes a request. The agent may do this
bypersuading the target that the target is the most qualified
person to complete the request [20, 21, 23,26]. In the context of
innovation implementation, a manager might praise an employee for
theemployees expertise or experience, or that the employee should
have no difficulty using the innovationbecause of the employees
ability. Employees are expected to be pleased about the managers
praise andto at least comply with or even commit to a managers
request that they use the innovation.
Hypothesis 6A: The ingratiation tactic is positively related to
employee attitude regarding useof an e-learning system in a
corporate setting.
Hypothesis 6B: The ingratiation tactic is positively related to
employee use of an e-learningsystem in a corporate setting.
The inspirational appeals tactic arouses the enthusiasm of the
target by appealing to the targets values,ideals, and aspirations
when an agent makes a request [20, 21, 23, 26]. Targets are more
likely tocommit to a request when the agent uses inspirational
appeals [20] and it is one of the most effectivetactics [26]. In
the context of innovation implementation, employees will be more
likely to commit tothe use of an innovation if their manager can
inspire them and help them to believe that the use of theinnovation
is aligned with their values and visions.
Hypothesis 7A: The inspirational appeals tactic is positively
related to employee attituderegarding use of an e-learning system
in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 7B: The inspirational appeals tactic is positively
related to employee use of an e-learning system in a corporate
setting.
The legitimating tactic is used when an agent seeks to
legitimize a request by referring it to an authorityor by verifying
that the request is consistent with existing organizational
policies or rules [20, 21, 23,26]. Resistance can occur. It is more
likely that a target will comply with rather than commit to such
arequest [20] and this tactic may even have a negative impact on
the targets commitment to the request[26]. In the context of
innovation implementation, a managers use of legitimating tactics
might involveefforts to claim that the adoption and use of the
innovation is consistent with the organizations policy.The employee
will more often comply rather than commit.
Hypothesis 8A: The legitimating tactic is negatively related to
employee attitude regardinguse of an e-learning system in a
corporate setting.
Hypothesis 8B: The legitimating tactic is negatively related to
employee use of an e-learningsystem in a corporate setting.
The persistence tactic is used when an agent repeatedly pleads
with the target to complete the request[27, 28]. It is one of the
least effective tactics rated by managers [27,28]. In the
innovationimplementation context, a manager who uses the
persistence tactic is repeatedly expected to askemployees to use
the innovation. This approach is more likely to be ineffective and
may result inemployees resistance.
Hypothesis 9A: The persistence tactic is negatively related to
employee attitude regarding useof an e-learning system in a
corporate setting.
Hypothesis 9B: The persistence tactic is negatively related to
employee use of an e-learningsystem in a corporate setting.
The personal appeals tactic is used when an agent tries to
persuade a target by appealing to the targetsfeelings of loyalty or
friendship [20, 21, 23, 26]. As the agent tries to influence the
target based on theirpersonal relationship, the request is less
likely to be part of the targets regular job responsibilities.
In
188 The Impact of Manager Influence Tactics on Innovation
Implementationof a Knowledge Management System
International Journal of Innovation Science
-
personal appeals, reciprocity is expected: The target will know
what the agent wants and the agent willowe the target a favor [23].
In the context of innovation implementation, it is less likely that
a managerwill use personal appeals to persuade employees to use an
innovation since using the innovation is partof the employees job
that the manager has the authority to inform the employee to
perform. However,if a manager does use personal appeals to attempt
to influence an employee, employee commitment ismore likely.
Hypothesis 10A: The personal appeals tactic is positively
related to employee attituderegarding use of an e-learning system
in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 10B: The personal appeals tactic is positively
related to employee use of an e-learning system in a corporate
setting.
The pressure tactic is used when an agent tries to coerce a
target into completing a request. The agentmakes demands,
threatens, and/or continuously checks up on the target to persuade
the target to complywith the request [20, 21, 23, 26]. Pressure
tactics are one of the least effective tactics for obtainingtargets
commitment to a request [20]. It is also an approach frequently
adopted by managers, despitethe fact that the result of their
effort is generally unsuccessful [15, 16, 35]. In the context of
innovationimplementation, if a manager relies on the pressure
tactic to implement an innovation, employees areless likely to
commit to its use and even resist the request of using the
innovation.
Hypothesis 11A: The pressure tactic is negatively related to
employee attitude regarding useof an e-learning system in a
corporate setting.
Hypothesis 11B: The pressure tactic is negatively related to
employee use of an e-learningsystem in a corporate setting.
The rational persuasion tactic occurs when an agent uses facts
and logical arguments to convince thetarget to agree to do what the
agent requests [20, 21, 23, 26]. It is one of the most effective
tactics [26]because it can at minimum secure a targets compliance
[20]. In the context of innovationimplementation, when rational
persuasion is used by a manager, the manager will explain why use
ofthe innovation is necessary by providing various facts, reasons,
and information. This can leademployees to accept and use the
innovation.
Hypothesis 12A: The rational persuasion tactic is positively
related to employee attituderegarding use of an e-learning system
in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 12B: The rational persuasion tactic is positively
related to employee use of an e-learning system in a corporate
setting.
The socializing tactic is used when an agent begins the
conversation with irrelevant topics that thetarget might be
interested in before making a request [27, 28]. It is an indirect
way for an agent topersuade a target. The socializing tactic is one
of the least effective tactics rated by managers acrossdifferent
countries and cultures [27, 28] In the context of innovation
implementation, if a manager doesnot initially ask employees to use
the innovation, but begins the conversation with irrelevant
topicsbefore asking about using the innovation, the manager is
using the socializing tactic. It is likely that theuse of
socializing would not be successful for innovation
implementation.
Hypothesis 13A: The socializing tactic is negatively related to
employee attitude regardinguse of an e-learning system in a
corporate setting.
Hypothesis 13B: The socializing tactic is negatively related to
employee use of an e-learningsystem in a corporate setting.
Chiu, Holly H., PhD and Fogel, Joshua, PhD 189
Volume 6 Number 4 2014
-
2.2. Control variablesPrevious studies have shown a significant
association of a number of demographic variables andinnovation
adoption. The impact of age on innovation adoption is mixed. Some
studies report norelationship between employee age and adoption
behavior [34, 40, 41]. Another study reports thatyounger employees
have greater intentions to explore new technology than older
employees, whilethere is no difference in terms of the actual use
of the technology between younger and older employees[42]. However,
another study reports that younger employees have greater
behavioral intention thanolder workers toward using new technology
[43]. Education level can impact innovation adoption.Previous
research reports that those with higher education are early
adopters of innovations [34] anddemonstrate greater innovation
implementation behavior [40]. However, other studies report that
thereis no relationship of employee education level with attitude
toward using the innovation or innovationuse [41, 42, 44]. Gender
can impact innovation adoption. Previous research reports mixed
findings forgender differences in terms of technology adoption. One
study reports that men have a greater intentionto use an e-learning
system than women [45]. Another study reports that men have both
greaterintentions to use and actual use of technology than women in
both the short term and long term [46].Another study reports mixed
findings where men have greater intention to explore technology
thanwomen while there was no difference between men and women with
regard to technology use [42].Other studies report no gender
difference whether for intention to use technology [44] or
innovationimplementation behavior [40]. Therefore, we control for
employee age, education level, and gender.
Besides demographic variables, organizational level variables of
tenure and team size can impactinnovation adoption. With regard to
tenure, one study reports that decreased organizational tenure
ofteam members is associated with stronger team goal commitment for
innovative projects [47].However, another study reports that
employees with greater tenure are associated with greater
intentionto explore new technology but not with use of the new
technology [42]. Team size is an important factorinfluencing team
process and team performance. A meta-analysis reports that larger
team size ispositively related to team performance for project
teams and management teams but not for productionteams [48].
Another study reports that smaller team size is related to stronger
team goal commitmentfor innovative projects [47]. However, another
study reports that team size has no impact on eitheremployee
intention to explore new technology or their actual use of the new
technology [42]. Similarly,team size has no impact on respondents
workplace commitment [49]. Therefore, we control foremployees
tenure and the team size.
3. METHODIn this study, the term manager will be used to
represent middle managers who are below topmanagement and one level
above line workers and professionals [50, 51]. The term participant
will beused to represent employees who are the target of mangers
influence tactics. The innovation studied isthe e-learning
system.
3.1. Participants and settingOnline surveys were administered
from 2010 to 2011 to all 416 employees from one business unit ofan
international electronics manufacturing company in Taiwan that had
implemented an e-learningsystem. Each business unit manufactures
distinct products with its own profit-and-loss responsibility.As
the influence tactics questions obtained from the literature were
originally written in English, allsurvey questions were translated
into Chinese and then back-translated into English to
minimizetranslation error. Surveys were administered in Chinese.
There were 248 valid completed surveys, fora response rate of 59.6
percent. In our analysis, we analyze 237 surveys as some of the key
variablesfor our current analysis were omitted by respondents.
3.2. E-learning systemThe e-learning system was a knowledge
management initiative at the company. Each functionaldepartment
decided that knowledge is important for employees to perform well
in that department andmade a list of what courses to offer. After
that planning, either senior employees or experts were invitedto
create these courses within the functional department. At the end
of each course, employees neededto pass a quiz in order to certify
that they successfully completed the course. All employees
wererecommended to take courses based on their job functions and
job ranks. For example, all employeesin the procurement department
were supposed to obtain knowledge regarding components as well
as
190 The Impact of Manager Influence Tactics on Innovation
Implementationof a Knowledge Management System
International Journal of Innovation Science
-
price negotiation skills. An additional purpose of the
e-learning system was to cut training expenses,reduce repetitive
design errors, and help employees learn from various projects. The
e-learning systemwas initially online at the end of 2007. This
study uses data from one business unit for the completeyears of
2008 through 2010. In 2008 there were 269 courses. There were 9
courses added in 2010 fora total of 278 courses available.
3.3. Measures3.3.1. Demographic and organizational variablesAge
was originally measured with 5-year intervals starting from under
25 to over 66. After examiningthe age distribution, age was
measured with four categories that included sufficient numbers
ofparticipants for each category: under 31, 31 to 35, 36 to 40, and
over 40. Education was originallymeasured with five categories,
ranging from high school diploma to doctorate. After examining
theeducation distribution, education was measured with three
categories that included sufficient numbersof participants for each
category: high school and associate degree, undergraduate degree,
and graduatedegree. Gender was measured by men and women. Tenure
was determined by participants employeeID, which indicated the year
they started employment in the company. Team size was determined
bycounting the actual number of participants in the team.
3.3.2. Influence tacticsIn general the 13 influence tactics were
measured by items adopted from both the Influence
BehaviorQuestionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26] and cross-cultural studies
[27, 28]. Participants were asked to indicatethe extent to which
their managers used each tactic during implementation on a 5-point
Likert scale(1=definitely would not, 2=probably would not,
3=neutral, 4=probably would, 5=definitely would).These influence
tactic scales are reliable and valid. In the original studies,
Cronbach alpha ranged from0.65 to 0.94 [25]. However, IBQ only
examines 11 tactics identified in western cultures. The remaining2
tactics identified in the cross-cultural studies were measured by
fewer items than were originallydetermined from using scenarios.
Thus, for consistency we decided to only include a number of
relevantitems most focused on the tactic definition from each scale
to allow for two items for each scale.
The apprising tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions
from the Influence BehaviorQuestionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The
questions were, Explains how the e-learning system could helpyour
career, and Explains how you can benefit from using the e-learning
system (e.g. being moreefficient, have better performance). Higher
scores indicate greater interest in managers for using thetactic.
Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was 0.82.
The coalition tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions
from the Influence BehaviorQuestionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The
questions were, Gets others to explain to you why you need touse
the e-learning system, and Asks someone you respect to help
influence you to use the e-learningsystem. Higher scores indicate
greater interest in managers for using the tactic. Cronbach
alphareliability in our sample was 0.82.
The collaboration tactic scale contained 2 items. It used
questions from the Influence BehaviorQuestionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25,
26]. The questions were, Offers to provide resources you would need
touse the e-learning system (e.g., training sessions), and Tells
you that he will assist you in using thee-learning system. Higher
scores indicate greater interest in managers for using the tactic.
Cronbachalpha reliability in our sample was 0.76.
The consultation tactic scale contained 2 items. It used
questions from the Influence BehaviorQuestionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25,
26]. The questions were, Consults with you to get your ideas about
usingthe e-learning system, and Encourages you to express any
concerns and difficulties using the e-leaning system and promise he
will try his best to help. Higher scores indicate greater interest
inmanagers for using the tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our
sample was 0.84.
The exchange tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions
from the Influence BehaviorQuestionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The
questions were, Offers to provide bonus or other rewards if youuse
the e-learning system, and Tells you that the time you spend
learning using the e-learning systemcan be compensated in the
future. Higher scores indicate greater interest in managers for
using thetactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was
0.88.
The ingratiation tactic scale contained 2 items. It used
questions from the Influence BehaviorQuestionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25,
26]. The questions were, Says your ability and experience will make
iteasy for you to use the e-learning system, and Praises your past
performance or achievements when
Chiu, Holly H., PhD and Fogel, Joshua, PhD 191
Volume 6 Number 4 2014
-
asking you to use the e-learning system. Higher scores indicate
greater interest in managers for usingthe tactic. Cronbach alpha
reliability in our sample was 0.92.
The inspirational appeals tactic scale contained 2 items. It
used questions from the Influence BehaviorQuestionnaire (IBQ) [22,
25, 26]. The questions were, Describes how using the e-learning
systemwould match your personal values and work values, and Makes
an inspiring speech or presentation toarouse enthusiasm to
encourage you to use the e-learning system. Higher scores indicate
greater interestin managers for using the tactic. Cronbach alpha
reliability in our sample was 0.79.
The legitimating tactic scale contained 2 items. It used
questions from the Influence BehaviorQuestionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25,
26]. The questions were, Says that he is your boss and he has the
rightto ask you to use the e-learning system, and Says that using
the e-learning system is consistent withcompany rules and policies.
As we obtained poor Cronbach alpha reliability for the scale, we
analyzedeach item separately.
The persistence tactic scale contained 2 items. It used
questions from cross-cultural studies [27, 28].The questions were,
Keep telling you how important and urgent it is to use the
e-learning system, andRepeats the request of using the e-learning
system over and over again. Higher scores indicate greaterinterest
in managers for using the tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our
sample was 0.69.
The personal appeals tactic scale contained 2 items. It used
questions from the Influence BehaviorQuestionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25,
26]. The questions were, Asks you to use the e-learning system as
apersonal favor, and Appeals to your friendship when asking you to
use the e-learning system. Higherscores indicate greater interest
in managers for using the tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our
samplewas 0.95.
The pressure tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions
from the Influence Behavior Questionnaire(IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The
questions were, Uses threats or warnings when trying to get you to
use the e-learning system, and Tries to pressure you to use the
e-learning system. Higher scores indicate greaterinterest in
managers for using the tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our
sample was 0.92.
The rational persuasion tactic scale contained 2 items. It used
questions from the Influence BehaviorQuestionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25,
26]. The questions were, Uses facts and logic to make a persuasive
casefor you to use the e-learning system, and Explains clearly the
benefits the e-learning system willbring to the company. Higher
scores indicate greater interest in managers for using the
tactic.Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was 0.80.
The socializing tactic scale contained 2 items. It used
questions from cross-cultural studies [27, 28].The questions were,
Talks about something you are interested in before asking you to
use the e-learning system (e.g. family, news), and Discusses
non-work related topics before he asks you to usethe e-learning
system. Higher scores indicate greater interest in managers for
using the tactic.Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was
0.85.
3.3.3. Outcome variablesParticipants attitude was measured by
the 4-item attitude scale [52]. Items were slightly modified
bychanging the name of the system from DMS to e-learning. Each item
was measured on a 5-point Likertscale (1=strongly disagree,
2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree). Higher scores
indicatemore positive attitude toward using the e-learning system.
Cronbach alpha in the original study was0.96. Cronbach alpha in our
sample was 0.89.
Participants use of the e-learning system was obtained from the
system log from 2008 to 2010. Thetotals from this time period were
used for our two different behavior outcomes. One outcome was
thenumber of e-learning courses participants took. The other
outcome was the number of timesparticipants went online to take
e-learning courses.
3.3.4. Statistical analysisDescriptive statistics of mean and
standard deviation were used for the continuous variables,
andpercentage and frequency for the categorical variables. Linear
regression was used for the outcome ofparticipants attitude toward
using the e-learning system. Poisson regression was used for the
twoseparate behavior outcomes of the number of e-learning courses
taken and the number of times onlinetaking e-learning courses. For
all the regression analyses, univariate analyses were conducted
with theindependent variables. Only those independent variables
that were statistically significant in theunivariate analyses were
included in the multivariate analyses. All p-values were two
tailed. StataVersion 11 was used for all analyses.
192 The Impact of Manager Influence Tactics on Innovation
Implementationof a Knowledge Management System
International Journal of Innovation Science
-
4. RESULTSTable 1 describes the sample characteristics. With
regard to age, those ages 31 to 35 were the largestpercentage with
more than 40 percent of the sample. With regard to education, those
with anundergraduate degree were the largest percentage with more
than half of the sample. With regard togender, almost one-third
were women. With regard to tenure, the mean number of years
employed atthis company was more than 4 years. With regard to team
size, mean team size was more than 15members. With regard to the
influence tactics, the tactics of apprising and rational persuasion
had meanscores indicating the boss probably would use these
tactics. The tactics of coalition, collaboration,consultation,
inspirational appeals, the legitimating item of using technology is
consistent withcompany rules and policies, and persistence had mean
scores indicating that the boss was betweenneutral and probably
would use these tactics. The tactics of exchange, ingratiation, the
legitimatingitem of saying he or she is your boss and has the right
to ask you to use the technology, personalappeals, pressure, and
socializing had mean scores indicating their boss probably would
not use thesetactics.
Chiu, Holly H., PhD and Fogel, Joshua, PhD 193
Volume 6 Number 4 2014
Variable M (SD) Percentage (Frequency) Demographics Age Under 31
31-35 36-40 Over 40
27.0% (64) 41.4% (98) 16.9% (40) 14.8% (35)
Education High school and associate degree Undergraduate degree
Graduate degree
17.3% (41) 57% (135) 25.7% (61)
Gender (women) 31.2% (74) Organizational Tenure 4.6 (5.32) Team
size 15.2 (6.32) Influence Tactics Apprising 4.1 (0.82) Coalition
3.3 (0.95) Collaboration 3.9 (0.85) Consultation 3.7 (0.92)
Exchange 2.2 (1.16) Ingratiation 2.7 (1.07) Inspirational appeals
3.7 (0.90) Legitimating item (boss has the right to ask you to use
the technology)
2.8 (1.20)
Legitimating item (using technology is consistent with company
rules and policies)
3.9 (0.91)
Persistence 3.3 (0.96) Personal appeals 2.3 (1.08) Pressure 2.4
(1.15) Rational persuasion 4.0 (0.84) Socializing 2.2 (0.96)
Outcome Variables Attitude 3.7 (0.64) Number of e-learning courses
took 22.3 (24.07) Number of times online 35.0 (45.28)
Table 1. Characteristics of Participants from an International
Electronics Manufacturing Company in Taiwan
-
Table 2 shows linear regression analyses for attitude toward
using the e-learning system. With regard toboth demographic and
organizational variables, none were statistically significant. With
regard to theinfluence tactics, in the univariate analyses,
increasing scores on apprising, coalition,
collaboration,consultation, inspirational appeals, persistence, and
rational persuasion had statistically significantassociations with
increasing attitudes toward using the e-learning system. However,
increasing scores onexchange, the legitimating item of the boss has
the right to ask you to use technology, personal appeals,and
pressure had statistically significant associations with decreasing
attitudes toward using the e-learning system. In the multivariate
analyses, only increasing scores on apprising and collaboration
hadstatistically significant increasing associations while
increasing scores on exchange and pressure hadstatistically
significant decreasing associations with attitudes toward using the
e-learning system.
194 The Impact of Manager Influence Tactics on Innovation
Implementationof a Knowledge Management System
International Journal of Innovation Science
Table 2. Analysis of Variables Associated with Participants
Attitude Toward Using The E-Learning System Variable Univariate
B (SE) p-value Multivariate
B (SE) p-value
Demographics Age Under 31 31-35 36-40 Over 40
Reference 0.02 (0.10) -0.05 (0.13) -0.02 (0.13)
0.84 0.68 0.90
----
----
Education High school and associate degree Undergraduate degree
Graduate degree
0.03 (0.13) -0.05 (0.09) Reference
0.81 0.59
---- ----
Gender -0.06 (0.09) 0.50 ---- ---- Organizational Tenure -0.003
(0.03) 0.92 ---- ---- Team size -0.002 (0.01) 0.79 ---- ----
Influence tactics Apprising 0.34 (0.05)
-
regard to the influence tactics, in the univariate analyses,
increasing scores on coalition, collaboration,persistence and
pressure had statistically significant associations with increasing
number of coursestaken. Increasing scores on apprising,
ingratiation, the legitimating item of using technology
isconsistent with company rules and policies, and rational
persuasion had statistically significantassociations with
decreasing number of courses taken. In the multivariate analyses,
with regard to bothdemographic and organizational variables,
similar significance patterns as in the univariate analysesoccurred
for the age categories, education, and team size. However, women
and tenure were no longerstatistically significant. With regard to
the influence tactics, all the variables statistically significant
inthe univariate analyses were also statistically significant in
the multivariate analyses with the samedirection, with one
exception. Increasing scores on apprising was now significantly
associated withincreasing number of courses taken.
Chiu, Holly H., PhD and Fogel, Joshua, PhD 195
Volume 6 Number 4 2014
Table 3. Analysis of Variables Associated with Number of
E-Learning Courses Participants Took
Variable Univariate B (SE)
p-value Multivariate B (SE)
p-value
Demographics Age Under 31 31-35 36-40 Over 40
Reference -0.20 (0.03) -0.29 (0.04) -0.42 (0.05)
-
degree. Women were statistically significant for increasing
number of times online. With regard toorganizational variables,
both decreasing tenure and increasing team size were statistically
significantwith increasing number of times online. The demographic
and organizational variables had the samesignificance pattern as
for number of e-learning courses participants took, shown in Table
3, with theexception of high school/associate degree. With regard
to the influence tactics, in the univariateanalyses, increasing
scores on coalition, collaboration, persistence, and pressure had
statisticallysignificant associations with increasing number of
times participants went online. This was the samesignificance
pattern as for the number of e-learning courses participants took
shown in Table 3.Increasing scores on ingratiation, the
legitimating item of saying boss has the right to ask you to usethe
technology, the legitimating item of using technology is consistent
with company rules and policies,and rational persuasion had
statistically significant associations with decreasing number of
timesparticipants were online. This differed from the pattern for
number of e-learning courses participantstook shown in Table 3,
where now apprising and inspirational appeals were not
statistically significantwhile the legitimating item of your boss
has the right to ask you to use the technology was nowstatistically
significant. In the multivariate analyses, with regard to both
demographic andorganizational variables, similar significance
patterns as in the univariate analyses occurred for the
agecategories, education, and team size. However, women and tenure
were no longer statisticallysignificant. This was the same
significance pattern as for number of e-learning courses
participants tookshown in Table 3. With regard to the influence
tactics, all the variables statistically significant in
theunivariate analyses were also statistically significant in the
multivariate analyses with the samedirection, with one exception
where persistence was no longer statistically significant.
196 The Impact of Manager Influence Tactics on Innovation
Implementationof a Knowledge Management System
International Journal of Innovation Science
Table 4. Analysis of Variables Associated with Number of Times
Participants went Online to take E-Learning Courses
Variable Univariate B (SE)
p-value Multivariate B (SE)
p-value
Demographics Age Under 31 31-35 36-40 Over 40
Reference -0.26 (0.03) -0.42 (0.03) -0.71 (0.04)
-
5. DISCUSSIONWe found that increased scores for the apprising
tactic and the collaboration tactic had significantassociations
with increased attitude toward using the e-learning system, while
increased scores for theexchange tactic and the pressure tactic had
significant associations with decreased attitude toward usingthe
e-learning system. None of the demographic or organizational
variables were associated withattitude toward using the e-learning
system. We found that increased scores for the apprising tactic,
thecoalition tactic, the collaboration tactic, the persistence
tactic, and the pressure tactic had significantassociations with
increased number of e-learning courses took, while increased scores
for theingratiation tactic, the inspirational appeals tactic, the
legitimating item of using technology isconsistent with company
rules and policies, and the rational persuasion tactic had
significantassociations with decreased number of e-learning courses
taken. The demographic variable of increasedage category was
significantly associated with decreased number of e-learning
courses taken and theeducational category of undergraduate was
significantly associated with increased number of e-learningcourses
taken. The organizational variable of increased team size had
significant associations withincreased number of e-learning courses
taken. We found that increased scores for the coalition tactic,the
collaboration tactic, and the pressure tactic had significant
associations with increased number oftimes participants went
online, while increased scores for the ingratiation tactic, both
legitimatingitems, and the rational persuasion tactic had
significant associations with decreased number of timesparticipants
were online. In terms of demographic and organizational variables,
the same significancepattern for increased number of times
participants went online occurred as with number of
e-learningcourses taken.
We found that increased scores for the apprising tactic were
significantly associated with increasedattitude toward using the
e-learning system as well as number of e-learning courses taken but
were notsignificantly associated with number of times online. These
results are consistent with hypotheses 1Aand partially consistent
with 1B. There is mixed literature with regard to use of the
apprising tactic andemployees with one study reporting the tactic
useful for increasing commitment [22] while anotherstudy did not
find any association with commitment [25]. Also, a number of
studies of perceivedmanager attitudes with Taiwanese participants
report that the apprising tactic is the most effective tactic[28,
53]. Our study was with Taiwanese participants and we found similar
cultural attitudes for theapprising tactic. Our behavior findings
do not have a consistent pattern, as the apprising tactic was
onlysignificantly associated with number of e-learning courses
taken but not with number of timesparticipants went online. We
suggest that the apprising tactic is influential for increasing
behavior fortaking a greater number of e-learning courses. However,
the approach used to take these courses varieswith some
participants logging on once while other participants logging on
multiple times. Log onbehavior may be influenced by personality
approaches.
We found that increased scores for the coalition tactic were
significantly associated with increasednumber of e-learning courses
taken and the number of times online taking e-learning courses, but
notsignificantly associated with attitude toward using the
e-learning system. The results were contrary toour hypotheses and
therefore hypotheses 2A and 2B were not supported. Most studies for
coalition andattitudes report significant associations of moderate
to low effectiveness [28, 54] or even resistance[20], while we are
aware of only one study for coalition and behavior that reports no
significantassociations [55]. Our study differs from these previous
studies. We suggest that our study findings arerelated to the
collectivistic cultural approach of Taiwanese culture [56]. In a
collectivistic culture,people value the majority approach. We
suggest that participants saw others engaging in the coursesand
they too believed that they had to take courses and log on to take
courses. However, although theyparticipated like others, it is
possible that their personal attitudes were not in favor of
managersengaging in coalition approaches and this is why we did not
find any significant association forattitudes.
We found that increased scores for the collaboration tactic were
significantly associated withincreased attitude toward using the
e-learning system, increased number of e-learning courses taken,and
number of times online taking e-learning courses. These results
were consistent with ourhypotheses and therefore hypotheses 3A and
3B were supported. Previous studies report thatcollaboration is one
of the most effective tactics, both in western cultures [22, 25,
54] and in Taiwaneseculture [28, 53]. Our study findings are
consistent with these previous studies and emphasize theimportance
of collaboration for implementation innovation for e-learning in
the corporate setting.
We found that increased scores for the consultation tactic were
not significantly associated with
Chiu, Holly H., PhD and Fogel, Joshua, PhD 197
Volume 6 Number 4 2014
-
attitude toward using the e-learning system, number of
e-learning courses taken, and number of timesonline taking
e-learning courses. These results were not consistent with our
hypotheses and thereforehypotheses 4A and 4B were not supported.
Previous studies asking managers about different tacticsreport that
consultation is one of the most effective tactics in western
cultures [25, 54], and hasmoderate effectiveness in Taiwanese
culture [28, 53]. With regard to behavior, the consultation
tacticis negatively associated with employee resistance to change
[57] and positively associated withemployees safety participation
[32], but is not significantly associated with managers
influencingemployees toward helping coworkers [58]. We suggest that
our study findings are related to both highpower distance national
culture [56] and authoritarian leadership style [59, 60, 61]. In a
high powerdistance culture, employees expect to be told what to do
instead of being asked for their opinions.Authoritarian leadership
is common in Chinese societies, in which leaders centralize
decision making[61] and demand unquestionable obedience from
subordinates [59, 60]. In our study, the corporateculture was
consistent with both a high power distance national culture and
authoritarian leadershipstyle. Even though employees were asked for
feedback for development of the e-learning program andthe
consultation mean score was relatively high, employees apparently
did not believe that theirfeedback would be genuinely respected and
regarded. Thus, they did not have strong interest in the e-learning
program as they perceived it as being driven from a top-down
perspective and their attitudesand behavior were not associated
with e-learning.
We found that increased scores for the exchange tactic were
significantly associated with decreasedattitude toward using the
e-learning system, but not significantly associated with either
number of e-learning courses taken or number of times online taking
e-learning courses. These results were notconsistent with our
hypotheses and therefore hypotheses 5A and 5B were not supported.
Previousresearch for the exchange tactic and attitudes report
either no significant association with an employeescommitment [25]
or moderate effectiveness both in western cultures [54], and in
Taiwanese culture[28]. With regard to behavior, there are two
studies reporting no significant association of the exchangetactic
with either employees job performance [55] or employees helping
coworkers [58]. Our studyresults are not consistent with the
previous attitude studies. We suggest that in an
e-learningenvironment participants may not believe managers will be
able to offer something in return if they takemore courses.
However, our behavior results are consistent with previous studies.
We suggest that theexchange tactic is also not useful in an
e-learning environment.
We found that increased scores for the ingratiation tactic were
significantly associated withdecreased number of e-learning courses
taken and number of times online taking e-learning courses,but not
significantly associated with attitude toward using the e-learning
system. These results werecontrary to our hypotheses and therefore
hypotheses 6A and 6B were not supported. Previous studiesfor the
ingratiation tactic and attitudes show mixed results including no
relationship in western cultures[57], low to moderate usefulness in
western cultures [25, 54], and strong usefulness in
Taiwanesecultures [28, 53]. With regard to behavior, previous
research reports that the ingratiation tactic was notsignificantly
associated with employees job performance [55]. Our study results
in Taiwanese culturefor attitudes differ from the previous
Taiwanese studies. We suggest based upon our anecdotalexperience
that leadership style in the company may be related to employee
attitudes. The company inour study had an authoritarian leadership
style. An ingratiation approach would have been verydifferent from
the typical company approach and therefore employees did not trust
or feel comfortablewith such an approach. Also, with regard to
behavior, our negative findings can again be interpreted inlight of
the authoritarian culture and a possible lack of trust or
discomfort with an ingratiation tacticapproach.
We found that increased scores for the inspirational appeals
tactic were significantly associated withdecreased number of
e-learning courses taken but not significantly associated with
either attitudetoward using the e-learning system or number of
times online taking e-learning courses. These resultswere contrary
to our hypotheses and therefore hypotheses 7A and 7B were not
supported. Previousstudies for the inspirational appeals tactic and
attitudes is that it is one of the most effectives tactics [28,54]
and is associated with employee commitment [25]. With regard to
behavior, one study reports thatthe inspirational appeals tactic is
not significantly associated with employees helping coworkers
[58],and another study reports a positive association with
employees safety participation [32]. Our resultsfor attitudes are
not consistent with previous studies. Our results for number of
e-learning courses takenare also not similar to the previous study.
We suggest for attitudes that employees in our study variedin
attitudes with regard to perceived benefit for taking the online
classes due to the changed format in
198 The Impact of Manager Influence Tactics on Innovation
Implementationof a Knowledge Management System
International Journal of Innovation Science
-
training. An inspirational appeals tactic may have appealed to
some employees but not to others andthis resulted in lack of
significance. Our significant negative relationship for number of
e-learningcourses taken could be that mixed perceived benefits for
online learning translates into lack of behaviorand thus a negative
relationship. It is challenging to understand the lack of
statistical significance fornumber of times participants went
online. Future research is necessary to understand the mechanism
ofinspirational appeals to behavior.
We found that increased scores for both legitimating items were
not significantly associated withattitudes toward using the
e-learning system. However, both legitimating items were
significantlyassociated with decreased number of times online
taking e-learning courses and the legitimating itemof using
technology is consistent with company rules and policies was
significantly associated withdecreased number of e-learning courses
taken. Thus, hypothesis 8A was not supported while hypothesis8B was
partially supported. Previous studies report that the legitimating
tactic is the least effectivetactic [54]. With regard to behavior,
the legitimating tactic is positively associated with
employeesresistance to change [57]. Our results are consistent with
previous research where increasedlegitimating tactic scores are
indicative of increased resistance to change and thus associated
with bothdecreased number of e-learning courses taken and times
online taking e-learning courses.
We found that increased scores for the persistence tactic were
significantly associated with increasednumber of e-learning courses
taken but not significantly associated with either attitude toward
using thee-learning system or number of times online taking
e-learning courses. These results were contrary toour hypotheses
and therefore hypotheses 9A and 9B were not supported. We are only
aware of oneprevious study for the persistence tactic. It was rated
as the least effective tactic by Taiwanese managers[28]. It is not
surprising that there was no significant relationship of the
persistence tactic with attitudesand the behavior of online taking
of e-learning courses, as this is a very weak tactic. However, it
issurprising that increased scores on the persistence tactic were
significantly associated with increasednumber of e-learning courses
taken. It is possible that due to the brief quiz at course
completion,employees could document to their manager that they
completed the course and avoid the managerasking them repeatedly to
take a course.
We found that increased scores for the personal appeals tactic
were not significantly associated withattitude toward using the
e-learning system, number of e-learning courses taken, and number
of timesonline taking e-learning courses. These results were not
consistent with our hypotheses and thereforehypotheses 10A and 10B
were not supported. One study reports that the personal appeals
tactic is notsignificantly associated with employee attitude toward
commitment to carry out a request [25]. We arenot aware of any
study of the personal appeals tactic with regard to behavior. It is
possible that ourstudy findings are consistent with previous
research and suggest that the personal appeals tactic is
notsignificantly associated with innovation implementation in an
e-learning environment. Alternatively, itis possible that for
personal appeals to be effective, both parties have to be good
friends. In thecorporate environment that we studied, the employees
may not have perceived their managers as goodfriends.
We found that increased scores for the pressure tactic were
significantly associated with decreasedparticipants attitude toward
using the e-learning system, but were significantly associated
withincreased number of e-learning courses taken and number of
times online taking e-learning courses.These results were
consistent with hypothesis 11A but contrary to hypotheses 11B.
Previous studies ofthe pressure tactic and attitudes report that it
is the least effective tactic both in western cultures [29,54] and
in either Chinese cultures [29] or Taiwanese culture [28]. Our
results for participant attitude areconsistent with previous
studies. With regard to behavior, one study reports no significant
associationfor use of the pressure tactic and managers influencing
employees toward helping coworkers [58]. Ourresults for behaviors
are quite surprising and not consistent with previous research. We
suggest that thepressure tactic works well with the corporate
authoritarian organizational culture in the Taiwanesecorporate
setting that we studied. Employees did not like managers use of
aggressive words and thishad a significant negative association
with attitudes. However, as employees are used to anauthoritarian
organizational culture where they do tasks based upon such
directives from management,use of the pressure tactic was
associated with their increased behaviors of number of e-learning
coursestaken and number of times online taking e-learning
courses.
We found that increased scores for the rational persuasion
tactic were significantly associated withdecreased number of
e-learning courses taken and number of times online taking
e-learning courses,but not significantly associated with attitude
toward using the e-learning system. These results were
Chiu, Holly H., PhD and Fogel, Joshua, PhD 199
Volume 6 Number 4 2014
-
contrary to our hypotheses and therefore hypotheses 12A and 12B
were not supported. Previous studiesof the rational persuasion
tactic and attitudes is that the rational persuasion tactic is one
of the mosteffective tactics in western societies [25, 29, 54],
Chinese cultures [29], and Taiwanese culture [28, 53].With regard
to behavior, one study reports that the rational persuasion tactic
is positively associatedwith employee safety participation [32].
Our results were not consistent with results of previous
studieseither in terms of attitude or behaviors. This is quite
surprising and we do not have any reason why ourresults are
contradictory to the established literature.
We found that increased scores for the socializing tactic were
not significantly associated withattitude toward using the
e-learning system, number of e-learning courses taken, and number
of timesonline taking e-learning courses. These results were not
consistent with our hypotheses and thereforehypotheses 13A and 13B
were not supported. One study reports that the socializing tactic
is one of theleast effective tactics in Taiwanese culture [28]. We
are not aware of any study that examines theassociation between the
socializing tactic and behavior. We suggest that our study findings
might berelated to the corporate authoritarian organizational
culture. Managers usually give orders to employeesdirectly instead
of indirectly. Thus, if a manager uses the socializing tactic,
employees might feelawkward with this approach and not be
responsive to such a tactic.
We found that none of the demographics variables and
organizational variables were significantlyassociated with
participant attitude. With regard to behavior, our results show
that all age categorieswere significantly associated with decreased
number of e-learning courses taken and decreased numberof times
online taking e-learning courses. There was a pattern where
increasing age category wasassociated with greater decreases in
both behaviors. Those of younger age are more comfortable thanthose
of older age with e-learning because younger generations have early
and greater exposure to e-learning practices than older generations
[62]. Our results for e-learning implementation are consistentwith
this approach.
We found that participants with an undergraduate degree were
significantly associated with takingmore e-learning courses and
went online more times than participants with graduate degrees.
There ismixed literature about whether greater education is
associated with greater innovation implementationbehavior [40, 41,
42, 44]. We suggest that knowledge level is the key driver for
understanding thisfinding. Those with undergraduate degrees
perceived that they did not have sufficient background ascompared
to those with graduate degrees on the topics taught in the
e-learning courses and thereforethose with undergraduate degrees
took and logged on more often than those with graduate degrees.
We did not find any association of either gender or tenure with
number of e-learning courses takenand number of times online taking
e-learning courses. There is mixed literature with regard to
genderand use of e-learning systems where some studies report
increased use for a particular gender category[42, 45, 46].
However, other studies report no gender difference [40, 44]. Our
Taiwanese corporatesetting is consistent with the literature that
reports no gender difference. Also, our results for tenure
areconsistent with the study that reports employees with greater
tenure have no association with use ofnew technology [42].
We found that increased team size was significantly associated
with both increased number of e-learning courses taken and number
of times online taking e-learning courses. A meta-analysis
reportsthat larger team size is positively related to team
performance for project teams [48]. In this Taiwanesecorporate
setting, the e-learning course taking behavior was reviewed at team
meetings and the largerteam size was associated with increased
performance for e-learning behavior.
5.1 Limitations and future researchThere are several study
limitations. First, participants were asked to recall manager
influence behaviorfrom at least one year prior to the study. They
might not have been able to remember exactly whathappened when the
implementation took place. Second, the ultimate goal of
implementation isroutinization, so that participants regard the
innovation as something routine. In this study,implementation began
three years prior to the study, so for some participants this may
no longer havebeen considered innovative. Future research should
consider asking participants to record theimplementation process in
a diary to more precisely reflect manager practices and behavior.
Third, thisresearch took place only in one Taiwanese corporation
and may not generalize to other Taiwanesecorporations that may have
different organizational cultures.
200 The Impact of Manager Influence Tactics on Innovation
Implementationof a Knowledge Management System
International Journal of Innovation Science
-
5.2 Managerial implicationsAs is commonly known, organizations
can only benefit from adopting an innovation if employees usethe
innovation. In implementing an e-learning system, we found that
managerial influence tactics ofcoalition, collaboration, and
pressure were significantly associated with increased number of
e-learningcourses participants took and the number of times
participants went online to take e-learning courses.In the
Taiwanese setting, managers attempting to adopt innovative
practices should consider not onlythe traditionally accepted
influence tactic of collaboration, which involves providing
assistance toemployees, but also consider use of coalition, which
involves persuading employees by referring toother employees. In
addition, even though employees react negatively, the influence
tactic of pressureby requiring employees to complete tasks can also
influence employees to adopt innovative practicesin the corporate
workplace.
REFERENCES[1] Jasperson, J., Carter, P. M., & Zmud, R. W. A
Comprehensive conceptualization of post-adoptive
behaviors associated with information technology enabled work
systems. MIS Quarterly, 2005,29, 525-557.
[2] Leonard-Barton, D. Implementation characteristics of
organizational innovations: Limits andopportunities for management
strategies. Communication Research, 1988, 15, 603-631.
[3] Choi, J. N. Individual and contextual dynamics of
innovation-use behavior in organizations.Human Performance, 2004,
17, 397-414.
[4] Choi, J. N., & Price, R. H. The effects of
person-innovation fit on individual responses toinnovation. Journal
of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 2005, 78, 83-96.
[5] Choi, J. N., & Chang, J. Y. Innovation implementation in
the public sector: An integration ofinstitutional and collective
dynamics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2009, 94, 245-253.
[6] Kanter, R. M. When a thousand flowers bloom: Structural,
collective, and social conditions forinnovation in organization.
Research in Organizational Behavior, 1988, 10, 169-211.
[7] Klein, K. J., Conn, A. B., & Sorra, J. S. Implementing
computerized technology: Anorganizational analysis. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 2001, 86, 811-824.
[8] Klein, K. J., & Ralls, R. S. The organizational dynamics
of computerized technology implementation:A review of the empirical
literature. In L. R. Gomez?Mejia and M. W. Lawless (Eds.), Advances
inglobal high-technology management, 1995, 5, 31-79. Greenwich, CT:
JAI Press.
[9] Holahan, P. J., Aronson, Z. H., Jurkat, M. P., &
Schoorman, F. D. Implementing computertechnology: A
multiorganizational test of Klein and Sorras model. Journal of
Engineering andTechnology Management, 2004, 21, 31-50.
[10] Ke, W., & Wei, K. K. Organizational culture and
leadership in ERP implementation. DecisionSupport Systems, 2008,
45, 208-218.
[11] Khazanchi, S., Lewis, M. W., & Boyer, K. K.
Innovation-supportive culture: The impact oforganizational values
on process innovation. Journal of Operations Management, 2007, 25,
871-884.
[12] Klein, K. J., & Sorra, J. S. The challenge of
innovation implementation. Academy of ManagementReview, 1996, 21,
1055-1080.
[13] Miller, S. Implementing strategic decisions: Four key
success factors. Organization Studies, 1997,18, 577-602.
[14] Leonard-Barton, D., & Deschamps, I. Managerial
influence in the implementation of newtechnology. Management
Science, 1988, 34, 1252-1265.
[15] Nutt, P. C. Tactics of implementation. Academy of
Management Journal, 1986, 29, 230-261.[16] Nutt, P. C. Leverage,
resistance, and the success of implementation approaches. Journal
of
Management Studies, 1998, 35, 213-240.[17] Angle, H. L., &
Van de Ven, A. H. Suggestions for managing the innovation journey.
In A. H. Van
de Ven, H. L. Angle, & M. S. Poole (Eds.), Research on the
management of innovation: TheMinnesota studies, 2000, 663-697. New
York: Oxford University Press.
[18] Jung, D. I., Chow, C., & Wu, A. The role of
transformational leadership in enhancingorganizational innovation:
Hypotheses and some preliminary findings. Leadership
Quarterly,2003, 14, 525-544.
Chiu, Holly H., PhD and Fogel, Joshua, PhD 201
Volume 6 Number 4 2014
-
[19] Kanter, R. M. The Change Masters. New York: Simon &
Schuster, Inc. 1983.[20] Falbe, C. M., Yukl, G. Consequences for
managers of using single influence tactics and
combinations of tactics. Academic of Management Journal, 1992,
35, 638-652.[21] Yukl, G., & Falbe, C. M. Influence tactics and
objectives in upward, downward, and lateral
influence attempts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1990, 75,
132-140.[22] Yukl, G., Chavez, C., & Seifert, C. F. Assessing
the construct validity and utility of two new
influence tactics. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2005, 26,
705-725.[23] Yukl, G., Guinan, P. J., & Sottolano, D. Influence
tactics used for different objectives with
subordinates, peers, and superiors. Group & Organization
Management, 1995, 20, 272-296.[24] Yukl, G., Kim, H., & Chavez,
C. Task importance, feasibility, and agent influence behavior
as
determinants of target commitment. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 1999, 84, 137-143.[25] Yukl, G., Seifert, C. F.,
Chavez, C. Validation of the extended influence Behavior
Questionnaire.
The Leadership Quarterly, 2008, 19, 609-621.[26] Yukl, G., &
Tracey, J. B. Consequences of influence tactics used with
subordinates, peers, and the
boss. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1992, 77, 525-535.[27] Fu,
P. P., Kennedy, J., Tata, J., Yukl, G., Bond, M. H., Peng, T. K.,
Srinivas, E. S., Howell, J. P.,
Prieto, L., Koopman, P., Boonstra, J. J., Pasa, S., Lacassagne,
M., Higashide, H., & Cheosakul,A. The impact of societal
cultural values and individual social beliefs on the
perceivedeffectiveness of managerial influence strategies: A meso
approach. Journal of InternationalBusiness Studies, 2004, 35,
284-305.
[28] Fu, P. P., Peng, T. K., Kennedy, J. C., & Yukl, G.
Examining the preferences of influence tacticsin Chinese societies:
A comparison of Chinese managers in Hong Kong, Taiwan and
MainlandChina. Organizational Dynamics, 2004, 33, 32-46.
[29] Fu, P. P., & Yukl, G. Perceived effectiveness of
influence tactics in the United States and China.Leadership
Quarterly, 2000, 11, 251-266.
[30] Higgins, C., Judge, T., & Ferris, G. Influence tactics
and work outcomes: A meta-analysis.Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 2003, 24, 89-106.
[31] Higgins, C., & Judge, T. The effect of applicant
influence tactics on recruiter perceptions of fitand hiring
recommendations: A field study. Journal of Applied Psychology,
2004, 89, 622-632.
[32] Clarke, S. & Ward, K. The role of leader influence
tactics and safety climate in engagingemployees safety
participation. Risk Analysis, 2006, 26, 1175-1185.
[33] Chong, M., Muethel, M., Richards, M., Fu, P. P., Peng, T.
K., Shang, Y. F., & Galdas, M. P.Influence behaviors and
employees reactions: An empirical test among six societies based on
atransactional-relational contract model. Journal of World
Business, 2013, 48, 373-384.
[34] Rogers, E. M. Diffusion of innovations. 5th Eition, New
York: Free Press. 2003.[35] Kotter, J. P., & Schlesinger, L. A.
Choosing strategies for change. Harvard Business Review, 1979,
57, 106-114.[36] Grohowski, R., & Vogel, D. Implementing
electronic meeting systems at IBM: Lessons learned
and success factors. MIS Quarterly, 1990, December, 369-383.[37]
Sharma, R., & Yetton, P. The contingent effects of training,
technical complexity, and task
interdependence on successful information systems
implementation. MIS Quarterly, 2007, 31, 219-238.[38] Bass, B. M.
Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free
Press. 1985.[39] Lee, J. Effects of leadership and leader-member
exchange on innovativeness. Journal of
Managerial Psychology, 2008, 23, 670-687.[40] Michaelis, B.,
Stegmaier, R., & Sonntag, K. Shedding light on followers
innovation
implementation behavior: The role of transformational
leadership, commitment to change, andclimate for initiative.
Journal of Managerial Psychology, 2010, 25, 408-429.
[41] Quazi, A., & Talukder, M. Demographic determinants of
adoption of technological innovation.Journal of Computer
Information Systems, 2011, Fall, 34-42.
[42] Maruping, L. M., & Magni, M. Whats the weather like?
The effect of team learning climate,empowerment climate, and gender
on individuals technology exploration and use. Journal ofManagement
Information Systems, 2012, 29, 79-114.
202 The Impact of Manager Influence Tactics on Innovation
Implementationof a Knowledge Management System
International Journal of Innovation Science
-
[43] Morris, M. G., & Venkatesh, V. Age differences in
technology adoption decision: Implications fora changing work
force. Personnel Psychology, 2000, 53, 375-403.
[44] Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., & Ackerman, P. L. A
longitudinal field investigation of genderdifferences in individual
technology adoption decion-making processes. Organizational
Behaviorand Human Decision Processes, 2000, 83, 33-60.
[45] Ong, C., & Lai, J. Gender differences in perceptions
and relationships among dominants of e-learning acceptance.
Computers in Human Behavior, 2006, 22, 816-829.
[46] Venkatesh, V., & Morris, M. G, Why dont men ever stop
to ask for directions? Gender, socialinfluence, and their role in
tehcnology acceptance and usage behavior. MIS Quarterly, 2000,
24,115-139.
[47] Hoegl, M., & Parboteeah, K. P. Team goal commitment in
innovative projects. Internal Journalof Innovation Management,
2006, 10, 299-324.
[48] Stewart, G. L. A meta-analytic review of relationships
between team design features and teamperformance. Journal of
Management, 2006, 32, 29-55
[49] Ogungbamila, B., Ogungbamila, A., & Adetula, G. A.
Effects of team size and work teamperception on workplace
commitment: Evidence from 23 production teams. Small GroupResearch,
2010, 41, 725-745.
[50] Huy, Q. In praise of middle managers. Harvard Business
Review, 2001, 79, 72-79.[51] Huy, Q. Emotional balancing of
organizational continuity and radical change: The contribution
of
middle managers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 2002, 47,
31-69.[52] Bhattacherjee, A., & Sanford, C. Influence processes
for information technology acceptance: An
elaboration likelihood model. MIS Quarterly, 2006, 30,
805-825.[53] Fu, P. P., Yukl, G., Kennedy, J., Srinivas, E.S.,
Cheosakul, A., Peng, T.K., & Tata, J. Cross-cultural
comparison of influence behavior: A preliminary report. Academy
of Management Proceedings &Membership Directory, 2001,
D1-D6.
[54] Yukl, G. Leadership in Organizations. 7th Edition, Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson EducationInc. 2010.
[55] Castro, S. L., Douglas, C., Hochwarter, W., A., Ferris, G.
R., & Frink, D. D. The effects of positiveaffect and gender on
the influence tactics-job performance relationship. Journal of
Leadershipand Organizational Studies, 2003, 10, 1-18.
[56] Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G., & Minkov, M. Cultures and
organizations: Software of the mind.London: McGraw-Hill. 2010.
[57] Furst, S. A., & Cable, D. M. Employee resistance to
organizational change: Managerial influencetactics and
leader-member exchange. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2008, 93,
453-462.
[58] Sparrowe, R., Soetjipto, B., & Kraimer, M. Do leaders
influence tactics relate to membershelping behavior? It depends on
the quality of the relationship. Academy of Management
Journal,2006, 49, 1194-1208.
[59] Cheng, B., Chou, L., & Wu, T. Paternalistic leadership
and subordinate responses: Establishing aleadership model in
Chinese organizations. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2004, 7,
89-117.
[60] Schuh, S., Zhang, X., Tian, P. For the good or the bad?
Interactive effects of transformationalleadership with moral and
authoritarian leadership behaviors. Journal of Business Ethics,
2013,116, 629-640.
[61] Tsai, A., Wang, H., Xin, K., Zhang, L., & Fu, P.
Variation of leadership styles among ChineseCEOs. Organizational
Dynamics, 2004, 33, 5-20.
[62] Jaske, D., & Stamov-Ronagel, C. Success by inclusion:
Age-fair e-learning practices.Organizational Dynamics, 2012,41,
302-307
Chiu, Holly H., PhD and Fogel, Joshua, PhD 203
Volume 6 Number 4 2014
-
Copyright of International Journal of Innovation Science is the
property of Multi-SciencePublishing Co Ltd and its content may not
be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted toa listserv
without the copyright holder's express written permission. However,
users mayprint, download, or email articles for individual use.