20140410040611_Topic 5 Thinking Skills

8/10/2019 20140410040611_Topic 5 Thinking Skills

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INTRODUCTIONWilliam James (1842-1910), often referred to as the father of Americanpsychology, once stated that, "A great many people think they are thinking whenthey are merely rearranging their prejudices." According to him, the fact thatthere is mental activity taking place in the minds of individuals does not meanthat they are thinking. In his book, entitled "You Were Born Rich," Bob Proctor(1997) wrote, "Thinking is the highest function of which a human being is

capable." He added that many people link thinking to simple mind activities likerefreshing of the faculty of memory, playing old movies and remembering eventsin the past. Obviously, this is not what Rodin's great work of art portrays.

We are all constantly thinking almost involuntarily and compulsively. Thereason many people dont delve deeper into their thought processes because itrequires us to be receptive and to be challenged to reach further depths of ourthinking. This is the reason why so few people actually think. Edison once stated,There is no expedient to which a man will go to avoid the real labour ofthinking," and according to Emerson, the hardest task in the world is to think.

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55 ThinkingSkills

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:1. Define thinking;

2. Explain the different thinking styles;

3. Distinguish key elements between a good and poor thinker;

4. Describe the importance of thinking;

5. Compare the two phases in the thinking process; and

6. Describe the functions and roles of the right and left brain.


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TOPIC 5 THINKING SKILLS100

One of the main reasons why people do not think more or in depth is becausethey are so busy with other things that they do not have time to conceive,cogitate and consider. Human beings today are so used to being entertained and

bombarded with so much information that they hardly have any time to reflecton even just a fraction of their thoughts.

It is a natural process to think. We are constantly reminded by authoritativefigures to think and to "use our brains when in fact what we really have toknow how to do is to engage deeper into our thinking processes, to be thinkingskilfully and reflectively. Since, individuals today are so used to quick answersand ready-made solutions when in fact, the problems and challenges of our livesare difficult and complex. Thus, these problems actually require fostering a morethoughtful reflection that goes beyond thinking on a surface level.

It should be understood that the greatest value of reading is not the information but rather what we think and how we process this information while reading,which makes the choice of reading material an important factor to take into

account. A person should understand that the main objective of reading is not tofill the mind with information but to arouse the mind to think and ponder. Areader should pause from time to time to contemplate and reflect on what has been read. This will help in stimulating the thinking process, as well as inapplying what has been read in everyday life. Clarity is power, and it emergesfrom thinking.

Human beings do not just need to think but should think carefully about thechoices and direction of their lives. Time is the most precious resource thatindividuals have and it is believed that the life of a person is the sum total ofwhat he does with that time. Hence, it would be definitely worth it to spendmore of our time in constructive and in-depth thought processes.

Rarely do we find men who willingly engage in hard, solid thinking. Thereis an almost universal quest for easy answers and half-baked solutions.Nothing pains some people more than having to think.

(Martin Luther King)


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TOPIC 5 THINKING SKILLS 101

DEFINITION OF THINKINGThinking is defined by Ruggiero. V. R. (2008) as a purposeful mental activity over

which we have some power or control. This can be understood by looking at thescenario where a person sitting in the driver's seat of a car is driving only whenhe holds the steering wheel in his hands and controls the movements of the car.Thus, the activity in the minds of individuals becomes thinking only when it is being directed such as shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5 1: The activity of the human's mind becomes thinking only when it is directedSource: http://www.sonic.net

There are as many different purposes of thinking as there are of travelling. Manytimes, we may be on a relaxing drive through a scenic road without anyparticular destination in mind. In the same way, we may travel in differentconditions and with different degrees of competence. Although we may betravelling in darkness or light, slowly or fast, in the correct or wrong path, aslong as we are navigating in our minds, we are thinking.

However, this does not suggest that thinking must always be carried out in aconscious state of mind. Evidence shows that the sub-conscious or non-conscious

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A mental activity must be purposeful, directed and controlled, andmust be carried out by the conscious exercise of will before it isconsidered as 'thinking'.

Do you agree with the statement above? To answer this, ask yourselfwhether a mental activity can be purposeful, directed and controlled,and yet be carried out subconsciously.

SELF-CHECK 5.1


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thinking can also produce great results. As many of us have experienced,constructive thoughts and ideas come to us when we are in the midst of doingsomething not related to the problem under investigation. There may have been

times when we faced a particular problem but chose not to solve it then andshelved it for a few days, even though we could see glimpses of the solution.Then one fine morning, while walking or jogging, the solution to the problemsuddenly emerges out of nowhere. This is indeed an example of sub-consciousthinking. According to a study, decisions made intuitively or by instinct gothrough the brain. Such intuitive decisions depend on past experiences andexternal signals and are regarded as sub-conscious thinking. Reflex actions,however, are fast and done without thinking. They involve signals that bypassthe brain and are carried out on a non-conscious level.

Ruggiero, V. (2008) has formally defined thinking as any mental activity thathelps formulate or solve a problem, make a decision or fulfil a desire tounderstand.

Among the most important mental activities included in the thinking process are:Careful observation

Remembering

Wondering

Inquiring

Imagining

Evaluating Judging

Interpreting

In solving a problem or making a decision, a combination of the abovementionedactivities is normally required. When dealing with problems, we often questionourselves and carefully analyse the situation before arriving at a conclusion ordecision.

Consider the formal definition of thinking in the preceding paragraph.

How is this different from the definition that thinking is a purposefulmental activity over which we have some power or control? Discuss.

SELF-CHECK 5.2


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Several attempts have been made to describe the nature of thinking. The mostpopular view (currently regarded as unimportant) is that thinking is completelyverbal. This theory suggests that individuals arrange words in their minds or

silently whisper to themselves when they think. However, if this is true, thenAlbert Einstein could not be considered a thinker, as his thinking comprisedmostly images rather than words. Many current authorities believe that the formof thought that occurs in the minds of individuals is usually verbal, although itmay not be necessarily so. These experts feel that just as an idea can be expressedin mathematical symbols or diagrams besides words, individuals may alsoconceive thoughts in the same ways.

Figure 5 2: Albert EinsteinSource: http://www.widelec.org/zdjecie,albert-einstein,2644,9.html

Albert Einstein (1879-1955), (Figure 5.2) was a German-born American physicistwho developed the special and general theories of relativity and received theNobel Prize for Physics in 1921. He said, "Imagination is more important thanknowledge. For knowledge is limited to all we now know and understand, whileimagination embraces the entire world and all there ever will be to know andunderstand."

IMPORTANCE OF THINKINGTo successfully analyse a problem or issue, one requires factual knowledge

(which includes knowing the historical context of the problem or issue) and anunderstanding of the relevant principles and concepts.

Factual knowledge is something that is already known, while in most cases, thesolutions are not only unknown to the individual facing the problem but are also brand new and specifically designed to fit a particular issue. Thus, it can beconcluded that having factual knowledge does not mean that a person isguaranteed of being able to solve the problem. Many of us may regard ourselvesas "walking encyclopaedias" but when the time comes, we may not be able to

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solve a particular problem. To become a successful problem solver, an individualhas to possess both factual knowledge and good thinking skills.

The importance of having the ability to think well can only be appreciated whenan individual is faced with various situations in his life where the circumstancesrequire skills like analysing, solving problems and making the correct decisions.For instance, these include deciding and evaluating on aspects such as:

What degree to pursue in University;

How to invest wisely;

How to handle children in certain situations;

How to work with difficult bosses;

What to do when parents are incapable of taking care of themselves; andWhich political candidate to vote for in the elections.

Today, individuals with skills in problem solving, issue analysis and decisionmaking have a better chance at employment and are regarded as assets withinthe organisation they are working for. In the past, most of the thinking wascarried out by executives and other employees had only to execute the tasksassigned to them. Now, however, employees with thinking power who arecapable of generating ideas for the improvement of the organisation are greatlyvalued by their employers.

This has become so because of the following three developments:

Knowledge explosion;

Communications technology; and

Rise in the global economy.

(a) Knowledge explosionIncrease in research findings has increased the amount of informationavailable in all fields, making it impossible for any individual to completely

master a single discipline.

(b) Communication technologyLikewise, in the area of communications, technology is developing so fastthat within less than two decades after the invention of the personalcomputer, thousands of different software and hardware products have been launched in the market. The growth of organisations such asMicrosoft, Intel, Dell and several dot.coms has brought instability tomany companies, including established and successful ones. In such an era,individuals who possess problem solving and good decision making skills


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will survive and less likely become victims of downsizing. Even if they areretrenched, they will be able to find other employment.

(c) Rise in the global economyMany changes have led to the development of global economy. Thisinclude the satellite transmission of television programmes, the rise in business competition from different countries, the opening of former Sovietcountries to trade and the signing of a new generation of trade agreementssuch as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). In order to meetchallenges and grab opportunities offered by global economy, expertise incritical and creative thinking is vital. This means that individuals with thoseskills will be in higher demand than those without them.

INCREASING THINKING POWER

As far as the thinking process is concerned, the human mind has two distinctphases, namely, the production phase and the judgement phase (Figure 5.3).Expertise in thinking requires the mastery of all approaches suitable to eachphase, and the skill to move back and forth between them.

Figure 5 3: The thinking process of the human mind has two distinct phases

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ACTIVITY 5.1

1. State the formal definition of thinking.

2. List the mental activities included in the thinking process.

3. Explain the importance of the thinking process.

4. Do you agree with Einstein that Imagination is more importantthan knowledge? Why?


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5.3.1 Production Phase

The p roduction phase is closely linked with creative thinking. At this stage, themind generates different conceptions of a problem, various methods of handlingit and possible solutions to it. In short, this phase refers to thinking out-of-the- box.

It is believed that good thinkers are capable of producing more and better ideascompared to poor thinkers. This is because good thinkers are more innovative,which enables them to produce more ideas. Moreover, good thinkers tend toview a problem from different angles before choosing an appropriate one andconsider many different approaches to a problem. They are able to generatemany ideas before making a decision. Better still, they are also more prepared to

take intellectual risks, are more adventurous and imaginative.On the other hand, poor thinkers view a problem from a limited number ofstandpoints, hastily adopt the first approach their minds perceive as a solution,make hurried judgements and rarely think of more ideas. Most of the time, theymake decisions that would be expected.

5.3.2 Judgement Phase

The judgement phase is more closely linked with critical thinking, where the

mind studies and evaluates what it has generated, makes its decision, and wherenecessary, modifies it.

At this phase, good thinkers are very careful and analytical. They assess theirfirst impressions, make important distinctions and support their conclusions based on facts instead of emotions and feelings. Since they are aware of theirlimitations and predispositions, they re-check the logic of their thinking and theworkability of their solutions. They refine their ideas by identifying anyimperfection and complication, and predict any negative response that may arisefrom their decision.

Conversely, poor thinkers are known to make judgements too fast withoutthinking critically and to make decisions based on emotions and feelings ratherthan on evidence. They are also unaware of their limitations and predispositions,thus creating a possibility that there may be several flaws in their thoughtprocesses.

All thinkers have their own share of confusions, mental blocks and failures.However, good thinkers have mastered ways to face their frustrations while poor


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thinkers have the habit of mourning over their situation and allowing failure tomake them feel incapable and incompetent.

Table 5.1 lists the various differences observed between good and poor thinkers.Table 5 1 : Characteristics of Good and Poor Thinkers

Good Thinkers Poor Thinkers

Study a problem thoroughly andimplement constructive plans to solveit.

Uncertain on how to approach a problem.

Apply their knowledge in solving theproblem accordingly.

Have the notion that their knowledge isinsufficient.

Are reflective and research extensivelywhere needed.

Are overly confident of the correctness ofinitial ideas.

Solve a problem systematically andanalytically.

Jump from one stage of a problem toanother without thorough planning andthinking.

Have faith and trust in their reasoningpower and confidence level.

Have no faith in their reasoning power andlack in confidence.

Are determined and focusedthroughout the period of problem

solving.

Lack a serious attitude and take thingslightly and for granted.

Revise goals when necessary. Do not revise goals.

Are open to different possibilities andoutcomes.

Do not seek alternative routes to solutionsor those that are different from the initialones.

Many people believe that good thinkers are born rather than made. However,this is not entirely factual for several reasons. Many a time, we come across

Did you know...

Good thinkers are willing to think and may even find thinking enjoyable.They can carry out searches when necessary and suspend judgement . Theyvalue rationality, believing that thinking is useful for solving problems,reaching decisions, and making judgements. Poor thinkers, in contrast, needcertainty, avoid thinking, must reach closure quickly, and rely too heavily onintuition.

Adapted from Kjos, B.(1995)


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people who have better thinking abilities than others. However, an individualcan improve his or her thinking capability within a period of time. Thinkingeffectively is a skill that anyone can develop progressively if guided and trained

accordingly.In order to be a good thinker, you do not need a high IQ. In fact, it was proven byE. Paul Torrance that 70% of creative people actually have an IQ score of below135 (as quoted in Mackall, D. D. (1998)).

People trying to increase their thinking skills face the problem of changing theirold ways and mindset. However, if an individual has a burning desire toimprove himself and is eager to apply the knowledge he has so far obtained,thinking becomes interesting and achievable. We must understand that nothingis impossible in life.

ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE RIGHTAND LEFT BRAIN

Brain research carried out by medical scientists revealed that the structure of the brain is actually more complex than imagined. The first breakthrough was whena neurosurgeon started to treat patients with epilepsy in a new manner. In thetreatment, he cut the corpus callosum, the thick band of nerve fibres thatconnected the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, in order to relieve thesymptoms of the disease. This separation of the two hemispheres was important because it allowed scientists to study the respective roles played by the right andleft hemispheres (Figure 5.4).

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ACTIVITY 5.2

Do you agree or disagree with the statement, Good thinkers are bornrather than made? Justify your argument.

ACTIVITY 5.3

1. Identify the two phases involved in the thinking process. Give anexample of activity found at each phase.

2. Compare and contrast the characteristics of a good and a poorthinker in both the phases involved in the thinking process.


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Figure 5 4: Right and left hemispheres of the human brain

Source: http://creativitymeansbusiness.com/images/brain.gif

Neuroscientists believe that the right hemisphere is involved in the learningprocess and controls non-verbal, symbolic and intuitive responses. In contrast,the left hemisphere controls the use of language, logical reasoning, analyticalpower and the performance of sequential tasks (Figure 5.5).

This led to the idea that there are individuals who are "left-brained" and thosewho are right-brained." So far, the data obtained suggest that no individuals useonly one side of the brain at a particular time and the presence of corpuscallosum reinforces the fact that there is a significant integration between thesetwo hemispheres.

ACTIVITY 5.4

Surf the web and find out as much as you can about the human brainsanatomy. Discuss your findings with your classmates.


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Figure 5 5: It is generally accepted that the dominant functions of the right hemisphereinclude imaginative and intuitive features while the left hemisphere relates to

organisational and analytical skills.Source: http://theswash.com/tag/monarchy/

Medical scientists believe that both sides of the brain are capable of reasoning outa problem but by employing different strategies, one side may be dominantcompared to the other. In solving a particular problem, the left brain uses theanalytical approach whereas the right brain uses the holistic or global approach.A left brain user, who is also known as a successive processor, tends to learn in astep-by-step sequential manner beginning with details and arriving at aconceptual understanding of a skill. In contrast, a right brain user (asimultaneous processor) tends to master a skill starting with the general conceptand then moving on to the details.

ACTIVITY 5.5

Consider the activities (sports, hobbies etc) that you enjoy doing. List

the thinking processes required of you to carry out these activities.From that, explore which side of your brain is more dominant.

(To confirm your answer, try the quiz at this website address:http://web-us.com/brain/braindominance.htm).


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Thinking is a purposeful mental activity over which we have power andcontrol. Evidence shows that thinking can still be carried out in asub-conscious and non-conscious state of mind.

Several attempts have been made to describe the nature of thinking, and themost popular view that is currently regarded unimportant is that thinking iscompletely verbal.

The importance of thinking is appreciated only when an individual faces

situations in life which require them of skills such as analysing, solvingproblems and making correct decisions.

The thinking process has two distinct phases; production and judgement.

Expertise in thinking requires the mastery of all approaches suitable to eachphase and the skill to move back and forth between them.

Overall, good thinkers have mastered how to face their frustrations whereaspoor thinkers mourn their situation and allow failure to make them feelincapable and incompetent.

Medical scientists believe that both sides of the brain could reason out aproblem but by employing different strategies, one side may be the dominantone compared to the other.

In solving a problem, the left brain uses the analytical approach whereas theright brain uses the holistic or global approach.

ACTIVITY 5.6

1. State the functions of the right and left hemispheres of the human brain.

2. Compare and contrast the approaches employed by right and left brain users in solving a problem.

3. Are you a left or right brain user?


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CerebralCommunications technology

Corpus callosum

Creative thinking

Distinct phases

Factual knowledge

Good thinkers

Intuitive Judgement phase

Knowledge explosions

Mental blocksNeuroscientists

Non-conscious

Poor thinkers

Production phase

Reflex actions

Simultaneous processor

Sub-consciousSuccessive processor

1. Analyse the following statement and decide whether it is reasonable and, ifso, to what degree. Explain your thinking thoroughly.

The results of a recent national examination revealed that 75% ofAmerica's high school students are below average in reading ability.

2. Read the following dialogue carefully. Then decide whether what is stated(or implied) makes sense. Explain your reasoning thoroughly.

John : Do you think the masses really have any power in the UnitesStates today?

Bill : That depends on what groups you include in "the masses." Wouldyou include professional people doctors, lawyers, teachers ?

John : Teachers ? They don't make that much money.


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Butterworth, J., & Thwaites, G. (2005). Thinking skills. Cambridge InternationalExaminations (Paperback).

De Bono, E. (2005). Thinking course. Revised Edition (Hardcover).

Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your professionaland personal life. Kindle Edition.

James, W. (1890). Principles of Psychology . New York: Holt

Kjos, B. (1995). Brave new schools. Harvest House Publishers.

King, M. L. (2011). Brainy Quote. Thinking Quotes. Retrieved fromhttp://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/thinking.html.

Mackall, D. D. (1998). Problem solving (2nd. ed.). Ferguson Publishing.

Paul, R. W. & Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of yourprofessional and personal life. USA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Proctor, B. (1997). You were born rich . LifeSuccess Productions.

Ruggiero. V. R. (2008). The art of thinking : A guide to critical and creativethought. (9th ed.). Essex, UK: Longman Publishing Group.

20140410040611_Topic 5 Thinking Skills

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