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ISSN 0973-2713
INDIAN
HISTORICALSTUDIES
Published by
PG & Research Department of History
St. Joseph's College (Autonomous)
(A Grade by NAAC and College with Potential for
Excellence)Tiruchirappalli - 620 002
Tamil Nadu, India.
________________________________________________________
Half Yearly Vol. X No. 1 October 2013
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Patrons
Rev. Dr. S. John Britto, SJRector, St Joseph's College
Rev. Dr. S. Sebastian, SJSecretary, St Joseph's College
Rev. Dr. F. Andrew, SJPrincipal, St Joseph's College
Chief Editor
Dr. M. Arockiasamy Xavier, SJHead, Department of History, St
Joseph's College (Autonomous)
Editorial Board
Dr. N. Rajendran Dr. T. SundararajBharathidasan University,
Trichy Former HoD, St. Josephs College, Trichy
Prof. B. S. Chandrababu Dr. S. Chandni BiMadurai Kamaraj
University, Madurai Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
Dr. B. Sobhanan Prof. Syed Ayub AliKerala University,
Thiruvananthapuram Kakatya University, Warrangal, AP
Dr. Antony Paul Gnanasekar Dr. C. ThomasArul Anandar College,
Karumathur Periyar E.V.R. College, Trichy
Advisory Board
Dr. J. Santosh Kumar Rev. Fr. S. Arul Doss, SJDept. of History,
St. Josephs College Dept. of History, St. Josephs College
Dr. J. Biju Joseph Mr. S. ManikandanDept. of History, St.
Josephs College Dept. of History, St. Josephs College
Dr. S. Xavier Mr. M. Britto StalinPeriyar E.V.R. College, Trichy
Dept. of History, St. Josephs College
PG & Research Department of History
St. Joseph's College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli - 620002
Ph: 0431-4226396, Fax: 0431-4226501E-mail:
[email protected],
WEBSITE: WWW.SJCTNI.EDU
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INDIAN
HISTORICAL STUDIES(A Biannual Research Jour nal)
Vol. X, No. 1 ISSN 0973-2713 October 2013
Chief Editor
Dr. M. Arockiasamy Xavier, SJ
Publ ished by
PG & RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
ST. JOSEPH'S COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
(Nationally Accredited with A Grade (3rdCycle) by NAACCollege
with Potential for Excellence)
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 620 002
TAMIL NADU, INDIA
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THIS JOURNAL HAS BEEN FINANCIALLY SUPPORTED BY
THE INDIAN COUNCIL OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
(ICHR). THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED ARE ENTIRELY OF
THE AUTHOR AND NOT OF THE ICHR.
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Indian Historical Studies
(A Biannual Research Jour
nal)__________________________________________________________________
Vol. X, No. 1 ISSN 0973-2713 October
2013__________________________________________________________________
EDITORIAL
Historyis a science no less and no more stated J. B. Bury, the
Irish historian, in 1902.
Systematic attempts were made since the time of Nicholas de
Condorcet and H.T. Buckleto make history as a science. Having
understood the scientific nature of the subject and its
importance they attempted so. Of course one cannot attain the
exact objectivity andabsolute veracity in historical researches as
in other empirical sciences. Science depends
on observation and experimentation to prove the validity of its
premises. History pursuesit by indirect observation viz. through
eye witnesses or through others who have heard of
it or by other methods. A scientist verifies his / her
conclusions through repeatedexperimentation. A historian comes
somewhat closer to it through corroboration ofseveral sources so
that he/ she can check the veracity of one reference with
another.Historians Barthold Georg Niebuhr and Leopold Von Ranke
developed such historicalmethods which analyse the source materials
with microscopic criticism. Any professionalhistorian is expected
to follow such scientific approach in his / her historical
pursuits. For
the very root word Istoria means collection of information
obtained as a result of
scientific enquiry.
For scientific enquiry in history one needs primary sources
without which a historicalresearch cannot take place. Primary
sources are of varied categories. Traditionally
archival sources do play a vital role. Inscriptions,
manuscripts, dispatches, travelogues,memoirs, diaries, records,
palm leaves, archaeological artefacts, architecture, coins,
sculptures, seals, stamps, paintings, photographs, etc., are
considered to be valuableprimary source materials. Till recent
times scholars mostly relied on the government
archival sources as the only authentic sources. Again, the
plethora of private originalrecords and documents in privates
archives and libraries have added value to the research.Researchers
now duly acknowledge the value of private (primary) sources.
This
phenomenon is mainly due to the recent developments in the
historiographical fields!
Among the private documents the Jesuit sources serve as a
veritable mine of information
for the construction of the history of late medieval and modern
society in Indiaparticularly in Tamil Nadu.Their writings embody
copious information about the socio,
cultural and political situation of the country. Historians
today affirm that the Jesuitsources are one of the reliable sources
to write history as they were recorded objectively.Though the
Jesuits objective was mainly professed by religions, society as a
whole
attracted their attention, consequently a flood of light is
thrown on political, social andeconomic condition of South India,
says R. Sathiyanatha Aiyar, a renowned historian.
From the inception of the Order the Jesuits were and are known
for their annual letters.One of the secretaries of St. Ignatius of
Loyola, the founder of the Order, Fr. Polancodrew up a set of rules
which are to be observed in the manner of writing by those of
the
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Society who are scattered outside Rome. Among them three aspects
deserve attention,namely, what to write, how to write and with what
diligence to write and dispatch toRome. One of the Superior
Generals of the Jesuits Fr. Mutio Vitelleschi who was in the
office from 1615 to 1645, wrote to one of his Jesuits in
England, You must make aselection out of all the news available,
and then communicate to us what you have
ascertained to be more authentic and of great consequence.
The missionaries in India sent to Europe accurate data and
information regarding the
fauna, flora, ethnography, religions, customs, traditions and
the history of the land wherethey had laboured. St. Francis Xavier
(1506- 1552), the first Jesuit missionary of the Eastproved himself
as the fore-runner of excellent letter writers from India. He set
an eloquentmodel for his successors in India for writing numerous
and compendious letters of high
quality and depth to their head quarters in Rome. The letters of
Frs. Balthasar da Costa, Em. Martin and Nol de le Bourzes are
revealing examples to this. The Jesuits
also played the role of historians while recording events. The
annual letters of Fr.Balthasar da Costa from Trichinopoly gives
evidence to this effect. ..Without claiming
to pass judgement on the nature or the cause of these
happenings, I confine myself to myrole of a historian, and simply
relate things which I have seen with my own eyes, says
Da Costa in one of his annual letters in 1643. As asserted by
Documenta IndicaVol. I,these missionaries were to relate whatever
was worthy of being known and speak aboutsuch thing as the climate,
diet, customs, and character of the native peoples of India.
The
Jesuit letter writers had naturally to describe the background
in which their missionarywork was developing and circumstances
mission faced. While engaged in briefingmission work they supplied
valuable materials which today serve us sources to trace thehistory
of the above period. Thus the Jesuit letters act as contemporary
sources standing
in chronological proximity to the events they deal with. They
contain in many instances,the reports of eyewitnesses of the events
described, and even some of them being
participants in them, and are hence primary sources.However one
should corroborate
these sources with other similar sources for obtaining greater
objectivity.
The celebrated historian Vincent A. Smith rightly stated that
the Jesuits, are highly
educated men trained in accurate observation and scholarly
writings. The Jesuits arenoted for their veracity.John Lockman, the
protestant editor of the Travels of the Jesuitssays, I believe it
will be granted, that no men are better qualified to describe
nations and
countries than the Jesuits. The first Prime Minister of India,
Jawaharlal Nehru, himself ahistorian par excellence, reflects in
the same vein in his volume Glimpses of World
History, I cannot however resist giving you some more quotations
from the accounts ofthe Portuguese missionaries. Their opinions are
of far greater value than those of
countries. These sources are mostly in Portuguese, French,
Latin, English and Tamil. One can always refer to such sources in
Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu in Rome,
French Jesuit Archives, Vanves in Paris, Jesuit Archives of
Madurai Province atShembaganur, Kodaikanal, Xavier Centre of
Historical Research, Goa and in otherplaces. A few researches are
now being carried out in Tamil Nadu availing these sources.Surely
these valuable Jesuit sources will help historians to construct a
comprehensive,
modern and contemporary socio-political history of South
India.
Dr . M. Arockiasamy Xavier, SJ
Chief Editor
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CONTENTS
1. S. John Britto SJ Ancient Historical Perceptions on Cheras
from
Sangam Classical Literature ... 1
2. T. Jayaraman Tamil Ethno-National Historiography 21
3. C. Thomas Tiruvalluvars Concept of State Formation and
its Effects on the Politics of the Sangam Age(Tamil Academy)
37
4. A. Maria Arul Raja SJ Printing Living Orality to Reach Outto
the Least: Pioneering Efforts of Henrique
Henriques 49
5. Ichhimuddin Sarkar Bhakti, Humanism and Quest for
SocialHarmony 59
6. G. Indirajith Jainism in Kanchipuram 677. Keneth O. Ogot SJ
The Pathology of Ethnic Identity and
Democratization of the Kenyan Nation-State 73
8. Babu Paul, SJ Jesuit Contributions to Historiography ofKerala
89
9. T.Selvamuthukumaran The Labour Movement of the CommunistParty
of India in the East Tanjore District:
An inquiry into the Agitations led by theTamil Nadu Farmers
Association 95
10. Prabha Ravi Shankar Indian Opinion (Tamil Edition) and
itsContribution to Indian Agitation in South
Africa 10311. A. Akila
MariathangamBishop Azariahs Contribution to DornakalDiocese
111
12. S. Kamini Indian Forest Administration During the FirstFive
Year Plan (1951-56) with Special
Reference to Coimbatore - A Study 119
13. T. S. Lancelet Demographic Strategies of Managing Solid
Waste - A Theoretical Approach 131
14. M. Raziya Parvin Women Empowerment in India - A Focus
onGender Budgeting and Women ComponentPlan ... 139
Book Review:
T. Sundararaj Indian Catholic Christians & Nationalismby Dr.
Mary John ... 150
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S. John Britto, SJ ~1~
___________________________________________Indian Historical
Studies - Vol. 10, No. 1
ANCIENT HISTORICAL PERCEPTIONS ON CHERAS
FROM SANGAM CLASSICAL LITERATURE
___________
Dr. S. John Britto, SJFormer Principal, St. Josephs College
(Autonomous),
Tiruchirappalli - 620 002
___________________________________
Introduction
The historic period of Tamil Nadu began from the Sangam age.
Sangam age is
the period during which the poets of the third Sangam joined
together and did
research on Tamil. This period lasted for 400 years from B.T.
200 to A.T 200.Some considered that it was between B.T. 300 to A.T.
300 (BT - AT wascalculated based on the birth year of Thiruvalluvar
i.e.31 B.C. According to the
decision taken by the Tamil scholars that time can be calculated
consideringthat Thiruvalluvar was born 31 years before Christ. This
was accepted andannounced by the Government of Tamil Nadu.) The
Sangam literatures, whatwe got now are Ettuthogaiand Pathupattu.
The poem in these literatures waswritten by Kapilar, Paraner,
Auvvaiyar, Nakkeerar and hundreds of poets. With
the help of these we can understand the civilization, customs,
culture andpolitical of Tamilians.
Tolkappium which was pride to Tamil literature originated before
the third
Sangam. Tamil literature would have developed a few thousand
years ago. Itwas a pride to Tamil, that Thirukkural, which was
hailed by all the religiousoriginated during the Sangam age. The
national poet Bharathiyar says,
Valluvan thanai ulakinukae thanthu vanpugaz konda Tamil Nadu.
Our mothertongue Tamil which is adaptive to grammatical norms and
is called Senthamizh.
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa excavated in the Northern hemisphere
wereexamples of town civilization. They examined thousands of
things. It wasproved that it had connection with the Southern
Tamilians for more than four-
five thousand years ago. This showed that in those days
Tamilians were notonly in the south but also in the north.
Chera Dynasty
Chera dynasty, ruling from before the Sangam Age (3 rd century
BC to 3rdcentury AD) until the 12
th century AD, is one of the most ancient ruling
dynasties in India. Together with the Cholas and the Pandyas
they formed thethree principal warring southern kingdoms in the
early centuries of the Common
Era known collectively as Three Crowned Kings. They are also
referred to asKeralaputras (sons of Kerala) or Keralas. The Cheras
were in continuous
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Ancient Historical Perceptions on Cheras
___________________________________________Indian Historical
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conflict with neighboring Cholas and Pandyas. Some Chera rules
are said to
have defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas
and their ally
states. They also made battles with the Kadambas of Banavasi and
theYavanas(Romans) on the Indian coast.
During the time of Mauryas in northern India (c. 4thcentury BC
to 3
rdcentury
BC) the Cheras (along with the Pandyas and the Cholas) were in a
latemegalithic phase on the western coast of ancient Tamil land.
The culturalexchange with the northern India and the flourishing
trade with the RomanEmpire later contributed to the state
formation. The kingdom, at its zenith,
spread over most of the modern day Kerala and Coimbatore, Salem
andDharmapuri districts of modern day Tamil Nadu. Some records
suggest the
possible annexation of Nagapattanam (southern part) and
Thiruvarur districts ofTamil Nadu.
1
The Tamil poetic collection called Sangam literature describes a
long line ofChera rulers. It records the names of the kings and the
princes, and of the courtpoets who extolled them. Uthiyan
Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan, Palyani SelKelu Kuttuvan, Narmudi
Cheral, Selva Kadumko Valiathan, Chenguttuvan
Cheran, Perum Cheral Irumporai, Illam Cheral Irumporai are some
of the rulersreferred in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Cheran, the
most celebrated and
powerful Chera king is famous for the legends surrounding
Kannagi, theheroine of the legendary Tamil epic
Silapathikaram.2After second century AD,
the Chera power decayed rapidly with the decline of the
lucrative trade with theRomans. The domination of first Chera
dynasty lasted till circa fifthcentury AD.
The later Cheras ruled from the ninth century. Little is known
about the Cheras
between the two dynasties. The second dynasty, Kulesekharas
ruled from a cityon the banks of River Periyar called Mahodayapuram
(Kodungallur).3Though
never, regained the old status in the Peninsula, Kulasekharas
fought numerouswars with their powerful neighbours and diminished
to history in 12
thcentury as
a result of continuous Chola and Rashtrakuta invasions.
The Chera Kingdom owed its importance to the trade with the
Romans. The
geographical advantages, like the abundance of black pepper and
other spices,the navigability of the rivers connecting the high
mountains with the Arabian
Sea and the discovery of favourable trade winds which carried
sailing shipsdirectly from the Arabian coast to Chera Kingdom in
less than forty days,combined to produce a veritable boom in
Cherass foreign trade. Muziris, the
famous sea port with two Roman regiments, was in the Chera
kingdom andthroughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to
bring prosperity to theirkingdom, with spice, ivory, timber, pearls
and gems being exported to theMiddle East and to Southern
Europe.
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___________________________________________Indian Historical
Studies - Vol. 10, No. 1
Etymology
The word Chera is derived from Cheral, a corrupted form of
classical Tamil
word, Charal, meaning declivity of a mountain.4The Chera Kings
were calledChera-alatan (alatan means lord).
5 Cheras are sometimes referred to as
Keralas among historians. The word Kerala is possibly the
Canarese
variation of the Tamil word Cherala.6The name Keralafirst ever
finds place
in a historical document as Kedalaputho (Keralaputra) in Asokas
Edicts (261
BC).7Historians consider Keralaputra(Sanskrit for son of
Keralaor son of
Chera) as an alternate name of Cheras.8The Graeco-Roman trade
map Periplus
Maris Erythraei refers to this Keralaputra as Celobotra. Pliny
the Elder, theRoman commander who visited India in the 1
st century AD, also describes
Cheras as Calobotras (Caelobothras). The Greek Ambassador
Megasthanes
(4th century BC) as Charmae. He says that the force of the
rulers of the
Charmaeis highly depended on their 60 war elephants.9
Literary Sources
The primary literary sources available regarding the early Chera
Kings are theanthologies of Sangam literature, created between the
years c. 300 BCE to 300CE.10
The earliest extant Sangam literary works, such as Kalithokai,
mention amythical and supposedly submerged continent called
Kumarikandam, whichwas believed to have been located to the south
of the present-day Kanyakumaritens of thousands of years ago,
between the then Kumari and Pakhruli Rivers.Pandya kings such as
Chenkon, and the Cheras, supposedly ruled this country.Sangam
literature further says that they fought and defeated the Nga
tribes.
Kalithokai again mentions a war between the combined forces of
Villavars andthe Meenavars (perhaps the Cheras and the Pandyas
respectively), and theNgas, their arch-enemies, eventually losing
the war.
Pathitrupaththu, the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology of
Sangam Age,
mentions a number of rulers of the Chera dynasty. Each ruler is
praised in tensongs sung by the Court Poet. The rulers (many were
heirs-apparent) are
mentioned in the following order11
:
1. (King) Nedum Cheralathan - Kumatturk Kannanar
2. (Prince) Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan -Palaik Kantamanar
3. (Prince) Narmudi Cheral - Kappiyarruk Kappiyanar
4. (King) Senguttuvan Chera - Paranar5. (Prince) Adu Kottu Pattu
Cheralathan - Kakkaipatiniyar Nacellaiyar
6. (King) Selva Kadumko Valiathan - Kapilar
7. (Prince) Perum Cheral Irumporai - Aricil Kilar
8. (King) Ilam Cheral Irumporai - Perunkunrurk Kilar
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Studies - Vol. 10, No. 1
The Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas are the three ruling
dynasties of the
southern region (Bharathavarsha) in the Hindu epic
Ramayana.12
Cheras are
possibly mentioned in Aitareya Aranyaka, and Mahabharata, where
they takethe sides with the Pandavas in the Kurushetra War.
13 However, historicity of
these enthusiastic claims are challenged as the great war of
Mahabharata is
dated as early as 3102 BC, about 3 millenniums before the
establishment ofChera dynasty.
Chronology of Cheras
Sangam literature is rich in descriptions about a lot of Chera
kings and princes,
along with the poets who extolled them. However, these are not
worked intoconnected history and settled chronology so far.
14 A chronological device,
known as Gajabahu synchronism, is used by historians to help
date early Tamilhistory.
15 Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, Gajabahu
synchronism has got wide acceptance among modern scholars and is
consideredas the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating ancient
Tamil literature.
16
The method depends on an event depicted in Silappatikaram, which
describesthe visit of Kayavaku, the king of Ilankai (Sri Lanka), in
the Chera kingdomduring the reign of the Chera king, Senguttuvan.
The Gajabahu methodconsiders this Kayavaku as Gajabahu, who
according Mahavamsa, a historical
poem written in Pali language on the kings of Sri Lanka, lived
in the latter halfof the second century AD. This, in turn, has been
used to fix the periodSenguttuvan, who ruled his kingdom for 55
years (according to the
Pathitruppaththu), in 2nd
century AD.17
Origin
It is possible that the Cheras reigned an independent kingdom in
the 4thcentury
BC.18Along with the Pandyas, Cholas and Satyaputras, Cheras
(Keralaputras)
in the late megalithic phase are also mentioned in the
inscriptions of MauryanEmperor Asoka in third century BC. According
Asoka inscriptions, the Cheras
lived on the borders of the Maurya empire. An expression in the
ancient Tamilgrammar work, Tolkappiam, suggests that the Cheras
were the first to establishthe kingdom compared to Pandyas and
Cholas. However, the Chera Kingdompossibly rose to prominence on
the fall of Pandya sovereignty.
19
Rulers
In early Tamil literature the Chera rulers are referred to as
Cheral, Kuttuvan,
Irumporai, Kollipurai or Athan. Chera rulers were also called
Kothai orMakothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called
Cheraman in general.The Chera, Chola and Pandya were the three
ancient Tamil rulers of southernIndia, called Tamilakam
20. The Cheras ruled western Malabar Coast, the
Cholas ruled in the eastern Coramantal Coast and the Pandyas in
the south-
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central peninsula. There were also numerous small vassal
kingdoms and city-
states called Vels.
The Cheras ruled over major part of modern Kerala, and
Coimbatore and Salemdistricts of modern Tamil Nadu.
21 Tamil was the language of entire region;
Malayalam, the language of Kerala developed in a later stage
only.22
Theircapital was at Vanchi (also known as Vanchimutur).
23 The location of the
historical city Vanchi is generally considered near the ancient
port city ofMuziris in Kerala.
24However, Karur in Tamil Nadu is also pointed out as the
location of the capital city of Cheras.25Another view suggests
that the reign of
Cheras from multiple capitals.
The monarchs of the Chera dynasty were involved in regular
marriage withother groups or tribes and conflict with the Cholas
and Pandyas for hundreds ofyears. In ancient Tamil writings, it was
mentioned that the Chera monarchs
were Kuttuvan, Cheral, Kollipurai, Irumporai, or Athan. The
kings were knownin names like Makothai or Kothai. The upper class
among the Cheras wereknown as Cheramanas a whole.
Vanavaramban and Irumporai Families
King Uthiyan Cheralathan, his sons and grandsons were members of
onedivision of the Chera Regal family known as the Vanavaramban
line. Prince
Antuvan Cheral and the sons and grandsons of Prince Antuvan
Cheral weremembers of another division which was known as the
Irumporai line.
Antuvan Cheral, the famous Chera prince, is the father of the
monarch SelvaKadungo. On certain occasions, Antuvan Cheral is
recognized with the younger
brother of King Uthiyan Cheralathan, Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan.
This wasmentioned in Purananuru by Madamisyar.
There was a city named Karur which served as the administrative
centre ofPrince Antuvan Cheral. Ay Antiran, the Ay monarch was a
senior person who
belonged to the same period of Prince Cheral. It was believed
that the Ay kingspossibly had more strength in comparison to the
Cheras at the period of AyAntirans regime. Prince Cheral and three
other rulers of the same descent areconsidered as people belonging
to the same period as Nedum Cheralathan and
his sons. There was a remarkable event in the chronicles of the
Chera Dynasty.King Nedum Cheralathan and King Selva Kadumko
Valiathan tied knots with
two sisters.
Other Reigning FamiliesOther than the two above mentioned
families, there were some other Cherarulers and the names of these
monarchs were mentioned in the Sangam
literature. All of them were not members of the principal
descent of the CheraEmpire. Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai
is one of the major namesamong these monarchs. In all likelihood,
Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral
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___________________________________________Indian Historical
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Irumporai was the son and heir of King Illam Cheral Irumporai.
He was also the
idol of the cast off 10th decennary. Another Chera monarch,
Kanaikkal
Irumporai, has been mentioned in the Sangam verses. Perum
Kadungo, whowas also known as Palai Paitiya, was a monarch of this
dynasty who reignedfrom the Vanchi city. In the Sangam literature,
Kothai Marpan with Tondi as its
capital has been cited.
Perumchottu Utiyan Cheralatan was overpowered by King Karikalan,
thefamous Chola monarch. Cheralatan committed suicide following the
loss at theconflict of Venni. It is noteworthy that Cheraman
Perumal, the last recognized
monarch of the Chera dynasty, switched to the religion of Islam.
He was alsoresponsible for constructing the oldest Islamic shrine
in the country. By 8 th
century AD, this dynasty gradually disappeared from history.
The early Cheras reigned over Kongu Nadu, Kerala, Dharmapuri and
Salem.
They possibly annexed the southern part of Thiruvarur and
Nagapattinamdistricts following the wedding of the 2
ndmonarch of the first Chera Empire
with the regal clan of the Cholas.
Earlier, Vanchi Muthur served as their capital and it was
situated in theKanthallur-Kizhanthur area in the district of
Idukki, Kerala. However, theyshifted their governing centre to
Karur Vanchi or Karur in 2ndcentury AD. The2
ndChera Empire reigned from the fringes of Muziris, lying on the
riverbanks of
Periyar.
List of Chera Monarchs
Given below is a list of the Chera monarchs. They can be divided
into three line
of descent and they are the Vanavaramban line, the Irumporai
line, and thesecond Chera monarchs.
Vanavaramban Line
Nedum Cheralathan
Uthiyan Cheralathan
Narmudi Cheral
Palyani SelKelu Kuttuvan
Adu KottuPattu Cheralathan
VelKelu Kuttuvan
Irumporai Line Selva Kadumko Valiathan
Antuvan Cheral
Illam Cheral Irumporai
Perum Cheral Irumporai
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___________________________________________Indian Historical
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King Uthiyan Cheralathan (2nd
century BC)
The first of the known rulers of the Chera kingdom was
Vanavaramban
Perumchottu Uthiyan Cheralathan. He had his capital at a place
calledKuzhumur in Kuttanad. He expanded the kingdom northward and
eastwardfrom their original home in Kuttanad. Uthiyan Cheralathan
was a contemporary
of the Chola ruler Karikala Chola. Mamulanar credits him with
havingconducted a feast in honour of his ancestors. In a battle at
Venni, Uthiyan
Cheralathan was wounded on the back by Karikala Chola
(Pattinappalai).Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed
suicide by starvation
26. His
queen was Veliyan Nallini.
The Sangam work, Purananuru has a reference to Uthiyan
Cheralathan, which is
widely misinterpreted as he feeding the two rival armies of the
Mahabharatawar. The event, however, is possibly related to the
Chera war with the
Satavahanas, and hence the period of Uthiyan Cheralathan could
be assigned inthe 2ndcentury BC.
King Nedum Cheralathan
Uthiyan Cheralathan was succeeded by his son Imayavaramban
Kudakko
Nedum Cheralathan. He ruled for 58 years as a Crown Prince first
and as anabsolute king later. Nedum Cheralathan probably
consolidated the Cherakingdom, and literature and art developed
highly during his period. NedumCheralathan is praised in the Second
Ten of Pathitrupaththu composed by hiscourt poet Kannanar. Nedum
Cheralathan, famous for his hospitality, evengifted a part of
Umbarkkattu (Anamalai) to Kannanar.
The title Kudakko(King of Kudanad) proves that the Cheras had by
this timebrought Kudanad under their sway. During the reign of
Nedum Cheralathan fivejunior princes helped him in the military
expansions and conquests. They wereAntuvan Cheral, Palayanai Sel
Kelu Kuttuvan, Selva Kadumko Valiatan,Narmudi Cheral and Vel Kelu
Kuttuvan. The greatest enemies of Nedum
Cheralathan were Kadambas of Banvasi. He also won another
victory over theYavanason the coast. The chief of the Yavanas was
captured and paraded in
public with hands pinioned to his back and head poured over with
ghee. Later,this Yavana was released on ransom. Mamulanar refers to
a sea coast townshipcalled Mantaiand the exhibition ornaments and
diamonds captured by NedumCheralathan there.
Nedum Cheralathan was killed in a battle with a Chola ruler.
But, the Chola
ruler was also killed in the battle by a spear thrown at him by
NedumCheralathan. Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan is claimed to
have evenconquered Bharatavarsha up to the Himalayas and to have
inscribed his royalemblem on the face of the mountains. Cheralathan
cut the mango tree which
symbolised Surrabadhman exhibiting his valour (Pathir 11: 16)
NUil
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KGKj also Murughu: 59-60. Kadamba tree of the enemies was also
felled,(Pathir 11: 12-16).
The same is referred to in (Aham 127: 3-4) nruyhj Knuho
flgWJOther references are (Pathir 12: 1-3). He destroyed the wooden
gates made
fiza ku(Pathir 15: 1-5; 16: 1-7) of the mighty citadels of the
enemies. He
crossed the seas and conquered the enemies by destroying their
Kadamba trees(Pathir 17: 4-5; 20: 2-5; Aham 127: 3-4; 347: 4-6
Silapathi 28: 81). He was
generous to the poor and the artists (Pathir 12: 9-14; 15:
35-40) Owing to hisrighteous ruling his kingdom was very fertile
(Pathir 13: 25-28). His braverywas exceptional as proved in the
defeat in seven other kings and convertingtheir crown and to golden
garland in (Pathir 14: 11-12; 16: 16-17)
Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan
Puzhiyarkon Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan, a brother of Nedum
Cheralathan,spent 25 years as Crown Prince and never became a king.
He helped his brotherin the conquests of northern Malabar. At least
a part of northern Malabar came
under the Chera rule in this period as is proven by the title
Puzhiyarkon. Helater led the army and conquered Kongunad Pathir 22:
15) (Palyani Sel Kelu
Kuttuvan is also called Karuvureriya Olavalko Perum Cheral
Irumporai,Kongunad had earlier conquered by Ay Antiran with capital
at Vanchi on thebanks of Periyar).
In the later years of his life, Palyani retired from military
life and spent time in
arts, letters, gifts and helping Brahmins. He conquered Poozhi
country and itschieftain called ayirai (Pathir 21: 21-23; 21:
28-29). As he conquered the
enemies by destroying their fortress he cut down the guardian
known asKanaiya maram and Thula maram (Pathir 22: 21). He
vanquished the fortahappa (Pathir 22: 26; Narr 14: 3,4; Silipathi
28: 144). He encourage the temple
priests in their worship and service to Gods (Pathir 23: 6-8).
mWtifgl
ghgd gfK (Thol puram 20). He also annexed to his kingdom
Umbur
Kadu as mentioned in pathigam. He worshipped also Kotravai which
protectedhim. Towards the end of the rains which lasted for 25
years he renounced theworld and became an ascetic.
Narmudi Cheral
KalangaikkaniNarmudi Cheral (son of Nedum Cheralthan; never
became theking, was a Crown Prince under his father for 25 years)
is praised in the 4thset,
written by Kappiyanar. He, famous for his generosity over the
defeated, won aseries of victories of the enemies. After an attack
by Nannan of Ezhimalai onPunnadu (in Kodagu), the Chera army under
Narmudi Cheral marched againstthe Mushika forces. In following
battle of Pazhi, Narmudi Cheral was defeated.
However in the battle of Vakai-perum-turai Narmudi Cheral
defeated and killedNannan, annexing Puzhinad. (Pathir 73: 11; 90:
27).
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On account of this victory he was honored by the title a
nfh(Pathir 21:23; 84: 6) He well known for his forbearance even to
his enemies (Pathir 32:
16-17). His victory over Nannan his considered significant
(Pathir 38: 4; 40: 14-15). It is also said that he use to refer to
the Unnam tree (Pathir 40: 17) whichwith dense foliage would
indicate his victory over enemies. When the tree is
leafless it would indicate his possible defeat in the battle. He
reigned for 25years.
King Selva Kadumko Valiathan
Son of Anthuvan Cheral and the hero of the 7th set of poems
composed by
Kapilar, Selva Kadumko ruled Chera kingdom for 25 years. His
residence wasat the city of Tondi. He married the sister of the
wife of Nedum Cheralathan.Selva Kadumko defeated the combined
armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas.
He is sometimes identified the Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned
in the
Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur. He is compared to Pari,
one of the sevengenerous Kings. His consort is as beauteous as
Kollipavai. Pari defied thecustomary interpretation of the
fertility of Uunnam tree.27
King Vel Kelu Kuttuvan (Senguttuvan)
Vel Kelu Kuttuvan, son of Nedum Cheralathan, ascended the Chera
throne after
the death of his father. Vel Kelu Kuttuvan is often identified
with the legendaryKadal Pirakottya Senguttuvan Chera - the most
illustrious ruler of the earlyCheras of the Sangam Age. This
warrior king is said to have ruled for 55 years,from 170-166
AD,
28 defeating many chieftains. Under his reign, the Chera
kingdom extended from Kollimalai in the east to Tondi and Mantai
in the
western coast. The queen of Senguttuvan was Ilango Venmal (the
daughter of aVelir chief). The son of Senguttuvan Chera was
Kuttuvan Cheral. It is not clear
whether Prince Kuttuvan Chera ascended the throne or not. During
SenguttuvanCheras reign, Perum Cheral Irumporai, Ilam Cheral and
Adu Kottu PattuCheralathan helped him in his expansions as Crown
Princes or Junior Princes.
In his early years of rule, Senguttuvan successfully intervened
in a civil war in
the Chola Kingdom. The civil war was among the Chola princes and
the Cherasstood on the side of their relative Killi. The rivals of
Prince Killi were defeated
in a battle at Neriyavil, Uraiyur and he established firmly on
the Chola throne.
The land and naval expedition against the Kadambas was also
successful. TheKadambas had the support of the Yavanas, they were
routed in the Battle of
Idumbil and Valyur. The Fort Kodukur in which the Kadamba army
took shelterwas stormed and the Kadambas was beaten. In the
following naval expeditionthe Yavana supported Kadamba army was
crushed. He is said to have defeatedthe Kongu people and a warrior
called Mogur Mannan.
Ilango Adigal (probably the brother of Senguttuvan Chera) wrote
the legendaryTamil epic Silapthikaram sitting at a Jain monastery
at Kunavayilkottam
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(Trikkanamathilakam) near Vanchi. Silapathikaram describes
Senguttuvan
Cheras decision to propitiate a temple (Virakkallu) for the
goddess Pattini
(Kannagi) at Vanchi. According the Silappadikaram, an astrologer
appearedin the court of King Nedum Cheralathan and predicted that
Ilango, theyounger son of the king, would become the ruler. The
prediction displeases
Prince Senguttuvan. In order to respect the sentiments of his
elderbrother, Ilango abdicated all his claims to the throne and
took to the life of aJain ascetic.
Senguttuvan Chera was perhaps a contemporary of King Gajabahu of
Sri
Lanka. King Gajabahu, according to the Sangam poems, visited the
Cheracountry during the Pattini festival at Vanchi.29He is
mentioned in the context of
King Gajabahus rule in Sri Lanka, which can be dated to either
the first or lastquarter of the 2
nd century AD, depending on whether he was the earlier or
the
later Gajabahu. His Kingdom extended from Mount Himalayas to the
CapeComorin.30He shared the treasures of his conquered with
soldiers, the poor, the
artisans and poets.31
He defeated the chieftain Pazhian to support his friendlyKing
Arugai by destroying the guardian tree Vembu (Pathir44: 10-15).
Adu Kott Pattu Cheralathan
Adu Kott Pattu Cheralathan was a Crown Prince for a long 38
years. Trade and
commerce flourished in the Chera kingdom during his rule. He is
said to havegifted some villages to Brahmins in Kuttanad.
32 It means that though his
country did not have poverty he sent his chariot to countries
elsewhere to bring
the poor to feed them in his Kingdom. He was known for
celebrating his victoryover enemies.33His victory dance was
referred to as Thunangai.34From the land
of Thandakaranya he brought the mountain sheep to the sea port
calledThondi.35
Perum Cheral Irumporai
Tagadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai (son of Selva Kadumko,
Crown
Prince under Vel Kelu Kuttuvan). He defeated the combined armies
of thePandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur.
36He destroyed the famous
city of Tagadur which was ruled by a powerful ruler Adigaman
Ezhni. Hisbattle of Tagadur is referred to by Sangam poets.
37
He is praised poets to have long life undiminished fame just
like Kotravai ofAyirai hill.38He is also called as the lord of
Puzhinad and Kollimalaand the
lord of Puhar. Puhar was in fact the Chola capital. Perum Cheral
Irumporai also
annexed the territories of a minor chief called Kaluval. He
reigned for17 years.39 His richness of this Kingdom his bravery,
generous gifts to hispeople were prizedby all. His countrys wealth
and prosperity are by the ever
flowing river Kaveri. He has in his possession a fleet of mighty
elephants whichare comparable to the herd of cows of the Kongu
Kingdom.
40
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King Illam Cheral Irumporai
Illam Cheral Irumporai (son of Perum Cheral Irumporai, probably
succeeded
Vel Kelu Kuttuvan). He also defeated the Pandyas and the Cholas
and broughtimmense wealth to his capital at a city called
Vanchi.
41 He is said to have
distributed these treasures among the Pana poets. He fought
against Mallar and
other kings.42
He is praised by Sangam poets to have one day as a one monthand
a month to become a year and the year one yuga/epoch and that
becoming a
deluge. Let the life of the king be ever on the rise.43
King Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai
King Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai preserved the
territorial integrityof the Chera Kingdom under his rule. But, by
the time of Mantaran Cheral thedecline of the kingdom had began.
The Chera ruled from Kollimalai in the east
to Tondi and Mantai in the western coast. He defeated his
enemies in a battle aplace called Vilamkil. The famous Pandya ruler
Nedum Chezhian capturedMantaran Cheral as a prisoner. But, the
Chera was managed to escape andregain the lost kingdom.
Kanaikkal Irumporai
Kanaikkal Irumporai said to have defeated a local chief called
Muvan. The
Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of his prisoner and
planted them on thegates of the city of Tondi. The later Kanaikkal
Irumporai was captured by theChola ruler Sengannan (Kalavali by
Poygayar) and he later committed suicideby starvation.
Government and Society
Monarchy was the most important political institution of the
Chera kingdom.
There was a high degree of pomp and pageantry associated with
the person ofthe king. The King wore a gold crown studded with
precious stones. The kingwas an autocrat, but his powers limited by
a counsel of ministers and scholars.
The King held daily durbar to hear the problems of the common
men and toredress them on spot.The Royal Queen had a very important
and privileged
status and she took her seat by the side of the king in all
religious ceremonies.Another important institution was the manram
which functioned in each
village of the Chera kingdom. Its meeting were usually held by
the villageelders under a banyan tree and they helped in the local
settlement disputes. Themanrams were the venues for the village
festivals as well.
Succession
In the course of the imperial expansion of the Cheras the
members of the royal
family set up residence at several places of the kingdom (at
Vanchi, Karur andTondi). They followed the collateral system of
succession according to whichthe eldest member of the family,
wherever he lived, ascended the throne. Junior
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princes and heir-apparents (crown princes) helped the ruling
king in the
administration.
King Uthiyan Cheralathan and his sons grandsons belonged to one
branch of theChera royal family called Vanavaramban line. Prince
Antuvan Cheral and his
sons grandsons belonged to another branch called Irumporai line.
The princeAntuvan Cheral mentioned below is the father of King
Selva Kadungo. He issome times identified with Palyani Sel Kelu
Kuttuvan (younger brother of KingUthiyan Cheralathan) as is
evidenced by Madamisyar in Purananuru. AntuvanCheral had his seat
at a city called Karur. The Ay ruler Ay Antiran was an elder
contemporary of Antuvan Cheral. The Ays were probably more
powerful thanthe Cheras during the time of Ay Antiran. Antuvan
Cheral and three others in
his line are regarded as contemporaries of Nedum Cheralathan and
his sons. It isimportant to note that King Selva Kadumko Valiathan
and King NedumCheralathan married two sisters.
Apart from these two clans, are also some other Chera rulers who
figure inSangam works. These rulers did not belonged to the main
Chera line. One of themost important of them is Yanaikatchai
Mantaran Cheral Irumporai. Probably,
he is the son and successor of King Illam Cheral Irumporai and
the hero of thelast 10thdecade. Another Chera ruler Kanaikkal
Irumporai is also referred in the
Sangam poems. Palai PaitiyaPerum Kadungo was a Chera ruler based
on thecity of Vanchi. Kothai Marpan with capital at Tondi also
figure in the Sangam
literature.
Ezhimalai Konkanam Nannan (approx. 3rdcentury BC, sometimes
approx 1st-
5th century AD) was a south Indian ruler of the Mushika Kingdom
and was a
suspected contemporary of Mauryan emperor Bindusara, in the
Sangam period.
Ezhimalai Nannan, a celebrated hero in the Sangam literature, is
famous for hismilitary expansions and battles against their
powerful neighbors, the Chera
kingdom.
Under Nannan, an able military commander also, Mushika
kingdomtransformed into a force in South India, and stretched into
Wynad and GudalurDistricts in the foothills of the Western Ghats,
and the northern parts of present
day Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu. Eager to expand his
kingdom, Nannanwaged war against the Cheras, and successfully
defeated the Chera commanders
at the Battle of Pazhi.
It is believed that Nannan buried an immense treasure of coins
in the foothills of
Ezhimalai. Sangam literature gives us a vivid picture of the
life of people atEzhimalai. Paranar, the court poet of Nannan,
describes the victory of Pazhi in
his works. The victories of Nannan over the Cheras and other
neighbouringchieftains are alluded to in the Agananuru, Nattinai
and other works.
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But the Chera king, Narmudi Cheral, defeated him at the Battle
of Vakaipperum
Turai and consequently the Mushika kingdom passed into the hands
of the
Cheras.44
Kolathiris of Kolathunad traces their ancestry back to the
ancient Mushika
kingdom of the Tamil Sangam Age. After king Nannan of Mushika
dynasty waskilled in the Battle of Vakaipperum Turai against the
Cheras, the history of thedynasty is obscure. However, it is
generally agreed among the scholars thatKolathris are the
descendants of king Nannan, and later literary works pointtowards
kings such as Vikramaraman, Jayamani, Valabhan and Srikandan
from
Mushika dynasty. Kolathunad was the northernmost province of the
Later Cherakingdom and had considerable autonomy during
12thcentury.
Dominions
Provinces and ports
The traditional Chera Kingdom was generally divided into five
divisions on the
basis of topography.
1. Puzhinadu- former Ezhil Malai kingdom (the sandy land)
2. Kudanadu (the western land)
3. Karkainadu (the impregnable rocky land, east of Kudanad)
4. Kuddanadu/Kuttanadu (the land of lakes)
5. Velnadu
The main ports in the Chera Kingdom were: Tondi on the banks of
Makkali
river, south of the Lueke Island, Bramagara, Kalaikkarias,
Muziris on the banksof Chulli / Pseudostomos river, Podoperoura,
Semne, Koreoura/Kothora, and
Bakarei at the mouth of river Baris. In land cities between
Tondi and Muziriswere, Naroulla, Kouba, and Paloura. In land cities
between Pseudostomos and
Baris were, Pasage, Mastanour, Kourellour, Pounnata, Aloe,
Karoura,Arembour Bideris/Videris, Pantipolis, Adarima Koreour.
Military
The Cheras had a well-equipped army which consisted of infantry,
cavalry,elephants and chariots. There was also an efficient navy.
The Chera soldiers
made offering to the War Goddess Kottavai before any military
operation. Itwas tradition that the Chera rulers emerged victorious
in a battle to wear the
anklets made out of the crowns of the defeated rulers.
Foreign trade
Chera trade with the foreign countries around Mediterranean can
be traced backto the pre-Christian era. They were in contact with
the Satavahanas, Greeks andArabs. In the 1
stcentury of Common era, Romans conquered the Egypt and that
helped them to establish a monopoly in the Arabian sea trade.
Many
documentary and archaeological evidences of legendary port of
Chera empire,
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Muziris, correspond to this period; Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea portrays the
trade in the kingdom of Cerobothras (Cheraputras) in detail.
Muziris was the
most important port in the Malabar Coast, which according to the
Periplus,abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks.
Bulk of spices, ivory,timber, pearls and gems were exported from
the Chera ports to Mesopotamia,
Egypt, Greece, Rome, Phoenicia and Arabia.45
The Romans brought vastamounts of gold in exchange of
pepper.
46Hoards of Greek, Roman and Arabic
coins unearthed from Kollam, Kottayam, Eyyal, and Kodungallur
corroboratethese ancient trade relations.47 Chera coins were also
excavated from various
locations in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, such as Pattanam (probably
the location ofMuziris), Karur, Namakkal, Erode and Coimbatore.
Roman ships reached the Chera kingdom through two ways. First
through theports of northwest India from Indus to the Tamil lands
and the second directlyfrom the Gulf of Aden to southern India.
Most of the Chera ports had begun aslarge fishing villages where
territorial product could be collected and
exchanged. Then these villages became more urbanized and
commercial as aresponse to growing trade contacts.
48
The Chera trading stations of Naura and Tyndis began as busy
fishing villages,but later the presence of large number of pirates
posed a major threat to the
Roman ships and Roman merchants had to resort to more southerly
ports ofMuziris and Nelcynda. Roman ships did not sail further east
during this period.
Consequently, the Chera ports became more significant for
Romans. Hundredof Romans possibly spent months in the Chera kingdom
awaiting favorableconditions for returning to Europe while some
Roman officials were entitled tostay throughout the year to make
arrangements on behalf of sailors arrived
seasonally.
These Roman agents conducted trade dealings with the locals and
Peutinger
Table marks the presence of a Roman Temple (of Augustus) in the
Malabarcoast for the use of these visitors. According to Periplus,
special consignmentsof grain were sent to places like Muziris. This
was probably to support theresident Romans who needed something to
supplement the local diet of rice.Black Pepper is known as Kariin
Tamil literature.
It was not possible to deep-hulled ships to reach Muziris (the
port was situated
upriver). The Romans were forced to wait at the edge of the
lagoon while theircargoes were transferred upstream on smaller
crafts. Muziris was a largesettlement owed its prosperity to
shipping from the Roman empire and northern
India. Black pepper from the inland hills was brought to Muziris
by localproducers and stacked in warehouses to await the arrival of
Roman merchants.By the time of Plinys writing Muziris too was full
of pirates. Chera-Pandyawar during this time further exacerbated
the conditions and diverted Romantrade away, causing the decline of
both the kingdom and its dynasty.
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Coinage
A number of coins belonging to Chera rulers have been discovered
from both
Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Silver coins with the portrait of a Chera
king andlegend Makkotaiwritten in Tamil-Brahmi script have been
found near Karur.There are also coins with legend Kuttuvan Kotaiand
Kollipuraialong with
the Chera symbols of bow and arrow.
Life during Chera Dynasty
The people ruled by the Chera Empire were not split into groups
and socio-economic classes. The Varna system did not materialize
distinctly.
There was no place for withdrawnness and social restrictedness.
Groups ofpeople like the Kuruva, Pana, Veta and Paraya were
respected by the monarchs.
These communities imparted knowledge and benefited from
social
independence and egalitarianism. A number of renowned bards of
the Sangamera were Panas. During the Chera dynasty, women were
given a superiorposition in the society. They went to school and
did not hide their faces.
Auvvaiyar (circa 500 AD) was the most famous bard during this
era. Childwedding was unheard of and there was no restriction on
widow marriage.
Society and religion
The Chera population was not divided into castes and
communities. The Varnasystem had not taken a clear shape. Social
exclusiveness and un-approachabilitywere unknown. Communities such
as the Pana, Kuruva, Paraya and Veta wereheld in high esteem by the
rulers. These people educated and enjoyed socialfreedom and
equality. Many great poets of the Sangam age were Panas. Women
enjoyed a high status in the Chera realms. They educated and
never coveredtheir faces. Auvvaiyar was the most outstanding poet
of her age. Child marriagewas unknown and widow marriage was
permitted.
Most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian
practices. The worshipof departed heroes was a common practice in
the Chera kingdom along with
tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worships. The war
goddess Kottravaiwas propitiated with complex sacrifices. The
Cheras probably worshipped this
mother goddess. Kottavai was later on assimilated into the
present day form ofgoddess Devi.49There is no evidence of snake
worship in the Chera realms andtill 7
th century AD there is no proof of Ganesh worship either.
Perhaps the
Brahmins came to the Chera Kingdom in the 3rd
century BC following the Jains
and Budhhists.It was only in the 8thcentury AD, the Aryanisation
of the Chera country reached
its climax. A small percentage of the population followed
Jainism, Buddhismand Brahminism. These three philosophies came from
northern India to theChera kingdom. A small Jewish and Christian
population also lived in the Cheraterritories.
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Decline of Early Cheras
Kalabhras controlled large parts of southern India in the 5th
and 6
thcenturies
AD. The fourth and fifth centuries witnessed the decline and
fall of the WesternRoman Empire. Also in the post-Sangam, the Chera
kingdom was invaded by anumber of northern powers. A Kadamba record
of the 5thcentury at the Edakkal
cave in Wayanad bears testimony to the Kadamba presence in the
deep south.Chera Kingdom seems to have affected by the Kadamba
upheaval in the 5 thand
6thcenturies AD. According to Buddhist works, Kalabhra ruler
Achuta Vikkanta
kept the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers in his confinement and
established
control over large portion of southern India. The Kalabhras were
defeatedaround the 6
thcentury with the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.
The Chalukyas of Badami must have conducted temporary conquests
ofMalabar. An inscription of King Pulikesin I claims that he
conquered the Chera
ruler. A number of other inscriptions mentions their victories
over the kings ofChera kingdom and Ezhil Malai rulers. King
Pulikesin II (610-642) is also said
to have conquered Chera, Pandya and Chola kingdoms. Soon the
three rulersmade an alliance and marched against the Chalukyas. But
the Chalukyas
defeated the confederation. King Vinayaditya also subjugated
Chera king, andmade him pay tribute to the Chalukyas. King
Vikramaditya is also said to havedefeated the Cheras. King
Simhavishnu and Mahendra Varman are first Pallavarulers to claim
sovereignty over the Chera kingdom. Narasimha Varman and thePandya
ruler Sendan (654-670) also won victories over the Cheras.
KingNandivarman-II of the Pallavas allied with the Cheras in fight
against thePandyas under Varaguna-I. Rashtrakutas also claim
control over Cheras. King
Dantidurga and Govinda-III is said to have defeated the
Cheras.
The Ay Kingdom, situated south of the Chera kingdom, functioned
for long asan effective buffer state between a declining Chera
kingdom and an emergingPandya Kingdom. Later, the Pandyas conquered
the Ays and made it a tributary
state. As late as 788 AD, the Pandyas under King Maranjadayan or
JatilavarmanParantaka invaded the Ay kingdom and took the port city
of Vizhinjam. But, the
Ays does not seem to have submitted the Pandyas and fought
against them foralmost a century.
Second Chera Kingdom (Medieval Cheras)
The Chera power re-emerged into light c. 9thcentury AD under
King Alwar
Kulasekhara Varman, who succeeded his father Thidaviradhan in
800 AD. By
this time the Chera capital was at Tiruvanchikkulam
(Mahodayapuram) nearpresent day Kodungallur. He established the
Second Chera Kingdomfrom thenew capital at Mahodayapuram. But his
sovereignty was constrained by the
pre-existing power of the Aryan-Brahmin settlements across his
kingdom andthe hereditary chieftains called Naduvazhis. The Second
Cheras allied with theCholas against the Pallavas, and with Pandyas
against the Cholas between 8th-
10th century AD. By the last centuries of their rule,
Kulasekharas became an
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active ally of the Pandyas and Lambakannas of Sri Lanka, against
the raising
Later Chola power. In 805 AD, Rashtrakutas conquered the Later
Cheras and
during a brief period between 855 and 865 AD Rashtrakutas
continually ruledover them.
Endnotes
1. Menon, A Sreedhara,A Survey Of Kerala History,Kerala, India,
1967.
2. India - Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Britannica.com.
Retrieved 2012-08-29.
3. Ancient name, Chully ref:Aham. 149.
4. Menon, A Sreedhara op. cit.
5. Sivaraja Pillai, The Chronology of the Early Tamils - Based
on the SynchronisticTables of Their Kings, Chieftains and Poets
Appearing in the Sangam Literature.
6. Vincent A. Smith , The Early History of India,. Atlantic
Publishers & Dist. ISBN
978-81-7156-618-1. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
7. Keay, John.India: A history. India: Grove Press, 2001, ISBN
0802137970.
8. A. Sreedhara Menon. Political History of Modern Kerala. D C
Books, 1987.p. 13. ISBN 978-81-264-2156-5. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
Also Cf. DurgaPrasad Dikshit (1980). Political History of the
Chlukyas of Badami. AbhinavPublications. pp. 130-.
GGKEY:PW8B49QWQ4H. Retrieved 28 September2012. Also Cf. Bharati
Ray.Different Types of History. Pearson Education India,2009. pp.
37. ISBN 978-81-317-1818-6. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
9. Robert Caldwell. A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or
South-Indian
Family of Languages. Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,
1998. p. 92.
10. Kamil Veith Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of
Tamil Literature, p.12Also Cf. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri,A History of
South India, OUP, 1955. p. 105.
11. Subodh Kapoor. The Indian Encyclopaedia. Cosmo Publications,
2002. p. 1449.ISBN 978-81-7755-257-7. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
12. The Ramayana and Mahabharata: Book VII: In the Nilgiri
Mountains. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2011-03-16. Also Cf.
V.Jayaram (2007-01-09). TheRamayana Kishkindha. Hinduwebsite.com.
Retrieved 2011-03-16.
13. Britannica Article on Dravidian. Ccat.sas.upenn.edu.
2004-01-09. Retrieved
2011-03-16. Mahabharata: The Great War and World History.
Bvashram.org.Retrieved 2011-03-16.
14. Barbara A. West. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and
Oceania. InfobasePublishing, 2009. p. 781. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7.
Retrieved 4 October 2012.
15. V. Kanakasabhai. The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago.
Asian EducationalServices, 1997. ISBN 81-206-0150-5.
16. Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). The smile of Murugan: On Tamil
literature of southIndia. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 37-39.
ISBN 90-04-03591-5. The opinionthat the Gajabahu Synchronism is an
expression of genuine historical tradition is
accepted by most scholars todayAlso Cf. Pillai, Vaiyapuri
(1956). History ofTamil Language and Literature; Beginning to 1000
AD. Madras, India: New
Century Book House. pp. 22. We may be reasonably certain that
chronologicalconclusion reached above is historically sound
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17. Kamil Zvelebil. Tamil Literature. BRILL, 1975, p. 45. ISBN
978-90-04-04190-5.
Retrieved 4 October 2012.
18. Subodh Kapoor. The Indian Encyclopaedia. Cosmo Publications,
2002, p. 1449.ISBN 978-81-7755-257-7. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
19. Ibid., p. 1448.
20. J. Allan, T. Wolseley Haig, H. H. Dodwell. The Cambridge
Shorter History ofIndia. Cambridge University Press, 1934, p.
179.
21. Angelina Vimala (1 September 2007). History And Civics6.
Pearson EducationIndia. pp. 107. ISBN 978-81-317-0336-6. Retrieved
6 October 2012.
22. A. Sreedhara Menon (1987).Political History of Modern
Kerala. D C Books. pp.22. ISBN 978-81-264-2156-5. Retrieved 5
October 2012.
23. Angelina Vimala. History and Civics6. Pearson Education
India, 2007, p. 107.ISBN 978-81-317-0336-6. Retrieved 6 October
2012.
24. A. Sreedhara Menon (1987). Political History of Modern
Kerala. op. cit.,p. 22.Also Cf.Miguel Serrano (1 January 1974).The
Serpent of Paradise: The Story of an Indian Pilgrimage. Routledge
and
Kegan Paul. pp. 76-. ISBN 978-0-7100-7784-4. Retrieved 6 October
2012.
25. K. Krishna Reddy. Indian History. Tata McGraw-Hill
Education. pp. 1-. ISBN978-0-07-132923-1. Retrieved 5 October
2012.
26. A. Sreedhara Menon (1987).Political History of Modern
Kerala. D C Books. pp.
22. ISBN 978-81-264-2156-5. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
27. Pathir 61: 5-7. Also Cf. Xtjd bfh aDil tiughit ad fwbjho
cf(Puram251: 1)
klt bka brD flt gh iftikna (Puram106: 4-5)
He is known for obedient and honoring the service rendered by
the temple
priests.iwRf bgUk br wjeh kiw Kt nuJif banu (Puram6: 19-20)
28. Kamil Zvelebil. Companion Studies to the History of Tamil
Literature. BRILL,1992, p. 111. ISBN 978-90-04-09365-2. Retrieved 4
October 2012.
29. See Mahavamsa - http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/. Since
Senguttuvan (KadalPirakottiya Vel Kezhu
Kuttuvan) was a contemporary of Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka he was
perhaps theChera King during second century AD
30. Pathir43:6-7 Ma Jta ngir kaPathir 11: 23-24bjd Fk
bahlhil
31. giftU fj Mik (Puram375: 35)ma btyh bk bfhL
ca btyh nkhghJ (Madurai Kanchi145-146)
efy fbwhL ezhnu tJ iw bfhLJtzd t bkhJ (Aham121:1-2)
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___________________________________________Indian Historical
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32. Flt nfhnt bfho nj mzthuh MD uty ntonj jJ, MtF M gj eFeir rh
th bkh ir rh njhw
(Pathir55: 9-12)
33. ty gL Kur Jitg th caJyF z bghy bfho ciPa... J cF nghfsJ ML
nfhnt
(Pathir56: 4-8)
34. Jzif Moa ty gL nfhkh(Pathir57: 4)
35. jlhuaj nfhgl tUilia bjho jJw nghFLt, bjoiu gubwho
(Aham60)
36. bfh TwJ T ir gnt jhid mfkhndhLU bgU ntjiu cl iy btW
(Pathir8: 5-7)
37. btngh Mlt kw J fhF g W, jf^
ngv kw wH nehF at(Pathir78: 8-10)
jf^ buJ behj bja,mUw byhir bgU nruU bghiwia M
(Pathikam 9-10)
38. kil vbfhsh mRtU ku fl miu iy, nfL ythf, bgUk fnH
(Pathir79: 16-19)
39. FWg ahz Fuit maU fh koa nr td fhm brt a bk kiwfiH J vGjU kiH
jt beL nfhL bfh bghUe!
(Pathir23: 11-13)
40. nr gu Ku
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43. eh f mida Mf fahL Xuiza Mf ahnl C mida Mf Cbts tu Mf vd cfhF
e, ahnd
(Pathir90: 51-55)
44. Balarama Digest, Malayala Manorama Group, India, March 24,
2007.
45. Hermann Kulke.A History of India. Psychology Press, 2004, p.
105. ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0. Retrieved 1 October 2012.
46.
http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.
htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th&
47. History of Ancient Kerala. Government of India. Retrieved
October 06, 2012.
48. Raoul McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to
the AncientLands of Arabia, India and China. Continuum
International Publishing Group,06-Jul-2010
49. Indian Anthropologist: Journal of the Indian Anthropological
Association byIndian Anthropological Association. p. 104.
_____
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TAMIL ETHNO-NATIONAL HISTORIOGRAPHY___________
Dr. T. JayaramanHoD & Associate Professor (Retd)
AVC College (Autonomous), Mannampandal, Mayiladuthurai
___________________________________
Historiography is the history of historical writing. Now, it is
a branch ofknowledge as any other science or art. Though
intellectual populace of Indiansub-continent had made excellent
contributions to ideas, philosophy, literature,
grammar, science and the manifestation of arts, they lacked in
historical writing.When historical writing began in modern India,
it was influenced by colonial
interests and Indian nationalistic aspirations. In the twentieth
century, the
identity politics of the ethnic nations also contributed to
historical writing. Theethnic nations, identified by their
languages in the Indian sub-continent,attempted historical writing
as a part of their efforts to trace and preserve theirnational
identity. This kind of historical writing in ethno-national
perspectiveshall be called ethno-national historiography.
Defining Ethno-National Historiography
The terms ethnicity and ethnic group derived from the Greek word
ethnosgenerally translated as nation. In the 19
th century, the meaning for the term
ethnic emerged to express the notion of a people or a nation.
The termnationality depending on context may either be used
synonymously withethnicity or synonymously with citizenship (in a
sovereign state).1
In 1950, the UNESCO statement, the Race Question, signed by some
of theinternationally renowned scholars of the time (including
Ashley Montagu,Claude Levi- Strauss, Julian Huxley, etc.),
suggested that:
National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cultural groups
do notnecessarily coincide with racial groups; and the cultural
traits of such
groups have no demonstrated genetic connection with racial
traits.Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed
when theterm race is used in popular parlance, it would be better
whenspeaking of human races to drop the term race altogetherand
speakof ethnic groups.2
Ethnic-nations are defined by shared heritage, which usually
includes a
common language, a common faith and a common ethnic ancestry.
Tamils area nation as it conforms with the definitions of
nation.
3Hence, Tamils may be
identified as an ethnic-nation of long historical existence and
a rich culturalheritage.
Unlike several European nations where the consciousness of
nationhood is ofrecent origin after the French Revolution of 1789,
Tamils had long been
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cherishing their separate identity through the ages. So, it may
be identified as an
ethnic-nation in modern political parlance.
India is a multi-ethnic or multi-national state, where several
nations exist. Thesenations or nationalities are more concerned
about preserving their identity. The
ethno-national diversities in India have already been
recongnised and analysedby researchers. An analysis of the Indian
situation made by A.M. Diakov, whowrote The Nationalist Problem in
India Today(1966), underscores this point. He says:
By virtue of the fact that India has for two hundred years been
a
colony of England in the eyes of the outside world, India
appears assomething unified and its entire population as one
people...Thepresence in India of a powerful national liberating
movement, in whichall the peoples living in India participate in
this or that degree still
further strengthens this illusion of a national unity of the
entire Indianpeople. It is more or less broadly known that in India
there is a numberof castes, but few know that in India there is a
number of largepeoples, each of which is no less numerous than the
English, theFrench, or the Italians; that these people are
distinguished by their
individual culture, language, literature, have their own mores
andcustoms, their national character, have passed a long road of
historical
development. The colonial position of India which made its
peoplesslaves of English imperialism has depersonalized it in the
eyes of theoutside world.
4
These peoples have a long history and their history must be
written in the ethno-national perspective. It is more appropriate
to designate the historiography of
these ethnic groups and nationalities as ethno-national
historiography.
Ethno-National History all over the World
Every nationality, which has a nation-state or even without it,
attempts to keep a
national history of its own. The late-comers to the nation-state
model, such asthose arising in the Near East and South Eastern
Europe out of the dissolution
of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires as well as those
arising out ofthe former USSR, have got their ethno-national
history. All these nationalities
were constituents of empires till recently. But, their national
history does notstart abruptly after their formation of a
nation-state. This consciousness and theawareness found in all
these nationalities have made them maintain a history of
their own.
The eighteenth and the nineteenth century saw the resurgence
ofnational ideologies. In Germany, historians and humanists, such
asJohann Gottfried Herder and Johann Gottlieb Fichte, identified
a
linguistic and cultural identity of the German nation, which
becamethe basis of a political movement to unite the fragmented
states of theGerman nation.
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A significant historiographical outcome of this movement of
German
nationalism was the formation of a Society for Older German
Historical Knowledge, which sponsored the editing of
massivecollection of documents of German history, the
MonumentaGermaniae Historica (MGH). The sponsors of the MGH
defined
German history very broadly; they edited documents concerning
allterritories where German-speaking people had once lived or
ruled.Thus, documents from Italy to France to the Baltic were grist
for themill of theMGHs editors.5
The German example was followed by several ethnics in
Europe.
The Colonial and Nationalist Historiography in India
The process of modern historiography of India began with the
British colonial
administrators and the Indian nationalists. Both these two
historiographies had
their own political agenda. The colonial historiography
attempted to write thehistory of India so as to help in
legitimising the European rule over India. TheUtilitarian school of
historiography believed that the Indian society lacked
rationality and individualism and so the European intervention
was needed tomake the stagnant Indian society progressive. This
school created the concept of
Oriental Despotism and anarchy and required the rule of the
British for thewelfare of the Indian people. So, it may be
understood that the colonialhistoriography had a political agenda
of legitimising the alien rule in India.
The nationalist school of historiography emerged at the end of
the 19thcentury,
as a part of anti-colonial movement. A strand of this
historiography attempted toestablish the superiority of the past
over the present and the golden era of the
Hindu civilization. This resulted in religious nationalism. As a
reaction, Muslimhistoriography developed. But, both the imperialist
and the Indian nationalisthistorians had their political agenda.
When the former wanted to justify thealien rule over India, the
latter wanted to nourish Indian nationalism andnational unity.
Indian nationalism was essentially Hindu nationalism showing
affinity to Aryan race and aspiration for the revival of
Sanskrit.
Historiography committed to Indian Nationalism
Historiography takes into account the ideological,
philosophical, economic andsocial forces that operate in a
political society. As a result, historiography of
new types emerged. In India, different schools of thought,
revolutionary,rationalist, nationalist and Marxist, have
contributed to historiography. But,
there is a tendency and an advocacy to write the histories of
the peoples havingindependent cultures and identity, to suit or fit
within the Indian nationalisticframework. Such a tendency continues
till date. These nationalist historianscall the traditional
homeland of the nationalities in India as regions and every
nationality as a group. K. M. Panikkar, a historian of South
India, says in 1966,Every region in India has contributed to the
evolution of the Indian people,every group added to our common
heritage.6
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M.G.S. Narayanan, former Chairman of ICHR, accepts the fact of a
lopsided
development in South Indian History and opines:
The spade work done by the European scholars in the
nineteenthcentury was followed by native scholars. To their lot
fell the tedious
and difficult task of sifting truth from legend, setting
straight thechronological tangle, reconstructing the dynastic
history and placingthe whole thing in Indian historical
perspective.7
M. G. S. Narayanan defines that South India is the region south
of the Deccanand says in his work Reinterpretation in South Indian
History (1977),
Geographically and linguistically, and therefore, to a large
extent inpolitical, social and cultural terms also, this region had
its ownpeculiar, if not separate development. As such it deserves
to be treated
as a sub-unit of historical study within the field of Indian
History.8
R. Champakalaxmi, a renowned historian, says:
The danger, however, lies in the pendulum swinging to the
other
extreme, in which regional histories are given a
disproportionatelylarge share of importance arising out of regional
and linguisticchauvinism, leading to distortions in history i.e.,
isolated studieswhereas the general trends in Indian historical
writing and comparative
research in non-Indian contexts, which have relevance to the
study oflocal, regional and national histories, are completely
ignored.
9
Thus, the writing with a commitment to Indian nationalism denies
legitimacy tothe independent history of linguistic nationalities.
Regional chauvinism is aconvenient word to belittle a work, when
that work does not conform to the
stereotype set by the Indian nationalist historians.
Defining the Tamil Ethno-national Historiography
It is not a special genre of historiography. It is only a
perspective-based namegiven to plethora of historical writings that
appeared right from the 1920s. Wemay assign two reasons for
labelling those works as Tamil ethno-nationalhistoriography. First
of all, they are not written in the Indian nationalistic
perspective. Instead of treating Tamil Nadu as a region in
India, it considers itas the traditional homeland of a people,
Tamils, who are a primordial entity,
with a unique culture, a primary classical language and a
history running intoremote past. Instead of treating as a component
of Indian culture and Indianpeople, and keeping at the periphery of
Indian historiography, Tamil Nadu is
centered in research and treated as an entity in entirety, with
all the borrowingsand lendings to other cultures. Hence, all the
historical works in this perspectivecentering on Tamil, Tamils and
Tamil Nadu can be labeled as Tamil-ethnonational
historiography.
Tamil ethno-national historiography focuses on the ethnic
domains of Tamilsociety, Tamil culture, Tamil language, Tamil
political life, both ancient and
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modern, and their politics of identity. It aims at
reconstructing the Tam ils
history by examining the aspects of Tamil ethno-national
importance, which has
been so far misunderstood, misconceived and misinterpreted. It
is not in anyway in conflict with scientific history.
Early attempts in the South
The South Indian History was neglected before 1947. The renowned
historianR. G. Bhandarkar wrote a good historical work, Early
History of Deccan in1884, in which Tamil country was ignored. The
early attempts of the SouthIndian historians only threw light on
the raw materials for future research.
The first prominent South Indian Historian, S. Krishnaswamy
Iyengar (1871-1953) wrote The Beginning of South Indian
History(1918), South India and her
Mohammadan Invaders(1921), Contributions of South India to
Indian Culture,Manimekalai in its Historical Setting (1928) and the
Evolution of HinduAdministrative Institutions of South India. S. K.
Iyengar and his lineage did thespade work for the construction of
South Indian History.
There was no historical writing in Tamil Nadu before the 18th
century. The
tradition of historiography of Tamil Nadu begins from Robert
Orme (b.1728),
the official historiographer of the British East India Company.
After the Anglo-Mysore War of 1799, Lord Wellesley constituted
three separate surveys of the
Mysore territories under Colin Mackenzie, Francis Buchanan and
BenjaminHeyen. They made significant contributions to build a
knowledge base about
South India. The ingredients for the future claim of the Tamils
for anindependent indigenous identity were supplied by the early
writings of theEuropeans.
Whyte Ellis, the Collector of Madras (1810), founder and senior
member of the
Board of Superintendence of the College of Fort St. George,
became a reputedTamil scholar, found out the manuscripts of the
Jesuit scholar Beschis works
and had them published. In 1816, Ellis contributed A Note to the
Introductionto Campbells A Grammar of Teloogoo Language (1816), and
he had statedthat the South Indian Languages are of one family and
different from the Indo-European family of languages. This was the
first notable contribution to the
future Tamil ethno-national conceptual construct.
Bishop Robert Caldwell (1819-1891), in his celebrated work
Comparative
Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of
Languages(1856), madeit clear that the Dravidian language family is
different from other families.
Robert Caldwell spoke of the high antiquity of the literary
cultivation of Tamil,the Dravidian languages as being independent
of Sanskrit, the political andsocial relations of the primitive
Dravidians to the Aryans, the Pre-Aryan
inhabitants of Northern India and about how the Dravidians
becameSudras.10
This work supplied the seeds for the Tamil revivalism and
DravidianMovement. When history-writing was attempted, there
emerged the ethno-
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national historiography of the Tamils. It was initially known as
Dravidian
historiography. The word Dravidian was recognised only as the
name of a
family of languages and Dravidianism did not take roots in other
South Indianstates except Tamil Nadu. It took the shape of Tamil
ethno-nationalhistoriography.
P. Sundaram Pillai was the first to point out that the South had
been neglectedin historical writing. He said; The scientific
historian of India ought to beginhis study with the basin of
Krishna, of the Kaveri and of the Vaigai than withthe Gangetic
plain as has been now long, too long the fashion.11 Following
him, V. A. Smith pointed out in his Early History of India
(1912) that it wastime to pay due regard to the non-Aryan element
in writing history.
The Tamil ethno-national historical writings came into being in
four phasessuccessively.
The First Phase
In the First Phase, the English education and the spirit of
Tamil revivalism
combined and inspired the South Indian historians to contribute
to Tamilhistoriography.
The first work on Tamils history was The Tamils Eighteen Hundred
Years
Ago published in 1904 by V. Kanakasabai Pillai. It ascribed a
Mongolianorigin to the Tamils and so it was unacceptable to many
historians. But it wasthe first historical work on the social life
of the Sangam Tamils. The
significance of the work is that it identified the first century
AD as the Sangamage. His work cannot be considered as a trend
setting one.
Following Robert Caldwell, philological researches were
undertaken by manyTamil scholars. An early philologist, Makaral
Karthikeya Mudaliar wroteMozhi Nool (Philology) in 1913. Of the
three parts of the work, Exordium,Grammar and Derivation, the first
part contains his arguments in favour of the
hoary antiquity of the Tamil language and its priority to
Sanskrit.12
M.S.Purnalingam Pillai has given the Introduction to this work
and in this,Purnalingam Pillai calls the author a precedent-breaker
and originalresearcher.Makaral Karthikeya Mudaliar exhibits
ethno-national fervour in the
Payiraviyal of this work. He explains how Tamil philological
study wouldequip one with the necessary tool to do research on
other languages. He argues
that Tamil is very ancient and Sanskrit is comparatively a
recent one.
Makaral Karthikeya Mudaliars study based on philological
findings appearedin 1913. It was he that spoke for the first time
that Tamils were indigenous toTamilagam and they migrated to other
parts only from Tamilagam. He also
called Tamil language a naturally born language. His work
anticipated theworks of P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, Sesha Iyengar and
V. R. Ramachandra
Dikshitar, whose works were based on archaeological findings.
MakaralKarthikeya Mudaliar may be considered the trend-setter and
it will not be
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wrong to consider that the historians who immediately succeeded
him
elaborately did it in historical writing.
The early historians established two facts
1. They denied a foreign origin to the Tamils, while others
considered theTamils as immigrants and contended that the Tamils
spread to North and
North-West only from Tamilagam.
2. The Iron Age began in South India much earlier to the coming
of theAryans.
These theses were important contributions to the Tamil
ethno-nationalhistoriography.
P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar is considered a trend-setter, for he had
the spirit ofscientific temper and exhibited it in his historical
writings. He was a nationalist,
but he held the view that the Tamils were indigenous to the land
and the Tamilshad spread over entire India. He viewed that people
speaking dialects allied to
Tamil once inhabited the whole of India and not these people
must necessarilyhave come into India from outside the country.
13On the basis of artefacts and
relics discovered in South India, he contended that there was a
regular evolutionof culture from the lowest paleolithic age to the
latest age of metals and it mightbe taken as fairly certain that
the Tamils were indigenous to South India.14He
ridiculed the theory of the Tamils foreign origin, stating that
some writersconduct the ancient Dravidians with the self-confidence
of a Cooks guidethrough the North-Western or North-eastern mountain
passes of India and dropthem with a readymade foreign culture on
the banks of the Kaveri or Vaigai.15
He denied the view of V. Kanakasabai, who, in his work The
Tamils Eighteen
Hundred Years Ago(1904), had attributed a Mongolian origin to
the Tamils. Heargued that he could prove that the Iron Age began in
Tamil country when theTamil had not come into any kind of contact
with Sanskrit, the linguistic vehicleof Vedic culture.
16
T. R. Sesha Iyengar made his contributions in a similar line. He
viewed:
Among most writers on this subject, it has beenthe fashion to
give to the Indo-Aryans the credit for all that was best in Ancient
Indian culture... 17
He viewed that the Indian civilization resulted from the mixture
of Dravidianand Aryan. He endorsed the theory that the Dravidians
were living in SouthIndia from the remotest antiquity.
18 It is quite possible that Dravidian tradersmight have carried
their culture from South India to the Mediterranean area. 19
He criticised Chatterji who says The Dravidians look like being
aMediterranean people coming out of Crete and passing through Asia
Minor and
Mesopotamia... Then they came into Sindh, when they spread into
the interiorof India.Sesha Iyengar raised the question: Why should
this have been so?Could not an exactly reverse process have taken
place?
20
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Tamil Ethno-National Historiography
___________________________________________Indian Historical
Studies - Vol. 10, No. 1
V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar is the third one contributing to the
ethno-national
paradigm. He stressed that South India must have pre-paleolithic
people who
were the aborigines and sons of the soil.21
E.Maclean had viewed that theethnic and other affinities between
South India and the Mediterranean basinmust be due to the fact that
Southern India was once the passage ground by
which the ancient progenitors of northern and Mediterranean
nations proceededto the difficult parts of the globe and this view
gets endorsed by RamachandraDikshitar.
22 He made bold assertions on the basis of the then
available
archaeological and linguistic evidences.
M. S. Purnalingam Pillai was different from the other three,
because theideological basis of his works was clearly Tamil
ethno-nationalism. He did not
share the Indian outlook as others did. He said: The Tamils or
Tamilar were thesons of Tamilagam itself. They were indigenous.
When one deluge after anotherovercame Tamilaham and when the Tamils
dispersed in differentdirections to save their lives... the Tamil
emigrants passed over the jungles and
sandy deserts and found their homes in Mesopotamia, Palestine,
Egypt and inEuropean countries...
23
Second Phase
In the second phase, a new host of historians started
contributing to Tamil
historiography in the 1940s. These historians extensively used
literary andepigraphical sources. Some historians used copious
inscriptions as primarysources in their study and evolved some
theoretical framework
Another class of historians used the epigraphical and literary
sources tostrengthen their ideological framework of Tamil history.
Na. Si. Kanthaiya
Pillai, Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy and Ka. Appadurai belong to
this school.The historical works of these scholars were purely
ethno-national in theircontent and ideological framewor