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“Our education system must… nurture Singapore citizens of good character, so that everyone has the moral resolve to withstand an uncertain future, and a strong sense of responsibility to contribute to the success of Singapore and the well-being of fellow Singaporeans.”
ThegoalofCCEistoinculcatevaluesandbuildcompetenciesinourstudentstodevelopthemtobegoodindividuals and useful citizens. Since 1959, various key programmes have been introduced to inculcatevalues,habits,competenciesandskillsinourstudents.SomeoftheseprogrammesincludeCivicsandMoralEducation (CME, 1992), National Education (NE, 1997), Social and Emotional Learning (SEL, 2005), andlearningexperiencesuchasCo-CurricularActivities(CCA).
CCE is central to the Framework for 21st Century Competencies and Student Outcomes (Figure 1). Itemphasisestheinterconnectednessofthecorevalues,socialandemotionalcompetenciesandcivicliteracy,globalawarenessandcross-culturalskillsthatarecriticalforcharacterandcitizenshipdevelopmentofourstudents.
Confi
dent P
erson
Civic Literacy, Global Awareness and Cross-cultural Skills
Com
mun
icatio
n, C
olla
boratio
n an
d Info
rmation Skills
Critical and Inventive Thinking
Self-directed Learner
Concerned CitizenActive Contri
butor
Self-Awareness
ResponsibleDecision-Making
Self-Management
SocialAwareness
RelationshipManagement
Core values
Social and Emotional Competencies – skills, knowledge and dispositions that enable students to • Manage self and relationships
effectively • Make responsible decisions
Skills related to Citizenship that enable students to:
• Function effectively as active citizens • Stay rooted to Singapore
Core Values
• Foundation of character • Provide compass for behaviour
2
Core Values
Thecorevalues (Respect,Responsibility,Resilience, Integrity,Care and Harmony) are fundamental for a person of goodcharacterandausefulcitizenofSingapore.Theyguidestudentsto discern between right and wrong, help them to makeresponsiblechoicesandbecomemoreawareoftheirrolesinsociety.Thecorevalues(Figure2)arederivedfromOurSharedValues,theSingaporeFamilyValues,Singapore21VisionandtheNationalEducationmessages(refertoAnnexA).
Figure 2: Core Values
Confi
dent P
erson
Civic Literacy, Global Awareness and Cross-cultural Skills
Com
mun
icatio
n, C
olla
boratio
n an
d Info
rmation Skills
Critical and Inventive Thinking
Self-directed Learner
Concerned Citizen Active Contribu
tor
Self-Awareness
ResponsibleDecision-Making
Self-Management
SocialAwareness
RelationshipManagement
Core values
ResponsibilityA person who is responsible recognisesthat he has a duty to himself, his family,community,nationand theworld, and fulfilshisresponsibilitieswithloveandcommitment.
IntegrityA person of integrity upholds ethicalprinciples and has the moral courage tostandupforwhatisright.
ResilienceApersonwhoisresilienthasemotionalstrengthand perseveres in the face of challenges. Hemanifestscourage,optimism,adaptabilityandresourcefulness.
HarmonyApersonwhovaluesharmonyseeksinnerhappiness and promotes social cohesion.Heappreciatestheunityanddiversityofamulti-culturalsociety.
RespectA person demonstrates respect when hebelievesinhisownself-worthandtheintrinsicworthofallpeople.
Core Values
3
Social and Emotional Competencies
Social and emotional learning (SEL) is the acquisition of skillsneeded to recognise and manage emotions, develop care andconcernforothers,makeresponsibledecisions,establishpositiverelationshipsandhandlechallengingsituationseffectively1.
Socialandemotionalcompetencies(Figure3)canbecategorisedintofiveinterrelateddomains:self-awareness,self-management,social awareness, relationship management and responsibledecision making. The domains of self-awareness and self-management relate to theunderstandingof selfwhichhelps inmanagingone’semotionsandpersonalbehaviours.Thedomainsofsocialawarenessandrelationshipmanagementrelatetoone’ssocial interactions. In responsible decision making, moral andethicalchoiceshavetobemadewithregardtohowonehandlesoneself,relatetoothersanddealwithchallengingsituations.
Confi
dent P
erson
Civic Literacy, Global Awareness and Cross-cultural Skills
Social AwarenessA person who has social awareness is ableto accurately discern different perspectives,recognise and appreciate diversity anddemonstrateempathyandrespectforothers.
Relationship ManagementApersonwhomanagesrelationshipswellisableto establish and maintain healthy relationshipsthrougheffective communicationand is able toworkwithotherstoresolveconflicts.
Responsible Decision MakingA person who makes responsible decisions isable to identify and analyse the implications andconsequencesofdecisionsmadebasedonsoundmoralconsiderations.
Self-ManagementA person who manages himself effectively isabletomanagehisownemotions,exerciseself-discipline and display strong goal-setting andorganisationalskills.
Self-AwarenessA person who understands his own emotions,strengths, inclinations and weaknesses is abletodeveloppositiveself-conceptandself-worth. Social and Emotional
Competencies
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Skills Related to Citizenship Competencies
The skills related to citizenship competencies are articulatedin the components of the domain of civic literacy, globalawareness and cross-cultural skills in the Framework for 21st
Century Competencies and Student Outcomes. They enablestudentstofunctioneffectivelyasconcernedcitizenswhostayrootedtoSingapore(Figure4).ThisalignswiththegoalofCCEtonurtureourstudentstobecitizensofgoodcharacter.
Figure 4: Components of the Civic Literacy, Global Awareness and Cross-Cultural Skills
Confi
dent P
erson
Civic Literacy, Global Awareness and Cross-cultural Skills
Com
mun
icatio
n, C
olla
boratio
n an
d Inform
ation Skills
Critical and Inventive Thinking
Self-directed Learner
Concerned Citizen Active Contribu
tor
Self-Awareness
ResponsibleDecision-Making
Self-Management
SocialAwareness
RelationshipManagement
Core values
Active Community LifeApersonwholeadsanactivecommunitylife•demonstratesasenseofresponsibilitytowardsthecommunity;
The CCE syllabus provides the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to be taught explicitly during CCElessons,FTGPandschool-basedCCE.AseparatesyllabushasbeendevelopedforSexualityEducation(SEd)forPrimary5toPrimary6studentstomeettheirdevelopmentalneeds.
CCE lessons in the Primary levels are taught in theMother Tongue Languages (MTL). For studentswhooffer the non-Tamil Indian Languages (NTIL), namely, Bengali, Punjabi andUrdu as theirMother TongueandforthosewhoareexemptedfromtakingMTL,CCEwillbetaughtinEnglish.Tocatertothesestudents,InstructionalMaterials(IMs)willalsobeavailableinEnglish.
Form Teacher Guidance Period (FTGP):SEL is explicitly taught during FTGP. In addition, form teachers bond with students through interactionactivitieswithin theperiod. LessonsonCyberWellness (CW), EducationandCareerGuidance (ECG) andprotectionfromabuse(Primary1toPrimary4)havebeenincorporatedinFTGPlessonstoaddressspecificissues,reinforcethecorevaluesandsocialandemotionalcompetenciestoenablestudentstoapplythemtothespecificcontexts.
Schools will be given the space and flexibility to customise and deliver their school-based CCE over 11 to 15 hours per year. School-based CCE could include activities which focus on school values, such as assembly programmes and lessons on school values. CCE Guidance Module:
The compulsory CCE Guidance Module, namely, SEd (delivered through the Growing Years series), has specific objectives and content which address issues associated with child and adolescent development. Schools are required to set aside 4 hours a year in Primary 5 and 6 to deliver SEd as shown in Figure 8. Figure 8: Curriculum Time for Upper Primary (P5- P6)
30 hours CCE lessons
15 hours
FTGP
15 hours School-based
CCE
Total: 60 hours per year
Figure 6: Curriculum Time for Lower Primary (P1-P3)
2. Balanced Representation of character and citizenship
Goodcharacterisessentialindevelopinggoodcitizens.Todevelopintogoodcitizens,teacherswillencouragestudentsto•makeresponsiblechoicesthatareanchoredinsoundmoralprinciples;•displaymoralcourageinstandingupforwhatisright;• have emotional strength andmanifest optimism, adaptability and resourcefulness to work with ournationalconstraintsyetfirmlybelievethatthereareopportunitiesforthemtothriveandsucceed;
• showconcern toothersand lookbeyondtheirown interests to thoseofothers in the family, school,community,nationandtheworld;and
•offertheirtimeandefforttoservethecommunity.
3. Expanding domains from self to the worldThedevelopmentofchildrenandadolescentstakesplace inthecontextofanecosystemofrelationships(Bronfenbrenner,1979).Teacherswillencouragestudentstoputvaluesintopracticewithinthecontextofreal-lifesituationsinthefamily,school,community,nationandtheworld.Studieshaveshownthatstudentsembracetheirsocialrolesastheyinteractwiththeworldaroundthemandactwithconsiderationoftheconsequencesoftheiractionsonthemselvesandothers.
4. Students’ life experiences as possible contexts
Teacherswillusestudents’lifeexperiencestoformpossiblecontextsforthedeliveryofCCEsothatstudentscanbetter retain theknowledge, skills andvalues taught to them.Students learnmoreeffectivelywhentheyprocessnewinformationorknowledgeinacontextthatisfamiliartothem.Itisthereforeimportantfor students to recognisewhat values and social and emotional competencies look like in practice. Theincreasingcomplexityofthelifeexperiencesfromlowerprimarytoupperprimarycreatesthespirallingandtheprogressionforthelearningofknowledge,skills,valuesandattitudesinCCE.
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Guiding Principles for Teaching and Learning
1. Every teacher a CCE teacherTeachersarebestplacedtoleadandupholdthecorevalues.Teacherswillrolemodelandcreatelearningopportunitiestoshapeandinstilineverystudentthecorevalues.Teacherswilldevelopineachofthemasenseofself-worthandconfidence,aspiritofresilience,careandcompassionforothers.Teacherswilltakeownershipoftheirprofessionaldevelopmenttoequipthemselveswiththeexpertiseandcompetenciestonurtureeverystudenttobecomeanactivecitizenofgoodcharacter.
3. Engaging students through varied modes of deliveryStudentslearnvaluesthroughinstruction,skillspractice,rolemodellingbyteachersorpeers,andpositivereinforcement during structured lesson time and teachable moments. Teachers will provide learningexperiences,suchasthefourNationalEducationcommemorativedays,Valuesinaction(VIA),co-curricularactivitiesforthelearningandapplicationofvalues,knowledge,skillsandattitudes.
4. Parents as key partners
Parentsarethekeynavigatorsoftheirchildren’sgrowth.Studentsbenefitthemostwhenthehomeandschoolenvironmentsareattunedtoeachother.Anumberofstudieshaveconnectedhomeschoolcollaborationtobetterlearning,healthyself-esteem,morepositiveattitudesandbehaviourinlife.Hence,schoolswillengageand collaboratewith parents to provide thenecessary family care, support and reinforcement at home.Effectivecommunicationoftheschool’sCCEprogrammesandtheprovisionofplatformsforparents’activeinvolvementinschoolswillhelpparentsbecomeengagedpartners.
Identity: Having a sense of identity involves embracing a set of values and ideals. A well-developedidentitygivesoneasenseofone’sstrengths,weaknesses,andindividualuniqueness(Marcia,1966)2.Thedevelopmentofself-understandingissignificantinmiddleandlatechildhood,especiallyfrom8to11yearsofage.Childrenhaveaneedforasenseofcompetenceandindustrybeforemovingtowardsidentityformationinadolescence(Erikson,19503,19684).Itenablesstudentstoachieveself-knowledge,takeresponsibilityfortheiractionsandrelatewellwithothers(Young,1991)5.Studieswhichinvestigatedtherelationshipbetweenvalues,choicesandbehaviourshowthatvaluesmakeuppartofone’sselfdeterminationandthus,contributetoone’ssenseofidentity(Holland,2002)6.
2Marcia,J.E.,(1966),Developmentandvalidationofegoidentitystatus,Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3,pp.551-558.3Erikson,E.H.(1950).Childhood and society.NewYork:W.W.Norton.4Erikson,E.H.(1968).Identity: Youth and crisis.NewYork:W.W.Norton.5Elliot,S.N,Kratochwill,T.R,LittlefieldCook,J.,Travers,J.F(2000)Educational Psychology(3rdEd)pp102,MCGrawHill,USA.6Holland,R.W(2002),MotivatedDecisionMaking;EffectsofActivationandSelf-CentralityofValuesonChoicesandBehaviour,Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Vol 82,No.3,pp.434-447.7NationalScientificCouncilontheDevelopingChild(2004).Youngchildrendevelopinanenvironmentofrelationships.WorkingPaperNo.1,HarvardUniversity.Retrievedfromhttp://www.developingchild.net8 J. Santrock,V.Woloshyn,T.Gallagher,T.Petta,Z.Marini (2010),Educational Psychology (3rdCanadianEdition),McGraw-HillHigherEducationpp53.9Bronfenbrenner,U.(1979).Theecologyofhumandevelopment.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.10Selman,R.(1980).Thegrowthofinterpersonal understanding.NewYork:AcademicPress.11Preston,S.D.,&deWaal,F.B.M.(2002).Empathy:Itsultimateandproximatebases.Behavioral and Brain Sciences,25,1-72.12Wilis,C.(1998).CooperativeExtension,Decision Making The Foundation for Responsible Behaviour7/98.13 Berkowitz,M.(2005),Whatworksincharactereducation:Aresearch-drivenguideforeducators.RetrievedJuly18,2012,fromCharactereducationpartnershipdatabase.14 Lickona, T. (1991), Educating For Character , New York: Bantam.
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Key Understandings and Key Questions
Keyunderstandings andoverarching keyquestions are crafted tounpack eachbig idea.Overarching keyquestionsareidentifiedtoguideandstimulatediscussionsintheclassroom.Foreachdomain,keyquestionsarefurther identifiedfromoverarchingkeyquestionstoguidestudentstothinkaboutthehabits,values,attitudes,competenciesandskillsthattheyhavetohandlediverselifeexperiences.
Big Idea 1: Identity Big Idea 2: Relationships Big Idea 3: ChoicesIdentity, RelationshipsandChoices,areinterconnectedandimpactoneanother. •Studentsneedtoknowwhotheyareinordertorelatepositivelywithothers.
• The ability to make good choices impacts their understanding of their ownidentityandtherelationshipstheyform.
Thethreebig ideasneedtobeanchoredonvalues to formthesupportstructurefor students to live their lifeaspersonsofgoodcharacteranduseful citizens inaglobalisedworld.
The following are possible students’ life experiences which are useful in teaching the relevant knowledge, skills and values/ attitudes:Possible Contexts for Primary 1 to Primary 2
The following are possible students’ life experiences which are useful in teaching the relevant knowledge, skills and values/ attitudes:Possible Contexts for Primary 1 to Primary 2
The following are possible students’ life experiences which are useful in teaching the relevant knowledge, skills and values/ attitudes:Possible Contexts for Primary 1 to Primary 2
Caring for the Community•Understandthatacaringperson:otakesaninterestinothers’well-beingoshowsempathytounderstandtheneedsofothersotakesinitiativetohelpothers
The following are possible students’ life experiences which are useful in teaching the relevant knowledge, skills and values/ attitudes:Possible Contexts for Primary 1 to Primary 2
The following are possible students’ life experiences which are useful in teaching the relevant knowledge, skills and values/ attitudes:Possible Contexts for Primary 1 to Primary 2
The following are possible students’ life experiences which are useful in teaching the relevant knowledge, skills and values/ attitudes:Possible Contexts for Primary 5 to Primary 6•CelebratingInternationalFriendshipDay•AppreciatingothersthroughexperiencesinVIA•Participatinginexchangeprogrammesorfieldtrips
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Pedagogy
The CCE pedagogy is drawn from the Constructivist Theories. The teaching of CCE is process-based andfocusesonthe“why”and“how”insteadof“what”.Theteachingapproachesaimtofacilitatethelearningofskillsandinternalisationofvaluesthroughactionandreflectionaslearnerslearnbestwhentheyareactivelyengaged.
InExperientialLearningApproach,studentsgothroughacycleofexperiences,observation,reflectionandapplicationastheyengageinlearninginandoutofclassroom.Studentsaregivenexperiencesandplatformsthatenablethemtoreflectonvalues,conceptsandideas,andtointernalisethevaluesthroughtheapplicationofskillsandknowledgelearntinreal-worldsituations.Byderivingmeaningfromdoing,studentsaremorelikely to takeownershipof their learningand transfer their learning intonewsituationswhen theyhaveexperiencedit.Studentsreflect,evaluateandmakedecisionsbasedonthevaluestheyhaveinternalisedandputtheirvaluesintoaction.
d. Cognitive Development Approach
CognitiveDevelopmentApproachisbasedonLawrenceKohlberg’stheoryofmoraldevelopment.Studentsare encouraged to respond to real or hypothetical moral dilemma situations and guided to rank theirresponsesaccordingtoKohlberg’sstagesofmoralreasoning.Thisprocesswillhelpstudentstoexaminetheirmotivesbehindtheiractionsandraisetheirlevelofself-awareness.Teachersmayusethistaxonomytogaugestudents’ level ofmoral reasoning anduse theCSI (Clarify-Sensitise-Influence) process of questioning toenablestudentstoprogressfromaself-centredperspectivetohigherstagesofmoraldevelopment,focusingonsocietalanduniversalperspectives.
e. Modified Values Clarification Approach
ModifiedValuesClarificationApproach involvesa step-by-stepprocess thathelpsstudents tomakewell-considereddecisions.Studentsarealsostimulatedtothinkaboutandclarifytheirvaluesthroughexaminingtheirpersonalfeelingsandbehaviourpatternsusingrationalthinking,empathyandemotionalawareness.Byapplying strategies suchasdialoguingandcooperative learning, teacherswill guide students tomakedecisionsbasedonasoundvaluesystemthatincludesvaluesupheldbysociety.TheResponsibleDecisionMakingprocess includes identifying andevaluatingoptions,making adecision, taking a stand and livingaccordingtoone’sconvictions.
AssessmentisintegraltotheCCElearningprocess.TheConstructivistTheoriespromotestudentsasactiveplayers in their own learning and recommend students to be part of the assessment process. Hence,assessmentpractices forCCEneedtomovetowardsassessment for learning.Timelyandcomprehensivefeedbackonthestudents’learningmotivatesthemtoachievingtheirgoalsforCCE.
Theapproach toassessment for learning inCCEputs studentsat thecentreofdecisionmaking.Usingavarietyoftoolsandstrategiesinauthenticassessmenttaskskeepsstudentsinterestedandallowsadeeperunderstandingofstudents’learning.
Studentscancontributetowardstheirlearningprocessthroughselfandpeerassessment.Theyshouldbeinvolvedinmakingjudgementsoftheirownwork,monitoringtheirownprogressandlearningtosetgoalsfor themselves. Students need to understand clearlywhat is expectedof them in the assessment tasks.Therefore,eachassessmenttaskistobeaccompaniedbyassessmentcriteriathatarecleartotheteachersandeffectivelycommunicatedtothestudents.
Collaborations among teachers to discuss assessmentmatters support understanding students’ learningfromdifferentperspectivesandhenceensureamoreholisticfeedbackofthestudents’progressinCCE.
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Figure 10: Modes of Assessment in CCE
ASSESSMENT IN CCE
PURPOSE: GIVING FEEDBACK FOR DEVELOPING CHARACTER AND CITIZENSHIP
APPROACH: STUDENT CENTRIC AND WHOLE SCHOOL APPROACHSelfassessmentisanimportantpartofanyassessment–ithelpslearnerstofeelempoweredandtobecomemorereflectiveandautonomous.Self-assessmentencouragesstudentstoreflectontheirlearningandmakesconsciousefforttoimprove.
A MAPPING OF CCE VALUES WITH OUR SHARED VALUES, SINGAPORE FAMILY VALUES, SINGAPORE 21 VISION AND NATIONAL EDUCATION MESSAGES
The core values (Respect; Responsibility; Resilience; Integrity; Care and Harmony) are fundamental todevelopingapersonofgoodcharacterandausefulcitizenofSingapore.ThecorevaluesarederivedfromOurSharedValues,theSingaporeFamilyValues,Singapore21VisionandtheNationalEducationmessages.Amappingof corevalueswithOurSharedValues16, SingaporeFamilyValues17, Singapore21Vision18 andNationalEducationMessages19isreflectedbelow.
Core Values Our Shared Values Singapore Family Values
2. Responsibility. A personwho is responsible recognises that he has a duty to himself, his family,community,nationandtheworld,andfulfilshisresponsibilitieswithloveandcommitment.ThisisechoedinOurSharedValues,whichfocusesonnationbeforecommunityandsocietyaboveself.IttiesinwellwiththeSingaporeFamilyValuesoffilialresponsibilityandcommitment.
3. Resilience and Integrity.Integritycontributestobuildingtrustwithinthefamilywhichisthebasicunitinsociety;whilstresilienceinthefaceofsetbacksandcrisishelpstheindividualtoexerciseresponsibilityforoneself.BoththesevaluesareintegraltotheSingaporeFamilyValueofCommitment.Throughthesevalues,studentslearntoupholdethicalprinciples,havethemoralcouragetostandupforwhatisright,andhavetheemotionalstrengthtopersevere–twovalueswithclearemphasesoncommitment.Akeyconcepttobetaughtinthevalueofresilienceiswhatmakesaresilientfamily,andwhyresilienceinthefamilyisimportant.
4. Care. The focus is caring for others in various contexts – their families, friends, the school, thecommunity,thenationandtheworld.ThistiesinwellwiththefocusoncaringforthefamilyinOurSharedValuesoffamilyasthebasicunitofsociety,andtheSingaporeFamilyValuesoflove,careandconcern,aswellascommunication.
5. Harmony. This value focuses on maintaining good relationships, promoting social togetherness,appreciatingtheunityanddiversityofamulticulturalsociety.Toachievethis,studentswillexploreharmonyinthefamilyandcommunity,relatingtoothers,promotingpeaceandstabilityintheworld.ThiscomplementswellwithOurSharedValuesofracialandreligiousharmony,andconsensus,notconflict.
ANNEXA
35
Child Development Theories and Applications for the CCE Syllabus
InPiaget’sview,cognitivedevelopmentinvolveschangesincognitiveprocessandabilities.Theconcreteoperationalstagebeginsat7tillapproximately11.Duringthistime,students’thoughtprocessesbecomemoreorganizedandtheycanthinkmorelogically.Theyrecognizethattheirownperspectivesandfeelingsare not necessarily shared by others20. They are capable of deductive reasoning and can draw logicalinferencesfrominformationtheyaregiven,eventhoughtheycannotimaginethingsindependentoftheirimmediateexperience.
Theformaloperationalstagebeginsatapproximatelyage12andlastsintoadulthood.Studentsatthisstageare capableofhypothetical-deductive reasoning, analogical reasoningand reflection.When confrontedwithaproblem,theycanformulatehypothesesandthendeduceconclusionfromthem.Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, students begin to consider possible outcomes andconsequencesofactions.Studentsareabletointrospectandaremoreself-conscious21.
Applications
TheconcreteoperationalstageappliestostudentsfromPrimary1toPrimary5.Teachersshould take egocentrism into accountwhen planning experiences, such as providingopportunitiesforrotatingleadershipintheclassroom,forstudentstolearntotaketurnstobeleaders.Concretepropssuchaspuppetscanbeusedtocommunicatetostudentsabouthypotheticalissues.Awidevarietyofexperiencessuchaslearningjourneys,story-telling,role-playingandartprojectscanbeusedasteachingstrategies22.
TheformaloperationalstageappliestostudentsfromPrimary6toSecondary5.Sincedeductive logic skillsemergeat this stage,hypothetical situationscanbe introduced.Thismayincludeissueswhicharenotexperiencedbyindividualstudents,butarecriticalfor them to have the knowledge tomanage, such as, addiction, bullying and abuse.Hypothetical dilemmas can be used for discussion and to develop students’ moralreasoning.Sincestudentsat this stageareable to introspect, teacherscanchallengestudentsbyplanningproblem-specificquestionstohelpthemthinkcriticallyabouttheissueathandandenhancetheirmoralreflectionbykeepingreflectionjournal23.
Kohlbergbelieves thatmoral judgementdevelopsalonga three-level, six-stage continuum.Eachof thethree levels; pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional, is composed of two stages, whichdescribethestructureofthinkingindividualsuseastheyreasonthroughamoraldilemma.
In a discussion onmorals, teachers could use questions to prompt students to raisestudents’self-awarenessandtoencouragethemtomovefromaself-centredperspectivetoanother-centredperspective.Toraisethelevelofmoralreasoninginstudents,teacherscouldmixstudentsofdifferentstagesofmoralreasoningindiscussiongroups26.
Cognitive Constructivist Theory (Jean Piaget and John Dewey)
The main goal of constructivist education is for children to become autonomous, life-long learnerswhosethoughtsandactionsareguidedbyreason,convictionandcommitment.Childrencannotbecomeautonomousintellectuallyormorally,ifadultstakeanauthoritarianpositionintheirlivesallthetime.
Cognitiveconstructivismapproacheslearningandknowingfromthelearner’sperspective.TheCognitiveConstructivist Theory proposes that teachers cannot impose knowledge on students. Instead, learnersconstructtheirunderstandingsfromtheirday-to-dayexperienceswithinmutual,cooperativerelationshipswith social others within their environment27. Familiar experiences enable them to assimilate newinformation andmodify their understanding according to the newdata28. Learning activities should bewhole,authentic,realandshouldresultinsomethingmeaningfulotherthanagrade.
Theprocess-basedapproachusedintheteachingofCCEisdrawnfromtheConstructivistTheory.Accordingtotheconstructivists,learnerslearnbestthroughactiveengagement.Teachers provide opportunities for experiential learning to help students discoverinformation to attain a deeper understanding.Hence, the teaching approaches usedshouldbestudent-centredandfocuson“why”and“how”insteadof“what”.Thereislessemphasisondirectteachingofspecificskillsandmoreemphasisonlearninginameaningfulcontext.
Teachers in the constructivist classroom ask thoughtful questions and give sufficientwaittime for students tobe reflective. Teachers takeon the roleof a facilitator andposequestionstostudentssuchas,“Howdidyouarriveatyouranswer?”toexplorestudents’thinking29.Aslearningactivitiesshouldbewhole,authenticandreal,studentsshouldworkonprojectsingroupssuchasVIA,whicharemeaningfultothestudentsandprovideplatformsforthemtolearnandapplyvalues.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs Inferiority applies to children from ages 6 to 12. Childrenencounterthechallengesofschool,functioningasamemberofafamilyandrelatingtopeers.Achildwhoexperiencesfailureattasks,orisdeniedtheopportunitytodiscoveranddeveloptheirowncapabilitiesandpotential,mightpossiblydevelopaninferioritycomplexincomparisonwithhispeers.Ontheotherhand,childrenwhoareencouragedandcommendedbyparentsandteachersdevelopafeelingofcompetence.Thosewhoreceivelittleornoencouragementfromparents,teachers,orpeerswilldoubttheirabilitytobesuccessfulanddevelopaninferioritycomplex.Atthisstage,thechild’smostsignificantrelationshipswouldnormallyresidewithintheschoolandneighbourhood.
Erikson’sPsychosocial Stage5 - IdentityvsRole confusionapplies to students fromages12 to18. Thisfifthstagecorrespondstothecrossroadsoflife.Whatisuniqueaboutthestageofidentityisthatitisasortofsynthesisoftheearlierstagesandananticipationoflaterones.Atthisstage,youthhasacertainunique quality in a person’s life; it is a bridge between childhood and adulthood. During adolescence,childrenexploretheirownidentitythoughsocialinteractionsandattemptto“fitin”withtheirpeersandsocial environments.At this stage, studentsdevelopa strongaffiliationwith their peers. Theywill alsodevelopastrongneedtopersonallyexploredifferentroles,tryandlearnnewthingsasabidtodiscoverforthemselves,whotheyreallyareandwhatvalues,andbeliefsformthepersontheyare.Thosewhoreceiveproperencouragementandreinforcementfromsignificantothersintheirliveswillemergefromthisstagewithastrongsenseofselfandafeelingofindependence.Ifnot,theywillsufferroleconfusionandalackofidentity.Theywillbeconfusedaboutwhotheyareandhowtheycanrelatepositivelywithpeopleandtheenvironmenttheyarelivingin.
ANNEXB
40
Theory of Psychosocial Development (Erik Erikson)
Applications
ThePrimaryschoolyearsareforthedevelopmentofasenseofcompetenceandself-confidence. School providesmany opportunities for children to gain the recognitionoftheirteachers,parentsandpeersbycompletingtasksassignedtotheme.g.solvingaddition problems, creating things, running errands for their parents and teachers,makingamodelbuildingduringartandcraftlessonandsoon.Ifchildrenareencouragedtomakeanddothingsandarethenpraisedfortheireffort,theybegintodemonstrateindustrybybeingdiligent,perseveringattasksuntilcompletion,andputtingworkbeforepleasure.Childrenshouldalsobegivenampleopportunitiesforsocialinteractionsanddevelopsocialskills.
Asstudentsmakethe transition fromPrimary toSecondaryschool, theyare likely toexperiencesomeroleconfusion–mixedideasandfeelingsaboutthewaysinwhichtheyfitintosociety.Theystruggletobelonginasocialgroupandtobeacceptedandaffirmedbytheirpeers,whoplayasignificantroleinshapingtheiridentity.However,theywouldneed to recognisepositive andnegative relationships so that they candevelop theiridentityunderhealthyinfluences.Mostadolescentsachieveasenseofidentityregardingwho they are and where their lives are headed for, and when they receive properguidance and encouragement from significant others in their lives like their peers,parentsandteachers.
Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development (Lev Vygotsky)
Vygotsky believed that social interactions have an impact on learners’ cognitive development. Hedistinguishesbetweenthetasksthatcanbeperformedwithadultguidancetasksthatcanbecompletedindependentlybylearners.Heusedtheterm‘Zoneofproximaldevelopment’(ZPD)todefinelearningthattakesplacewhenachildaccomplishesataskwiththeassistanceofanadultandtheterm‘Zoneofactualdevelopment’todescribewhatachildcanaccomplishindependently.AccordingtoVygotsky,“Whatthechildcandoincooperationtoday,hecandoalonetomorrow.”Therefore,instructionmustbeorientatedtowards the futureof thechild’sdevelopmentandteachersunlock theadvancedmental functions inalearnerthatarecurrentlyinanembryonicstate30.
Higher-ordermentalprocesses,suchasreasoningandproblem-solving,areaccomplishedwiththehelpof psychological tools such as language. Adults or more capable peers teach these tools during dailyinteractionsthroughexchangeof ideasandwaysofthinking,andtheco-createdideasallowlearnerstodeveloptheirknowledge,ideas,attitudesandvalues31.
InZPD, teachers candevelop students’ abilitiesbyguiding them towardsperformingtasks which are beyond their current capacity. Teachers first need to ascertain thestudent’sZoneofactualdevelopment,thenworkoutaninstructionalplanthatutilisesthe student’s ability toworkwithin the Zone of proximal development by providingappropriatescaffoldingtounlockthestudent’sadvancedmentalfunctions32.Teachersmustconsiderstudents’priorexperienceswhendesigningcurriculaandadjustclassroomlearningexperiencestothelearners’currentskillsandknowledgelevel,toallowstudentsto‘connect’withthelearningmaterialsinordertoguidetheminfullydevelopingtheirabilities.
Garrod,A.etal.(2008).Adolescent Portraits, Identity, Relationships, and Challenges, 6th Edition,Pearson,USA.
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AcknowledgementsTheStudentDevelopmentCurriculumDivision,MinistryofEducation,wishestoacknowledgethecontributionsof themany teachers, Heads of Departments, lecturers, groups and institutions that participated in theprocessofthedevelopmentandrefinementoftheCharacterandCitizenshipEducationSyllabus.Wewouldliketorecordourspecialthankstothefollowingschools: