2013. “How near, how far: India and environment related Millennium Development Goals (MDG)”, Journal of Social and Political Studies, IV(2): 116-136.

JOURNAL OFSOCIAL AND POLITICAL STUDIESDecember 2013 Volume IV (2) ISSN-2229-3647

A Bi-annual Journal of Department of Political Science,University of Allahabad, Allahabad-211002 (INDIA)

CONTENTS

Editorial 6M.P. Dube

Constitution-Making and Jawaharlal Nehru 16

Subhash Kashyap

Culture and Literature in a Glo(b/c)alised World 23

Susheel Kumar Sharma

Impact of Neoliberalism on Democratic Federal Governance in India 50

M.P. Singh and Krishna Murari

The Spectre of Terrorism in South Asia: Taking Stock of India-Pakistan

Cooperation 65

Rajpal Budania

Environment and Colonial Regime:

Issues & Concerns 78

Dr. Surendra Singh Bisht and Dr. Beena Saklani

Ethnic conflicts and Challenges of Nation Building in India 88

Karuna Thakur

Wither the Press Council of India? 102

Kumar Askand Pandey

How Near, How Far: India and Environment Related Millennium

Development Goals (MDG) 116

Sumit Saurabh Srivastava

Corporate Sector NGO Partnership for Sustainable Development:

Exploring Possibilities of Partnership in Addressing Climate

Change Issues and Concerns 137

Dr. Sheila Rai and Ms. Snehil Kacker

Environmental Degradation: A Gandhian Solution 149

Ashu Pasricha

Advisory Board

Prof. Mohit Bhattacharya

Former Vice-Chancellor, Burdwan University, West Bengal, India

Prof. B. K. Joshi

Former Vice-Chancellor, Kumaon University, Nainital, India

Prof. Sudha Pai

Centre for Political Studies, J.N.U., New Delhi, India

Prof. K. L. Sharma

Former Vice-Chancellor, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur (Rajasthan), India

Prof. Pratap Bhanu Mehta

Director, Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi, India

Prof. Naresh Dadhich

Former Vice-Chancellor, M.V. Open University, Kota (Rajasthan), India

Prof. M. P. Singh (Rtd.)

Professor of Political Science, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India

Prof. M. P. Dube

Editor, Professor of Political Science, University of Allahabad, Allahabad (UP),India

Contributors

• Dr. Subhash Kashyap, former Secretary General, Lok Sabha.

• M. P. Singh (Rtd.), Professor of Political Science, University of Delhi, NewDelhi, India.

• Susheel Kumar Sharma, Professor of English, University of Allahabad, India.

• Rajpal Budania, Associate Professor, Department of Political Science,University of Allahabad, India.

• Surendra Singh Bisht, Research Officer, Department of History, HNBGarhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India.

• Beena Saklani, Associate Professor, Department of Anthropology, HNBGarhwal University Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India.

• Karuna Thakur, Associate Professor, Department of Political Science,University of Jammu, India.

• Sumit Saurabh Srivastava Assistant Professor, Centre for Globalization andDevelopment Studies, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh,India.

• Kumar Askand Pandey, Assistant Professor of Law, RML National LawUniversity, Lucknow (U.P.), India.

• Krishna Murari is Assistant Professor of Political Science, SwamiShraddhanand College, University of Delhi.

• Ashu Pasricha, Assistant Professor Deptt. of Gandhian Studies, PanjabUniversity, Chandigarh, India.

• Sheila Rai, Professor, Department of Political Science, University ofRajasthan, Jaipur, India.

• Snehil Kacker, Research Scholar, Department of Political Science, Universityof Rajasthan, Jaipur, India.

Editor: M.P. Dube

Published Bi-annually by Department of Political Science,

University of Allahabad, Allahabad-211002 (INDIA)

Copyright © 2013 by Department of Political Science, University of Allahabad

All Rights Reserved. Material Published in this Journal cannot be reproduced without theexpress permission of the Publisher.

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How Near, How Far: India and EnvironmentRelated Millennium Development Goals

(MDG)*

Sumit Saurabh Srivastava

ABSTRACT

The present article is an appraisal of India’s performance vis-à-vis UnitedNations’ environment related Millennium Development Goals (MDG). Asone can see that the issues of ecology and environment have been broughtoutside into the public domain to be debated and questioned by the effectiveand vibrant activism worldwide and India in particular. Indian State hascommitted itself to the principles of sustainable development which findsits echoes in its plans, policies and programmes related to increasing forestcover area, water resource management, and slum policy among others.However, the scenario in the recent times has been quite disturbing whereinthe economic growth and progress has taken front seat in the process ofresource utilisation. This has seriously damaged not only the bio diversitybut has also led to the mass displacement of the affected people.Subsequently, the picture thus emerges is that of an India which on onehand has an effective battery of laws, regulations and Acts to achieveenvironment related MDG but on the other hand is unable to do so dueto market forces and increased population. These and other related issuesare addressed in the present article.

Key words: India, Millennium Development Goal (MDG), environment,ecology, sustainable development.

Introduction

The great challenges of the early 21st century are global in nature—issues thattranscend the capabilities and resources of any one nation or sector.1 Environmentand ecology related issues are of the same nature as they have transcended thegeographical boundaries of nation-states. As the entire humankind shares the samespace and consumes the same resources i.e. our planet Earth, thus any change inthe planet’s survival modalities will certainly have its repercussions across the globe.It is like the ‘butterfly effect’ i.e. the impact of any activity across the humanity.Off late there have been instances which defy till existing logic & principles ofweather science. Most of these natural disasters like heavy snow at the dry

* An earlier version of this paper was presented at National Seminar on “Impact of GandhianIdeas on Environmental Movements in India”, organized by Institute of Gandhian Thought& Peace Studies, Gandhi Bhawan, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh on 2-3October, 2012. The author wishes to acknowledge those whose observations & suggestionshave made this paper more apt.

How Near, How Far: India and Environment Related MDG 117

locations, floods across the globe, recurrence of earthquakes, etc. reflect thechanging mood of the planet. Additively the issue of global warming has alsotaken the centre stage of discussions at most of the environmental meetings bothat the regional and global levels as “[G]lobal mean temperature […has…]increased by 0.4°C between 1992 and 2010” (UNEP, 2011: 29) and “[T]he 10hottest years ever measured have all occurred since 1998” (UNEP, 2011: 30).

India home to more than a billion people and posed as one of the most fastest‘emerging economy’ worldwide also has own share of duties and responsibilitiesregarding sustaining the ecology and environment. India on her part has animpressive battery of environmental legislation aiming towards sustainabledevelopment. The issues related to environment become all the more challengingin India as its population base is very wide, has limited resources and still has tograpple with the socio-economic inequalities. Poverty, hunger, unemployment,loop sided urbanization leading to growth of slums, inequitable access andaffordability of health services have made India more susceptible to ecologicalfallacies.

The complex relationship among them has been aptly described by NationalEnvironment Policy 2006 as “Poverty and environmental degradation are alsoreinforced by, and linked to population growth, which in turn, depends on acomplex interaction of diverse causal factors and stages of development” (p.5).The shrinking forests cover partly due to poverty and hunger (not to miss thatIndia is an agricultural country) adds another dimension to the problem.Additively, The World Conservation Union (IUCN): India Country Strategy (2006)highlights certain reasons why India’s ecosystem needs an urgent attention.2 Someof these are “expansion of agriculture; unsustainable farming practices; rapidurbanization; industrial growth; public sector projects; shrinking commons;limitations of state conservation; natural disasters; and anthropogenic climatechange” (pp.2-7).

Environmental Sustainability at Global Level

Recently some estimates done by different institutions and organizations both atthe global and regional levels highlight the state of affairs of environment. Thoughthey all take different indicators and methodologies, they all point out thedecreasing natural resources and shrinking of the same. The Organisation forEconomic Co-operation and Development (OECD) developed the firstinternational sets of environmental indicators and classified them into two classes;pollution issues and natural resources & assets. The former includes climatechange, ozone layer, air quality, waste generation and freshwater quality. The latterincludes freshwater resources, forest resources, fish resources, energy resources andbiodiversity.3

According to World Bank, 1.6 billion people gained access to clean drinkingwater from 1990 to 2006; 76 countries are on track to hit the drinkable watertarget; 2.5 billion people still lack basic sanitation and 13 million hectares of forest

Journal of Social and Political Studies118

are still lost every year.4 Additively, a child dies every 15 seconds from diseaseattributable to unsafe drinking water, deplorable sanitation and poor hygiene.As of 2002, one in six people worldwide—1.1 billion total—had no access toclean water. About 400 million of these are children. Four of ten peopleworldwide don’t have access to even a simple latrine. And more than 614 millionchildren have to live in dwellings with more than five people per room or thathave mud flooring.5

As the human population grows it has reached the point, the UN says, “wherethe amount of resources needed to sustain it exceeds what is available”. Sixteenthousand species are threatened with extinction. Habitat loss is a major factor asmany forests are cleared for agriculture. The UN estimates the global annual lossof primary forest is 50,000 km2. By the end of 2007 it is estimated that morepeople will live in cities than rural areas for the first time in history.”6 Accordingto Vital Signs 2007-2008, a Worldwatch Institute Report, following features relatedto environment and society have become globally evident7 :

• Humanity overdrew the natural capital it depends on by 23 percent in 2002.• Between 2000 and 2005, global forested area shrunk by more than 36 million

hectares (just under 1 percent of the total forested area).• As of late 2005, an estimated 20 percent of the world’s coral reefs had been

“effectively destroyed,” while 50 percent are threatened in the short or longterm.

• Twenty percent of the world’s mangrove forests have been destroyed overthe past 25 years.

• Twelve percent of all bird species were categorized as “threatened” in 2005.• Three percent of all plant species are currently threatened with extinction.

Dwelling upon the seriousness of the issue, British Broadcasting Corporation(BBC) points out that “over the last 20 years, the human population has increasedby a third, global trade has tripled, and per capita income has gone up by 40%.Annual emissions of the main greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, have also increasedby one third.” Herein we see the rationale of United Nations’ environment relatedMillennium Development Goal (MDG hereafter). The global response to sucha grim environmental scenario has been to some extent positive as reflected inthe series of meetings, conventions and planning and implementation ofenvironment related policies worldwide. It is also pointed out by UNEP (2011:55) that “[T]he steady increase of countries signing Multilateral EnvironmentalAgreements (MEAs) ..... signifies rising political recognition of environmentalissues.” One also witnesses the annual observance such as World Water Day (22nd

March), International Day for Biological Diversity (22nd May), WorldEnvironment Day (5th June), World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought(17th June), International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer (16th

September), International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environmentin War and Armed Conflict (6th November), and International Mountain Day(11th December).8


India vis-à-vis Millennium Development Goal 7: Ensure EnvironmentalSustainability

It was in 6-8 September 2009, the United Nations in its 55th session, the 189nations adopted the resolution leading to United Nations MillenniumDeclaration. These Millennium Development Goals are related to tackle andeffectively solve the issues of poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmentaldegradation, and discrimination against women. To successfully monitor in orderto achieve them, all the MDGs have specific targets and indicators.9 TheDeclaration later on transformed into the Millennium Development Goals(MDGs): Eight Goals for 2015.10

Millennium Development Goal (MDG) Seven (7) ‘Ensure EnvironmentalSustainability’ is related to ecology & environment.11 It highlights and exhortscountries to practice sustainable development; to enhance the biodiversity in termsof preserving them; provision of safe drinking water to the majority of the peopleand positive welfare approach towards the slum dwellers. The analysis ofperformance of India along the lines of respective key sub-goals and indicatorsnow follows.

Target 7.A:

Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies andprogrammes and reverse the loss of environmental resources

As India moves closer towards meeting the environment related MDG, ithas enacted series of legislation to ensure the sustainability of the environment.Some of them are The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, amended 1991; TheEnvironment (Protection) Rules, 1986; Environment (Siting for IndustrialProjects) Rules, 1999; Declaration of Coastal Stretches as Coastal Regulation Zone(CRZ) amended 3/10/2001; The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation andControl) Rules, 2000; The National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995; The WildLife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002; Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980,amended 1988; Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and Biological Diversity Rules,2004 among others.12

Additively, India also is signatory to various Multilateral EnvironmentalAgreements. India became a party to Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species (CITES) in 1976. India signed the Ramsar Convention onWetlands in 1981. India acceded to the Montreal Protocol along with its LondonAmendment on 19th June 1992. India signed the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (FCCC) on 10th June 1992 and ratified it on 1st

November 1993. India became a signatory to the Convention on BiologicalDiversity (CBD) in December 1993 and ratified the Convention in February1994. India signed the Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD) in 1994and ratified it in December 1996. India acceded to the Kyoto Protocol in August2002 for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to mitigate green housegasses (GHGs). Thus we can see that globally India has felt its presence in


sustaining environment. Most importantly, as Sawhney (2004) has pointed outthat post 1990s i.e. in the era of liberalization and privatization some positivefeature have emerged in environmental scenario. Some of these are polluting state-owned units reduced; exports tuned towards environment-related traderestrictions; and growth of ‘clean service sector (2004: 3-4).

At the planning and policy level, the National Environment Policy 2006 basictenet is that “while conservation of environmental resources is necessary to securelivelihoods and well-being of all, the most secure basis for conservation is to ensurethat people dependent on particular resources obtain better livelihoods from thefact of conservation, than from degradation of the resource” (p.3). Accordinglyit enumerates following objectives for sustainable environment & ecology13 :

i) Conservation of Critical Environmental Resources;ii) Intra-generational Equity: Livelihood Security for the Poor;

iii) Inter-generational Equity;iv) Integration of Environmental Concerns in Economic and Social

Development;v) Efficiency in Environmental Resource Use;

vi) Environmental Governance; andvii) Enhancement of Resources for Environmental Conservation

The Planning Commission’s Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth: AnInterim Report (2011) talks about two scenarios for low carbon strategies acrossvarious sectors of economy. The first one, Determined Effort Scenario focuseson “vigorous and effective implementation of mitigation policies that have eitherbeen put into place or are presently contemplated by the Government” (p.104).The second scenario termed Aggressive Effort Scenario highlights the importanceof “design and implementation of new policies” in this regard (p.104).14

The Economic Survey 2011-2012 outlines that “sustainable development andclimate change are becoming central areas of global concern and India too isequally concerned and engaged constructively in global negotiations” (p.3) and“argues for lower carbon sustainable growth a central element of our Twelfth FiveYear Plan commencing in April 2012” (p.21).15 Additively, for the first time, aChapter on Sustainable Development and Climate Change has been introducedin the annual Economic Survey.

In an important move towards integrating the principles of sustainabledevelopment into country’s policies and programmes, India has also taken someadditional measures such as formulation of National Green Tribunal (NGT) Actin 2010, E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules in 2011, Charter onCorporate Responsibilities for Environment Protection (CREP) in March 2003,and setting up of a National Environmental Appraisal and Monitoring Agency(NEAMA) among others.

Target 7.B

Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of


loss

The year 2010 was observed as the International Year of Biodiversity. Indiais one of the 17 megadiverse countries with 4 global biodiversity hotspots. Atthe global level, The World Conservation Union (IUCN): India Country Strategy(2006) Report outlined certain priority areas regarding conservation of ecologyboth in terms of bio diversity and sustainability. Some of these are “enhancinginternational cooperation; mainstreaming conservation in sectoral policy;influencing resource use practices sustaining fragile ecosystems; promotingcommunity conservation; and participatory management of protected areas”(pp.9-13).16

In India, the Biological Diversity Act 2002 “covers conservation, use ofbiological resources and associated knowledge occurring in India for commercialor research purposes or for the purposes of bio-survey and bio-utilisation.”17

Additively, the general function of National Biodiversity Authority as constitutedunder Biological Diversity Rules, 2004 is to “advise the Central Government onany matter concerning conservation of bio-diversity, sustainable use of itscomponents and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use ofbiological resource and knowledge” (p.4).18

Nearly 5% of the geographical area in India is designated as Protected Areawhich includes 102 National Parks, 515 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 47 ConservationReserves and 4 Community Reserves. Additively 39 Tiger Reserves and 28Elephant Reserves have been designated for tiger and elephant habitats. To reducethe biodiversity loss, India is on track as it has several Reserved Forests alongwith 15 Biosphere Reserves. According to the Annual Report 2009-10, NationalBiodiversity Authority, “24 State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs), 31,542 BiodiversityManagement Committees (BMCs) have been constituted in different states and370 PBRs have been prepared by the respective SBBs /BMCs” (p.10) and “45,968species of plants and 91,364 species of animals have been documented” (p.11).19

7.1 Proportion of Land Area Covered by Forest

At present, 30% of the Earth’s land mass is covered by forests (UNEP, 2011: 37).United Nations has declared the year 2011 as the International Year of Forests toraise awareness among people. The State of the World’s Forests (2012) proposesfour key strategies for sustainable development via forest and forestry.20 Theseare:

a) Plant trees and invest in ecosystem services;b) Promote small and medium forest-based enterprises, and gender equity;c) Use wood for energy; reuse and recycle wood products; andd) Enhance communication, and coordinate development.

Forest Survey of India (FSI) under the union Ministry of Environment andForests assesses and monitors forest resources of the country at regular intervals.It classifies the forest cover in 4 classes, namely very dense forest, moderately denseforest, open forest and mangrove.21 The target is to achieve at least 33% of the


forest cover in the country. The Forest Conservation Act of India, 1980 (amended1988) is aimed towards conservation of forests. The National Forest Commissionset up in 2003 is also active in this domain. The proportion of land area coveredby forest in India was 21.5% in 1990, 22% in 2000, 22.8% in 2005 and 23%in 2010.22 According to India State of Forest Report 2011 the Forest and Tree coverof the country is 78.29 million hectare accounting for 23.81% of the geographicalarea of the country.23 However there is a decline of 367 square km. in country’sforest cover.

Additively it needs to be pointed out that the area under mangroves is 4662square km.24 Some of the major locations of mangrove forests in the country aredeltas of river Ganges, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery and theAndaman and Nicobar islands. According to this Report the largest forest coverin the country is in Madhya Pradesh which has 77,700 square km. of forest area.Arunachal Pradesh with 67, 410 square km. is at the second position. In termsof percentage of forest cover in relation to total geographical area, Mizoram is atthe first place with 90.68% followed by Lakshadweep with 84.56%.

7.2 CO2 emissions, total, per capita and per $1 GDP (PPP)

According to World Bank, “Carbon dioxide emissions are those stemming fromthe burning of fossil fuels and the manufacture of cement. They include carbondioxide produced during consumption of solid, liquid, and gas fuels and gasflaring.”25 With the increased industrialization and urbanization coupled with aphenomenal increase in the urban population worldwide, the air pollution hasincreased to an alarming extent.26 According to a recent report by United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP hereafter) “80% of the global CO2 emissions[…is….] being generated by 19 countries—mainly those with high levels ofeconomic development and/or large populations” (UNEP, 2011: 21) and “[T]heenergy supply sector, industry/manufacturing and forestry sectors together accountfor over 60% of all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions” (UNEP, 2011: 24).

In 2005, India’s share in global Greenhouse gas/es (GHG) emission was 4percent.27 World Bank estimates that India’s CO2 emissions (kt.) was 1,612,384in 2007 and 1,742,698 in 2008 respectively.28 According to PlanningCommission’s Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth: An Interim Report (2011),India’s “greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by sources and removal by sinks was1727.71 million tons of CO2 equivalents in 2007” (p.16) and “1433 million tonsof CO2 equivalents in 2005” (p.24).29

An important document in this regard is World Energy Outlook 2011 byInternational Energy Agency (IEA) which “assesses the threats and opportunitiesfacing the global energy system based on a rigorous quantitative analysis of energyand climate trends” (p.1). India’s carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions from fossil-fuelcombustion, rose by 140 Mt, or 8.7%, to become the fourth largest emitter at theglobal level. The first three are China, the United States, and the European Unionrespectively.30 The Economic Survey, India 2011-2012 highlights that India’s per


capita CO2 emissions are much lower (1.52 CO2 tons) than those of the developedcountries even if historical emissions are excluded.31

7.3 Consumption of ozone-depleting substances

According to Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook (1998) by World BankGroup, “the ozone-depleting chemicals or substances (ODSs) of concern areCFCs, halons, methyl chloroform (1,1,1,-trichloroethane; MCF), carbontetrachloride (CTC), Hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and methyl bromide”(p.1).32 The ozone-depleting substances became for the first time globallyprominent due to Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layeradopted on 1985 ( India becoming party on 19th June 1991) and MontrealProtocol on ‘Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer’ adopted on 16th September1987 (India becoming party on 17th December 1992). India is also a signatoryto the Montreal Protocol has Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation andControl) Rules, 2000. Many countries globally adopted their key features in theirgovernment policies to further restrict the ozone hole over the Antarctic region.

To control the use of ODSs, the Ministry of Environment and Forests,Government of India has following guidelines in place:33

a) Regulation of production and consumption of ozone depleting substances;b) Prohibition on export to or import from countries not specified in

Schedule VI;c) Ozone depleting substances are to be exported to or imported from

countries specified in Schedule VI under a license;d) Regulation on the purchase & use of ozone depleting substances;e) Prohibition on new investments, import, export and sale of products made

with or containing ozone depleting substances; andf ) Monitoring and reporting requirements.

In India, the Ozone Depleting Substances consumption in Ozone DepletingP tones in CFCs was 3,560.3, 216.5 and 316.1 in 2006, 2008 and 2010respectively. The same in hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) was 592.5, 2,007.9and 1,617.6 in 2006, 2008 and 2010 respectively.34 According to MillenniumDevelopment Goals: India Country Report 2011, “as of 2011, India has a total of301 Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) projects to phase out 58,638 OzoneDepleting Potential (ODP) tone” (p.103).35

7.4 Proportion of Fish Stocks within Safe Biological Limits

According to UNIP (2011: 69) “since 1992, the proportion of fully exploitedfish stocks increased by 13% and overexploited, depleted or recovering stocksincreased by 33%, reaching 52% and 33%, respectively, of all fish stocks.” Thefishing activity in India is done in Kerala, Karnataka, Goa (Southwest), Gujarat,Maharashtra (Northwest) and Odisha, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,Andaman’s & Nicobar (East coast). The Coastal length (km.) is 8,046 with 1414landing centres along with 3322 fishing villages. There are altogether 764,868


fishermen families having total Fisher folk population of 3,574,704.36 Theincidental fish catch during the year 2009-10 was 96.6 tonnes” (p.4).37

The Green Peace Report Safeguard or Squander? : Deciding the future of India’sfisheries (June 2012) has seriously questioned the way fishing is being doneexceeding its natural limit and has pointed out the following concerns:38

i) Fishing down the marine web;ii) Declines and sharp fluctuations in key fisheries;

iii) State-wise total catch fluctuations;iv) High volumes of bycatch and discards andv) Decline in catch by the non-mechanised sector

To combat the above and to arrive at more sustainable way of fishing theFishery Survey of India’s long-term vision includes “large marine ecosystemapproach for conservation, management of resources and preservation ofenvironment, habitat management and assessment of risk to habitats,environmental impact of fishing on protected species and sustainable fishery andenhanced food security.”39

7.5 Proportion of Total Water Resources Used

According to National Water Policy 2002, water is needed for “diverse purposes:domestic, industrial, agricultural, hydro-power, thermal-power, navigation,recreation, etc.”40 Environmental Indicators for South Asia (UNEP, 2004: 39-40)points out that India had per capita water withdrawal at 588 cu.m/capita/annumand 187.4 cu.m/capita/annum annual ground water withdrawal in 1990.41 MajorRiver Basins in India are Ganga, Brahmaputra, Godavari & Krishna among otherswith total catchment area (sq. km.) of 861452+, 194413+, 312812 and 258948respectively. According to the Ministry of water Resources, Government of India,“the total Annual Replenishable ground water resources of the country have beenestimated as 433 billion cubic meter (BCM hereafter). Keeping 34 BCM fornatural discharge, the net annual ground water availability for the entire countryis 399 BCM.42 The Draft National Water Policy (2012) states that India “receiveson average annual precipitation of about 4000 Billion Cubic Meter (BCM), whichis its basic water resource. Out of this, after considering the natural evaporation—transpiration, only about 1869 Billion Cubic Meter (BCM) is average annualnatural flow through rivers and aquifers. (p.5).”43

According to AQUASTAT: FAO’s Information System on Water andAgriculture, freshwater withdrawal as percent of total actual renewable waterresources was 26.16%, 31.94% and 33.88% in 1988-92, 1998-2002 and 2008-12 respectively. Additively, agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total actualrenewable water resources was 24.07%, 29.22% and 36% in 1988-92, 1998-2002and 2008-12 respectively.44 Additively, Annual Report 2010-2011 by Ministry ofWater Resources, Government of India also points out the grim scenario as “atpresent, about 15% of the assessment blocks are over-exploited and about 14% ofthe assessment blocks fall in the category of critical and semi-critical blocks (p.1).45


7.6 Proportion of Terrestrial and Marine Areas Protected

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are essential to conserve the biodiversity of theoceans and to maintain productivity, especially of fish stocks (p.xi).46 MarineProtected Areas (MPAs) have become all the more important today as one of theimportant constituent of oceanic biodiversity coral reefs “are currentlyexperiencing higher ocean temperatures and acidity than at any other time in atleast the last 400 000 years” (UNEP, 2011: 33). In India, the key goals andobjectives for Marine and Coastal Protected Areas (MCPAs) are to protect eitherspecific habitat or endangered species.47 There are three kinds of Marine ProtectedAreas in India i.e. National Parks and Sanctuaries, islands, sandy beaches andever green or semi ever green forests of islands.

India has a total of 31 marine sanctuaries and national parks, which coveran area of about 6,271.21 square km. The protected areas cover 15.6% of thetotal coastal wetlands of the Country (p.1).48 According to another estimate,“India has a network of 611 Protected Areas (Pas), including 96 national parks,510 wildlife sanctuaries, three conservation reserves, and two community reserves,covering a total of 155,978.05 square km. Besides these, the GOI has also declared14 biosphere reserves under the UNESCO-MAB program, which are also partof the Protected Area network.”49 According to UN Data, the percentage ofterrestrial and marine areas protected to total territorial area in India has remainedstatic for quite a long time at 4.82% between the period 1999-2010.50 Some ofmarine and coastal protected areas in India are Gulf of Mannar, Gahirmatha(marine), Sundarban, Great Nicobar among others.

7.7 Proportion of Species Threatened with Extinction

According to UNEP (2011: 46), “on average, 52 species per year moved onecategory closer to extinction from 1980 to 2008.” UN Data points out that therewere 758 threatened species in 2010 in India.51 Section 38 of the BiodiversityAct, India provides for the preservation of the species on the verge of extinction.Additively, governmental agencies such as the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI),Botanical Survey of India (BSI), the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) are alsovery active in this regard.

The Critically Endangered Animal Species of India (2011) Report hashighlighted the critically endangered birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish,spiders and corals. According to this Report, “out of nine species of vultures, thepopulation of three species—White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris) and Long-billed Vulture (Gyps indicus) hasdeclined by 99%” (p.5).52 Critically endangered mammals include SumatranRhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) and Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus).

Target 7.C:

Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safedrinking water and basic sanitation


7.8 Proportion of Population using an Improved Drinking Water Source

Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update (2012) jointly byUNICEF and World Health Organization points to some very encouragingfindings regarding Asia in general and India in particular at the global level.53

Some of these are:

i) The global MDG of drinking water has been met.ii) At the global level, drinking water coverage increased from 76% in 1990

to 89% in 2010 (p.5).iii) According to the Report, “almost half of the two billion people who have

gained access to drinking water since 1990 live in China or India (p.7).

According to Millennium Development Goals: India Country Report 2011,Proportion of households having access to improved water sources was 77.9%,88%, 84.4% and 91.4% at national level in 1998-99, 2005-06, 2007-08 and2008-09 respectively. Accordingly, the figure for urban stands at 92.6%, 95%,94.4% and 93.9% and for the rural stands at 72.3%, 84.5%, 79.6% and 90.4%for the same period (p.105). However in the context of increased populationpressure, urbanization and industrialization coupled with water intensiveagricultural practices and climate change, Draft National Water Policy (2012)states that “access to safe water for drinking and other domestic needs stillcontinues to be a problem in many areas. Skewed availability of water betweendifferent regions and different people in the same region and also the intermittentand unreliable water supply system has the potential of causing social unrest”(p.1).

Annual Report 2011-2012, Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation(MDWS), Government of India states that “the current status of provision ofdrinking water in rural areas ….. is about 72% of total rural habitations. Therest are either partially covered or have drinking water sources contaminated withchemical contamination” (p.2).54 The Report further points out that “thepercentage of piped water supply varies from 1.1% in Bihar to 99.1% inPuducherry and 87.3% in Tamil Nadu” (p.4).

To provide safe drinking water to the rural areas, the Swajaldhara programmewas revised in April 2009 and was named National Rural Drinking WaterProgramme (NRDWP). Rural drinking water is one of the six components ofBharat Nirman launched in 2005.55 Under the Bharat Nirman programme 54,440habitations were covered during 2005-06 to 2008-09; 251 habitations during2009-10 and 376 habitations upto 31/03/2011. The Report also has a StrategicPlan to “ensure that at least 55% of rural households are provided with pipedwater supply by 2017” (p.25).

7.9 Proportion of Population Using an Improved Sanitation Facility

National Urban Sanitation Policy (Ministry of Urban Development, Governmentof India) defines sanitation as “safe management of human excreta, including its


safe confinement treatment, disposal and associated hygiene-related practices”(p.6).56 According to UNIP 2011, at the global level “improved sanitationcoverage was just above the 60% mark in 2008, up from 54% in 1990, withover 2,500 million people still without access” (UNEP, 2011: 42). Progress onDrinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update (2012) states that “Globally, 63%of the population use improved sanitation facilities, an increase of almost 1.8billion people since 1990” (p.15). The Report adds that “Four out of 10 peoplewho have gained access to improved sanitation since 1990 live in China or India”(p.17).

In countries like India where sanitation is closely linked with the purity-pollution concept, the problem at some places aggravates to an alarming level. Ithas been found that even though the community or the family is economicallywell off they do not spend money on construction of latrines due to socio-religiousnotion of purity and pollution. It is further attested by Progress on Drinking Waterand Sanitation: 2012 Update (2012) that “nearly 60 per cent of those practicingopen defecation live in India” (p.20). Environmental Indicators for South Asia(UNEP, 2004: 41) points out that only 73% of population had access to sanitationin 2000 in India. According to Draft National Water Policy (2012) “access towater for sanitation and hygiene is an even more serious problem. Inadequatesanitation and lack of sewage treatment are polluting the water sources” (p.2).57

Additively National Environment Policy 2006 points out that “environmentalfactors are estimated as being responsible in some cases for nearly 20 percent ofthe burden of disease in India” (p.6).

National Urban Sanitation Policy (Ministry of Urban Development,Government of India) highlights certain features of sanitation in urban India.58

Some of these are:

i) 12.04 million (7.87%) Urban households do not have access to latrinesand defecate in the open (p.6).

ii) 5.48 million (8.13%) Urban households use community latrines and 13.4million households (19.49%) use shared latrines (p.6).

iii) The percentage of notified and non-notified slums without latrines is 17percent and 51 percent respectively. In respect of septic latrines theavailability is 66 percent and 35 percent (p.6).

According to Annual Report 2011-12, Ministry of Drinking Water andSanitation (MDWS), Government of India, “only about 22% of the rural familieshad access to toilets in 2001. With the efforts put into the Total SanitationCampaign (TLC started in 1999), this has gone up to 75.28% as of December2011” (p.51). The Report also highlights that there are about 8.38 croresIndividual Household Latrines (IHHL) as of December 2011. The Ministry ofDrinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS), Government of India also has devisedRural Sanitation and Hygiene Strategy (2012 – 2022) aiming towards “creationof Total Sanitized Environments by 2017, adoption of hygiene practices by 2020and Effective management of solid and liquid waste such that the village


environment is kept clean at all times by 2022” (p.58). Additively Nirmal GramPuraskar (NGP) award is given to those Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) whichhave 100% open defecation free environment. In 2011, 2857 Gram Panchayatswere awarded Nirmal Gram Puraskar (NGP).59 Sikkim is the first Nirmal statein India.

Target 7.D:

By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100million slum dwellers

7.10 Proportion of urban population living in slums

At the global level, “the absolute number of people living in slums has increasedby 26% over the same period, equalling 171 million additional people and raisingtheir number from 656 million in 1990 to 827 million in 2010” (UNEP, 2011:7).60 UN-HABITAT defines a slum household as a group of individuals livingunder the same roof in an urban area who lack one or more of the following61 :

i) Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against extremeclimate conditions.

ii) Sufficient living space which means not more than three people sharingthe same room.

iii) Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price.iv) Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or public toilet

shared by a reasonable number of people.v) Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions.

The urbanization process in India has superseded its limits the effects of whichis seen in the decaying of the cities i.e. ‘urban decay’, phenomenal increase ofurban slums and severe lack of infrastructural facilities like electricity and waterto its inhabitants, etc. The percentage of urban population to the total populationof the country stands at 27.8. There are three Indian cities in top ten megacitiesin 2010 i.e. Delhi (2nd position with 22.2 million people), Mumbai (4th positionwith 20.0 million people) and Kolkata (8th position with 15.6 million people)(UNEP, 2011: 5). This increase of population in urban India has led to severeresource crunch primarily in terms of place to stay and access to water resources.

In India, slum data have been collected for the first time in Census 2001 fortowns/cities having urban population of 50000 or more. The percentage of slumpopulation to the total population of the country is 4.1 i.e. 42.6 million peopleliving in 8.3 households across 640 cities/towns in 2001 Census. Report of theCommittee on Slum Statistics/Census, 2011 defines slum as “a compact settlementof at least 20 households with a collection of poorly built tenements, mostly oftemporary nature, crowded together usually with inadequate sanitary and drinkingwater facilities in unhygienic condition” (p.20).62 (p.21). Report of the WorkingGroup on Urban Poverty, Slums, and Service Delivery System (2011) by PlanningCommission points out that “34.5 per cent of the population of Mumbai, Delhi,


Kolkata, and Chennai live in slum settlements” (p.13) and “the crude estimatesput the space under slum settlements at about 18,000 million – 20,000 millionsq. feet, which is said to be in illegal and unauthorized occupation of slumdwellers” (p.14).63

Conclusion

The main objective of the article was to locate India performance vis-à-vis UnitedNations’ environment related Millennium Development Goal (MDG).Millennium Development Goal (MDG) as we know are the set goals which thehumanity needs to achieve so as to ensure its survival which can be afforded.The article very briefly touched upon the global status of the environment andtries to inter-link those with the scenario prevalent in India. On the whole theperformance is mixed bag of success and shortcomings. Thus, the best possibleway is to “develop for each ecological area land and water use strategy which can,through careful blend of agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fisheries, helpto diversify the sources of employment and maximize income” (Swaminathan,2007: 165).

India being a signatory to various Multilateral Environmental Agreements(MEAs) has shown its commitment both at the local and global levels towardsprotecting the environment. At the planning and policy level, the NationalEnvironment Policy 2006; Planning Commission’s Low Carbon Strategies forInclusive Growth: An Interim Report (2011) and formulation of National GreenTribunal (NGT) Act in 2010 are initiatives taken in this regard. Regardingreducing biodiversity loss, India is one of the 17 mega-diverse countries with 4global biodiversity hotspots along with a total of 31 marine sanctuaries andnational parks, which cover an area of about 6,271.21 square km. which iscomplimented by Biological Diversity Act 2002. Forest Conservation Act of India,1980 (amended 1988) along with the National Forest Commission are gearedtowards providing and protecting the green cover.

There is a point of environmental concern as India at present is the fourthlargest emitter of carbon-dioxide (CO2) at the global level. Another are of primeconcern is available water resources as both the categories of critical and semi-critical blocks are visible in India. In term of drinking water, India has made animpressive growth. At the same time, preserving of the forests and wildlife hasbeen in the frontline. However, in terms of Marine Protected Areas, it needs toincrease the area from a mere 4.8%. At the same time, the growth of urban slumsis a point of concern. Increased migration and lopsided urban growth has led tosuch a scenario. What India needs today is a very balanced policy of urban growthwhich should focus on providing basic amenities to urban population. The urbanIndia should not become an example of ‘urban decay’.

NOTES

1. Global Issues, http://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/ Accessed on: Friday, September28, 2012.


2. The World Conservation Union (IUCN): India Country Strategy, August 2006 [Online] Availableat: https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_india_strategy__final__2.pdf. Accessed on:Saturday, October 06, 2012

3. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/environment/environmentalindicatorsmodellingandoutlooks/37551205.pdf. Accessed on: Friday, September 28, 2012. Also see Key Environmental Indicators:Tracking progress towards environmental Sustainability, United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) [Online]. Available at: http://www.unep.org/yearbook/2012/pdfs/UYB_2012_CH_4.pdf. Accessed on: Friday, September 28, 2012

4. Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability by 2015 [Online] http://www.worldbank.org/mdgs/environment.html

5. Goal: Ensure environmental sustainability [Online]. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/mdg/environment.html. Accessed on: Friday, September 28, 2012.

6. BBC News: State of the planet, in graphics [Online]. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/629/629/7056601.stm. Accessed on: Friday, September 28, 2012

7. 38 key global environmental indicators worsen – report, Worldwatch Institute, September14, 2007 [Online]. Available at: http://news.mongabay.com/2007/0914-vital_signs.html.Accessed on: Friday, September 28, 2012

8. For details see Global Issues: Environment [Online]. Available at: http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/environment/ Accessed on: Friday, September 28, 2012

9. The United Nations Millennium Declaration [Online] http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.pdf

10. The Millennium Development Goals: Eight Goals for 2015 [Online] http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/mdgoverview.html

11. Ensure Environmental Sustainability, http://www.mdgmonitor.org/goal7.cfm12. For details visit http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/legis.html13. For details visit http://envfor.nic.in/nep/nep2006e.pdf14. Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth: An Interim Report. Planning Commission.

Government of India. May 2011. [Online]. Available at: http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/Inter_Exp.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

15. Highlights of Economic Survey 2011-12 [Online]. Available at: http://pib.nic.in/archieve/esurvey/esurvey2011/eng2011.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

16. The World Conservation Union (IUCN): India Country Strategy, August 2006 [Online].Available at: https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_india_strategy__final__2.pdf. Accessedon: Saturday, October 06, 2012

17. Biological Diversity Act 2002 [Online]. Available at: http://nbaindia.org/text/12//TheBiologicalDiversityAct2002.html. Accessed on: Saturday, October 06, 2012

18. Biological Diversity Rules, 2004 [Online]. Available at: http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/biodiv/gsr-261%28e%29.pdf. Accessed on: Saturday, October 06, 2012

19. Annual Report 2009-2010, National Biodiversity Authority, Government of India.. Availableat: http://nbaindia.org/uploaded/docs/NBA_AnnualReport2009-10_English.pdf. Accessedon: Saturday, October 06, 2012

20. State of the World’s Forests (2012). [Online] pp. 10. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i3010e/i3010e00.pdf. Accessed on: Saturday, September 29, 2012

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22. Proportion of land area covered by forest, percentage. Available at: http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=MDG&f=seriesRowID%3A567. Accessed on: Saturday, September 29, 2012

23. India State of Forest Report 2011 Released [Online]. Available at: http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=80170. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

24. Forest Cover. State of Forest Report 2011. pp. 16. Available at: http://www.fsi.org.in/cover_2011/chapter2.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

25. CO2 emissions (kt), World Bank [Online]. Available at: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.KT. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

26. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global atmosphericconcentrations of CO2, CH4, and nitrous oxide (N2O) have increased markedly as aresult of human activities since 1750 and now far exceed preindustrial levels. SustainableDevelopment and Climate Change, Pp. 5. [Online]. Available at: http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2011-12/echap-12.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012


27. Sustainable Development and Climate Change, Pp. 8 [Online]. Available at: http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2011-12/echap-12.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

28. CO2 emissions (kt), World Bank [Online]. Available at: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.KT. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

29. Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth: An Interim Report. Planning Commission.Government of India. May 2011. [Online]. Available at: http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/Inter_Exp.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

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31. Highlights of Economic Survey 2011-12 [Online]. Available at: http://pib.nic.in/archieve/esurvey/esurvey2011/eng2011.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

32. Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook (1998), World Bank Group [Online]. Availableat: http://www1.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/4e730100488559478284d26a6515bb18/HandbookOzoneDepletingSubstancesAlternatives.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=4e730100488559478284d26a6515bb18. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

33. Notification, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi, dated,the July 17, 2000 [Online]. Available at: http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/ods/odsrcr.html.Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

34. ODS Consumption in ODP Tonnes, Ozone Secretariat, United Nations EnvironmentProgramme [Online]. Available at: http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/Information/generate_report.php?calculated_field= ODS+Consumption&calc_units=ODP&incl_baseline=1&cntry=IN&all_anxgrp=on&anxgrp=AI&anxgrp=AII &anxgrp=BI&anxgrp=BII&anxgrp=BIII&anxgrp=CI&anxgrp=CII&anxgrp=CIII&anxgrp=EI& summary=0&Yr1=2006&Yr2=2011. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012. Also see Productionand Consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances under the Montreal Protocol 1986–2000,Ozone Secretariat, United Nations Environment Programme [Online]. Available at: http://ozone.unep.org/pdfs/15-year-data-report.pdf

35. Central Statistical Organization, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation,Government of India. www.mospi.nic.in.

36. National Marine Fisheries Census 2005: Union Territories of Andaman & Nicobar andLakshadweep Islands. 2006. Pp. 89. [Online] Fishery Survey of India, Ministry of Agriculture,Government of India, Mumbai. Available at: http://fsi.gov.in/LATEST-WB-SITE/pdf_files/statistics/MarineCensus-2005.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

37. Annual Report 2009-2010. Fishery Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry ofAgriculture, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries, Mumbai. October2010. [Online]. Available at: http://fsi.gov.in/LATEST-WB-SITE/pdf_files/statistics/Annual%20report-09-10-English.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

38. Safeguard or Squander? : Deciding the future of India’s fisheries. Ashish Fernandes & SanjivGopal. Green Peace: Bengaluru. June, 2012. Available at: http://www.greenpeace.org/india/Global/india/report/Safeguard-or-squander-deciding-the-future-of-india%27s-fisheries.pdf.Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

39. Fishery Survey of India: Futuristic Vision [Online]. Available at: http://fsi.gov.in/LATEST-WB-SITE/pdf_files/infor-charts/15_vision.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

40. National Water Policy 2002. pp. 1. [Online]. Available at: http://wrmin.nic.in/writereaddata/linkimages/nwp20025617515534.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

41. Environmental Indicators for South Asia. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).2004. [Online]. Available at: http://www.rrcap.unep.org/pub/indicator/Vertical%20South%20Asia.pdf . Accessed on: Monday, October 01, 2012

42. Ground Water Resources of the Country. Available at: http://wrmin.nic.in/index3.asp?subsublinkid=829&langid=1&sslid=417. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30,2012

43. Draft National Water Policy (2012). Available at: http://wrmin.nic.in/writereaddata/linkimages/DraftNWP2012_English9353289094.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012. Also


see Review of water resources statistics by country. AQUASTAT: FAO’s Information Systemon Water and Agriculture. Available at: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/water_res/index.stm

44. AQUASTAT: FAO’s Information System on Water and Agriculture. Available at: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/results.html. Accessed on: Sunday, September30, 2012

45. Annual Report 2010-2011. Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India. Availableat: http://wrmin.nic.in/writereaddata/linkimages/ar20116686915959.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday,September 30, 2012

46. Kelleher, G. (1999). Guidelines for Marine Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerlandand Cambridge, UK.

47. Marine protected areas: Country case studies on policy, governance and institutional issues.[Online]. pp. 38. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2191e/i2191e.pdf. Accessedon: Sunday, September 30, 2012

48. ANNEXURE-IV: Marine and Coastal Protected Areas in India. Available at: http://www.envfor.nic.in/divisions/cs/mangroves/NSAP/Annexure%20IV.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday,September 30, 2012

49. Draft Environmental and Social Assessment Report, Center for Environment and Development,Thiruvanathapuram, Kerala. pp. 73. Available at: http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/Final_report_ICZM.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012. Also see,Marine Protected Areas in India. H.S. Singh. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, Vol. 32(3),September 2003, pp. 226-233.

50. http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=MDG&f=seriesRowID%3A616. Accessed on: Sunday,September 30, 2012

51. Available at: http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=INDIA52. Critically Endangered Animal Species of India, Ramki Srinivasan, Zoological Survey of India,

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, March 2011 [Online]. Availableat: http://envfor.nic.in/downloads/public-information/critically_endangered_booklet.pdf.Accessed on: Saturday, October 06, 2012

53. Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update (2012). UNICEF and World HealthOrganization [Online]. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/media/files/JMPreport2012.pdf.Accessed on: Monday, October 01, 2012

54. Annual Report 2011-2012, Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation – (MDWS).Government of India [Online]. Available at: http://ddws.gov.in/sites/upload_files/ddws/files/pdf/2011-12%20Final%20Annual%20Report%20%28English%29.pdf. Accessed on:Monday, October 01, 2012

55. Bharat Nirman: Rural drinking water, Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission,Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India. Available at: http://ddws.gov.in/sites/upload_files/ddws/files/pdf/DMUreportJune2012.pdf. Accessed on: Monday,October 01, 2012

56. National Urban Sanitation Policy (Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India).Available at: http://www.urbanindia.nic.in/programme/uwss/NUSP.pdf. Accessed on: Monday,October 01, 2012

57. Draft National Water Policy (2012). Available at: http://wrmin.nic.in/writereaddata/linkimages/DraftNWP2012_English9353289094.pdf. Accessed on: Sunday, September 30, 2012

58. National Urban Sanitation Policy (Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India).Available at: http://www.urbanindia.nic.in/programme/uwss/NUSP.pdf. Accessed on: Monday,October 01, 2012

59. Visit http://nirmalgrampuraskar.nic.in/Report/RptGPAwardedSummaryTill2010.aspx60. UNEP (2011). Keeping Track of Our Changing Environment: From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-

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61. UN HABITAT: State of the World’s Cities 2006/7, UNCHS United Nations Center forHuman Settlements (now UNHabitat) [Online]. Available at: http://www.unhabitat.org/documents/media_centre/sowcr2006/SOWCR%205.pdf. Accessed on: Friday, September28, 2012.


62. Report of the Committee on Slum Statistics/Census, 2011, Government of India. Availableat: http://mhupa.gov.in/W_new/Slum_Report_NBO.pdf. Accessed on: Monday, October01, 2012

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