2002_Marcel Duchamp's Art and the Geography of Modern Paris_4140931

8/3/2019 2002_Marcel Duchamp's Art and the Geography of Modern Paris_4140931

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American Geographical Society

Marcel Duchamp's Art and the Geography of Modern ParisAuthor(s): James HousefieldSource: Geographical Review, Vol. 92, No. 4 (Oct., 2002), pp. 477-502Published by: American Geographical SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4140931 .Accessed: 29/05/2011 13:57

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T h e GeographicaleviewVOLUME2 October002 NUMBER

MARCELDUCHAMP'S ART AND THEGEOGRAPHYOF MODERN PARIS*JAMESHOUSEFIELD

ABSTRACT. odernartistMarcelDuchamp'sconcept of the readymaderemainsinfluentialthough controversial. proposea new interpretationof the readymadesas a coherentseriesof works that re-create the landscapeof Paris in the artist'sNew YorkCity studio. Usingtechniques that parallelthe conceptualand visual transformationsof space performedbycartography ndby landscapepainting,Duchampcreatedapersonal,monumental,and three-dimensional"map"by replacingParisianmonuments with small-scaleobjects.The ready-madesthus expandon thequestof modern artistsforinnovativewaysto represent andscapeand, at the same time, offer geographersnew ways of seeing landscape.Keywords:MarcelDuchamp, andscape,modernart, monuments,Paris,readymadeculpture,urbangeography.

~ IlthoughMarcelDuchamp(1887-1968) anksamong the most influentialartistsof the twentiethcentury,geographershavepaid scant attentionto his work.'Muchof Duchamp's reputation is based on his idea of the "readymade," mass-pro-ducedobjectthat the artist did not makebut selected (and,sometimes,modified).One of the most notorious of the readymades emainshis 1917Fountain,a commonurinal that the artist signed with a pseudonym (Figure 1). Until the 1960s, thereadymadeswere primarilyexhibited alone or in small groups.Only Duchamp'sclose friendsandpatronscould have seengroupsof the readymades ogetherin hisNew YorkCity studio, a context that gavethe objects personallevels of meaning.Generationsof critics and artistsinterpreted he readymadessolelyas avant-gardeacts of anti-art,works that replacedthe notion of physicalartistic craft with anintellectualact of choice. With the readymades,however,Duchamp engagedques-tionsof geographyandlandscapenot typicallyassociatedwith sculpture.Thisessay*I amvery grateful o Denis Cosgrove,DianaDavis,LindaHenderson,RogerShattuck,and HellmutWohl,whoseearlyand sustained input contributed immensely to the development of these ideas. Engagedresponses fromStephanieTaylor,audiences at Association of AmericanGeographersconferences,and my students in advancedseminarshelped me clarifyaspectsof this work.I must also thank PeterBrooker,MaryGluck,JonHegglund,andAndrewThackerfor encouragingthis projectin conferencepanels of the Modernist Studies Association. South-west TexasStateUniversityprovidedtwo researchenhancementgrantsthatsupportedthe writingand illustrationof this work, for which I offer grateful acknowledgment. To Paul Starrs and the journal's anonymous reviewers Isend special thanks for their thoughtful comments and suggestions.V DR. HOUSEFIELD is an assistant professor of art history at Southwest Texas State University, SanMarcos, Texas 78666-4616.

The Geographical Review 92 (4): 477-502, October 2002Copyright ? 2003 by the American Geographical Society of New York


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478 THEGEOGRAPHICALEVIEWwill show that Duchamp used the readymadesto translatethe cityscapeof Parisinto sculpturalform and to createa familiar andscapein his transatlanticstudio.His readymades ontributed o modern art's nterest n the urban andscape n waysthathave not previouslybeen recognizedand offergeographersa casestudyof thepotentiallycomplex interrelationshipshat developedbetween modern art and ge-ographyin the earlytwentiethcentury.

Duchamp's readymades ngage analogy,humor,and shifts in scale to translateelements of the humanmade urban landscape into the interior landscapeof thestudio. Such shifts and translationsparallelthe physicaland conceptual transfor-mationsof landscape ntocartographic epresentations, rmaps.Cartographyrans-latesphysicalandsocialformsalike,using codes of reference hat remaininternallyconsistentwithin a singlemap andthroughouta series of relatedmaps.As parallelsto other forms of landscape representation, therefore, maps render landscapethroughspecificcoded representations, r"visual anguages."Historians of cartog-raphyhave pointed to veritable revolutions within modern cartography hat oc-curredas this tool of geographicalrepresentationwas used to quantifyand catalogmaterial,physical,and social landscapes in new ways during the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries. These new representations ncludedthematic maps in addi-tion to the previouslyestablishedgenresof cartography Harvey1980;Konvitz1987;Thrower1996).Frenchcartographers mbraced new techniquesfor the late-nine-teenth-centurymass production of color lithographic imagery,much as did theircolleaguesin printmakingand the poster arts (Cate 1988).Further studies of the transformationsof the new cartographiesof the fin desiecleperiod need to considertheirramificationsbeyond thesetechnicaland disci-pline-specific aspects.Interdisciplinary reasof inquirythat remain to be exploredincludecartography's elationshipwith the changingnotions of representation hatdefined contemporaryvisual arts (Kagan2000). Advanced (avant-garde) artistsof the nineteenth and earlytwentieth centuries sought to imbue their work witha personal sensibility that is the cultural heritage of romanticism. This distin-guishes them from those survey artists who, practicing what Roger Balm re-ferredto in the pagesof this journal as"ExpeditionaryArt," ought an apparentlyobjective, impersonal, and transparent representation of the visible landscape(2000). A broad understandingof the intersection of art and geographywill en-compassboth subjective avant-garde)and objective(documentaryor expedition-ary) approaches, herebyencompassingthe work of Duchamp and other modernartists.2

DUCHAMP'S ART IN THE CONTEXT OF LANDSCAPE TRADITIONSAlthough the subject of landscape was central to Duchamp's art, reappearingthroughout his career, that importance has received limited critical attention.Duchamp's best-known work, TheBride StrippedBare byHer Bachelors,Even (1915-1923; also called The Large Glass) (Figure 2), had links to the landscape that arerevealed in the notebooks and sketches Duchamp published at regular intervals


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DUCHAMP AND MODERN PARIS 479

FIG.1-Marcel Duchamp'smost famous contributionto the art of the twentieth centurywas hisnotion of the "readymade" ork of art. Such workschallenged he notion of the artist as craftsman,forDuchamp'sreadymadesweremass-producedworks that he transformed hroughlimited modifi-cations. His most infamous work may be Fountain,a urinal he purchased,rotated,signed with apseudonym,and submitted to a 1917 xhibitionin New YorkCity.MarcelDuchamp,Fountain,1917,PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art:The Louise and WalterArensbergCollection.? 2001 ArtistsRights Society (ARS),New York ADAGP,aris.(Photographreproducedcourtesyof the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art)

(Sanouilletand Peterson1973;Bonk1989;Duchamp1999).Duchamplikenedtheseaccompanyingnotes to a Baedeker'sguidebook or a Sears Roebuckcatalogthatmight directa viewer'sexperienceof TheLargeGlass(Kuh1962). A 1959drawing,ColsAlitis (BedriddenMountains)placesthe mechanical orms of the brideand herbachelorsamong rolling hills; there they are powered by the electrical ines thatmake this a modern landscape(Wohl 1977;Schwarz1997,819for the illustration).Modern elementsdistinguishTheLargeGlass rom traditional andscapepaintingsin terms of both content and form. Recentscholarly iteratureon Duchamp hasshown the diversityof the forces that motivated his work while emphasizingthemultivalentqualityof his art.The meaningsof TheLargeGlassmaythus connectsimultaneously o landscapeaesthetics, o the frustrateddesireof its brideand bach-elors, and to popular science of the early twentieth century (Henderson 1998).Duchamp'swork challenged deas of landscape representationand artistic tradi-tions simultaneously."Landscape,"s Denis Cosgrovehas discussedextensively,"is not merelytheworld we see,it is aconstruction,acompositionof thatworld.Landscapes awayofseeingthe world" 1998, 13).Althoughlandscapepaintinghasexperiencedwaves of


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popularitysinceancienttimes, its social and commercialvalueplayeda centralrolein the development of modern art in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries(Clark 1949;Jensen 1994). Landscape was well suited to modern aesthetics that val-ued the expressive,personaltreatmentof asubjectin which the artistmade the sitehis own vehicle of expression (Green 1987,70; 1990). Studies of landscape paintingin England,Germany,andthe United Stateshaveemphasizedthe culturalcontextsand,often, the specificallypolitical nature of landscape representation(Williams1973; Barrell 1980; Novak 1980; Bermingham 1986; Daniels 1993; Warnke 1995; Luka-cher2002). Following the examples of John Rewaldand Robert Herbert,studiesof Frenchlandscape painting have focused attention on the site-specific natureof the landscapes chosen for representation (Herbert 1962, 1988; Rewald 1973;Tucker 1982, 1989; Brettell and others 1984;House 1986, 1995;Moffett 1986;Brettell199o).Despite the manyvalues of such a focus, "site-specific interpretationstendto provide too simplistic a model of the complex process of imaging landscape,which is mediated by a variety of practices that constitute its particularity as amodeof communication"Benjamin993,95).More uccessfuleadingsf Frenchlandscape aintinghaveaddressedhecomplexplayofrelationshipsinking radi-tionsof artistic epresentation,rtcriticism, nd theeconomicusesof the land ntourismand urbandevelopment Shiff 1984; Clark 1985; Green1990; Sutcliffe1995) .3

Duringheperiodmarked ythe mpressionists'fficial roup xhibitions1874-1886),heirpositionat the head of an aestheticof self-consciouslymodern"rtwasestablished,o be inscribed s suchin historiesof modernart writtenat theturnof the twentieth entury Moffett1986). t is unsurprising,hen,thatland-scapes aintedn an mpressionisttyleareamongDuchamp'sarliestworks.Churchat Blainville hows hevillage n whichDuchampwas bornand in whichhe stilllivedwhen,in 1902 (atagefifteen),he paintedwith the loose brushstrokesandbrightpaletteof ImpressionismFigure ). Impressionistainters urned o thelandscapef Paris, ftenemphasizingtover tshumanoccupants. uchanempha-sis on placesrather hanpeopleechoes hegeneralizedandscape esthetic haredbyDuchamp'sohortof artists ndauthorsnearly-twentieth-centuryaris.Writ-ingin 1913, aulVidalde laBlache ummarily efinedgeographys "the cienceofplacesandnot the scienceof people" quoted n Relph1976,2). ForVidal de laBlache,hefounding atherof modernFrench eography,venhumangeographynecessarilyocusedon thephysicalracesof culture.Suchaplace-orientedumangeographymphasized umantransformationf the landscape nd the culturalproductsof humanactivity.4mpressionist aintingandearlyFrenchgeographysharea view of the landscapethat might be called "depopulated,"n which evencultureand civilizationcan be forcesindependentof living beings. Duchamp andhis early-twentieth-century olleagues challengedthemselves to engagenew waysof depictingthe paceandtone of modern urban life.These modern artists'questtofindnew meansto reimagine he city throughtheir art areimportantto the historyof artand to geography.


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482 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

FROM MONUMENTAL PARIS TO THE READYMADEModern Paris was designedto be a city of monuments. Its appearancedevelopedduring the Second Empire (1852-1870),under the direction of Napoldon III andGeorgesHaussmann.In 1842, before proclaiminghimself EmperorNapoleon III,Louis-NapoleonBonapartewrote,"Iwant o be a secondAugustus.. becauseAugustus... made Romea cityof marble" quoted in Pinkney1958,3). In Paris,NapoldonIIIemulated the Augustan ransformationof Rome from agriculturalcapital nto im-perial capital; he resulting"Haussmannization"emolished entireneighborhoodsto make room fornew,tree-lined boulevardsand wide avenues.Haussmann'splanscalled for monuments to be set into the fabricof Parisas if theyweregemstonessetin jewelry.His grandboulevards ocused attention on existingmonuments (the Arcde Triomphe),expandedand completedothers (theVend6meColumn), and madewayfor new monuments (the PalaisGarnier,or ParisOpera).Donald J.Olsen haspointed out that Paris, ike London andVienna,"had ong contained monuments.Only in the nineteenthcenturydid they try to becomemonuments"(1986,9).Forthe touristor thepilgrim,monuments themselves,such as the VietnamVet-erans Memorial and Lincoln Monument in Washington,D.C.,or the Eiffel Towerand the Basiliquedu Sacrd-Coeurn Paris,maycreate he urban andscapeby guid-ing and focusing the visitor'sexperienceof the city.The monuments' importancenot only rivalsthatof physicalgeographicalelementsbut maysurpasstheir impor-tance in shaping the city. Maps such as the NouveauParis Monumentalsimulta-neously displaythe city as a monument and as a collection of monuments (Figure4). Touristsvisiting the 1900ooarisUniversalExposition used such maps to guidethem as they sought out the city's key culturalproducts.The powerof these mapsto shapeavisitor's xperienceof the urban andscapeof Pariscontinuestoday.Similartourists'maps are distributed ree of cost by the majorParisiandepartmentstoresfor their advertisingvalue. On these, the sponsoring store becomes a monumentthat is the visual rivalof the city'schurches,monuments,andmuseums. Suchmapsbuild on the historical traditionsof picture maps and maps presentingbird's-eyeviews of towns (Harvey1980). Likepicturemapsof the monuments of Romeprizedby pilgrims,mapsof modern Parisoffer tourism as a pilgrimage hat isboth secularand sacred,the latterpunctuatedby churches old and new. These representationsof Parisparallel he representations f Londonthat becamepopular duringits tran-sition to a modern urban force a centurybefore;maps of both cities highlight thepersistenceof old monuments and urban forms alongsidethe proliferationof newones (Arnold 1999;Gilbert1999;Peltz1999).Although they use rationalelements,such as the cartographic echniqueof isometric projection,mapslikethe NouveauParisMonumentalwillfully rearrangedhe orientation of the monuments they rep-resented n orderto display he most recognizableview of each.Mapmakers hiftedthe scales of the monuments,enlargingthem to indicate their relative mportanceor shrinkingthem to conform to spacelimitations.

A detail from the 19oo map Nouveau ParisMonumentalshows the Eiffel Towerand the FerrisWheelrisingabove the groundsof the UniversalExposition (Figures


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FIG.3-By the late nineteenth century, andscapewas establishedas one of the subjectsmost central to modern art. Duchamp'searliestpaintingswere impressionist-style and-scapeslike this one, which shows a churchin the villageof his birth. At the time this wascompleted,the ImpressionistpainterClaudeMonet lived at his garden n Giverny,within50kilometers of Duchamp'shome. Impressionistpaintingwas thus linked geographically otheregionof Normandyand contributed o aperceivedNorman culturalheritage hat couldinclude modern art.MarcelDuchamp,Church tBlainville,1902,PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art:The LouiseandWalterArensbergCollection.@2001ArtistsRights Society(ARS),New York ADAGP,aris.(Photographreproducedcourtesyof the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art)


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ITINfRAIR'ERTIQUEWE'TRANGFRANSARM

FIG.4-Maps such as this were as popularin fin de si&cleParis as they arein the Paris of touriststoday.Their cartographyemphasizesthe majorstreets,visible to approximate cale and in correctprojection.They emphasizethat the city is a collection of monuments,both a memoriallandscapeand a site of tourismandconsumption.Thescale, ocation,and orientationof the monuments them-selvesaremanipulated, ubjugated o the cartographer's eeds.Nouveau ParisMonumental,circa 1900oo.Photograph reproduced courtesy of the BibliothdqueNationale de France)

5 and6). Before eavingParis,Duchampbeganhis seriesof readymadesby selectingobjects hat recalled he tower andthewheel. His1914BottleRack,a hardware tore-issue device on which to drywine bottles forreuse,wasamongthe firstreadymades,transformed rom its utilitarianorigins by the artist'sselection and signingof theobject (Figure7). Its metal forms echo the cast-iron structureof the EiffelTower,apositivesymbolof the city of Parisby Duchamp's ime.AlthoughDuchamp'scon-temporariescelebrated he tower'smodernityand its beauty,when it was built in1889 t was deridedby manywho took offense at its unconcealeduse of modernmaterialsand the ugliness they perceived n its forms. LeonBloy calledit an iron"Towerof Babel" n 1889,deridingit as "asuperb piece of hardware""unequin-caillerie uperbe") quotedin Burton2001, 195).Duchamp'sBottleRack ransformeda householdobject-a pieceof hardware-into a sculptureof equallystrangemetalforms. The link between BottleRackand the EiffelTowerwas strengthenedby thereadymade's ompanion in Duchamp'sstudio,BicycleWheel(Figure8). Mountedon a stool, the wheel has visual interestthat the artist likened to the pleasureof


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lies ~ ;" ,21VOWJ ~~~ t. to--lip-~j

3 wVN4*Al~j~11wbQd k j *~rti161~-

FIG.5-A detail from the Nouveau ParisMonumentalshows how the scale of the monumentsdepictedcould reflect their relative mportance.The Eiffel Tower s especially arge, dwarfing henearbyFerrisWheel and the militaryparadegroundof the Champde Marsbelow.Detailfrom the NouveauParisMonumental, irca19oo.(Photographreproducedcourtesyof theBibliothequeNationale de France)


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FIG.6-Symbols of modern Paris, he EiffelTowerand the FerrisWheel rise above the ChampdeMars and the fairgroundsof the UniversalExpositionon a hand-tintedpostcardfrom about 19oo.Locatednear the EiffelTowerat74,avenuede Suffren, he FerrisWheel offeredvisitorsmovingviewsof the city from various heights.A Baedekerguide from 1904offersan index of its popularityas atourist attraction: t remainedopen continuouslyfrom 1:ooP.M.until midnightin the summer andfrom 1:ooP.M. ntil 6:00 P.M.n the winter.Itsadmissionfee (1franc;halfthat on Sundays)was com-parable o thepriceof acup of coffee or a glassof champagne n anaverage af6(thoughmoreexpen-sive than a beer). In the foreground,the word "CONCERT" dvertisesthe Theatre-Concertde laGrande Roue, which offered popular entertainment outdoors in summer and indoors in winter(Baedeker1904,39, 40). Postcard, irca1900.Collection of the author.

watchinga flickering ire. Itsspinningform alsorecalls he FerrisWheel.Byfindingminimal-scale substitutes for sites in monumental Paris,Duchamp'sreadymadesengage an aestheticapproachthat parallelsthe modernist concept of the objectportrait.5Duchamp effectivelyestablisheda "portrait" nd a "map"of Paris thatrepresented ts landscape n his Paris and New YorkCitystudios. From these firstreadymadeson, the meaningof the objectswould be contextspecific.They couldbe seen together only in the personalrealm of Duchamp'sstudio or the carefullycontrolledreproductionsof his work that he issued himself.When Duchampleft Parisfor NewYorkCityin 1915, e had alreadycompletedthreereadymades.He arrived n a citycharacterized y its skyscrapers, f which thenewestand tallestwas the neo-Gothictowerof theWoolworthBuilding.He scrawleda note to himself that he laterpublished:"F]ind[an]inscription or the WoolworthBuildingas a ready-made" Sanouilletand Peterson1973, 75; Duchamp 1999, 8).Most scholarsacceptthat the inscriptionwassoughtas if it were to be added to theWoolworthBuilding tself (Adcock1985).Yetan inscriptionon an objectin his stu-


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DUCHAMP AND MODERN PARIS 487FIG. -Duchamp toldaninterviewer,"M]y ready-mades havenothing to do with the objettrouvebe-cause the so-called 'found object' is completelydirectedbypersonal aste. Personal aste decides hatthis is a beautifulobjectand is unique.That most ofmy ready-madeswere mass producedand could beduplicated s anotherimportantdifference. n manycasestheywereduplicated, hus avoidingthe cult ofuniqueness,of art with a capital'A.' consider aste-bad orgood-the greatestenemyof art.In the caseofthe ready-mades, tried to remain aloof from per-sonaltaste and to be fullyconscious of the problem"(quotedin Kuh1962,91-92).MarcelDuchamp,BottleRack,1961 ersionafter ost

original of 1914,PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art: TheLouiseand WalterArensbergCollection.@2001Art-ists RightsSociety (ARS),New York ADAGP, Paris.(Photograph eproduced ourtesyof thePhiladelphiaMuseumof Art)

FIG. 8-The spin-ning form of Du-champ's readymadeBicycleWheel echoesthat of the FerrisWheelin Paris.MarcelDuchamp,Bicycle Wheel, 1964version after lostoriginal of 1913, Phila-delphia Museum ofArt: The Louise andWalter ArensbergCollection. ? 2001ArtistsRightsSociety(ARS), New York /ADAGP, aris. (Photo-graph reproducedcourtesyof the Phila-delphia Museum ofArt)


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FIG.9-To prepare the readymadeParisAir,Duchamppurchaseda serumampoulefrom a Pa-risianpharmacy.He had the pharmacist mptyitscontents and reseal the ampoule. Having thusclosed true Paris air inside,Duchampcouldthenbring home a bit of Parisas a gift for his patronWalterArensberg.Thisdemonstratesexplicitly hepossibility that readymadescould representele-ments of the Parisian andscapeas Duchampor-ganizedthem in his studio.MarcelDuchamp,ParisAir,1919,PhiladelphiaMuseumof Art:TheLouiseand WalterArensbergCollection. @2001 Artists Rights Society (ARS),NewYork ADAGP,aris. Photograph eproducedcourtesyof the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art)

dio would have ntroduceda substitutefor the building into an interiorartis-ticspace,muchas thereadymade culp-ture ParisAir did fouryears ater.Paris Air, the modified ampoulepurchasedin 1919(Figure9), was thefullestdevelopmentof ideasDuchamphadbegunwiththe firstreadymadesn1913. t is particularlyemblematic be-cause tbringspartof Parisback o NewYorkCity n averyphysicalway.Tocom-pletethis workDuchamppurchased nampoule of serumin a Parisianphar-macy, then asked the pharmacist toempty the vessel and reseal it. The re-sultingworkeffectivelyransportedheintangibleand fragileair of Parisbackto Duchamp'sstudio. Its origins as apharmaceutical mpoule link it to thesecond readymade, titled Pharmacy,made in 1914.To makePharmacyDu-champ added two spots of color-onered,one green-to aninexpensiveprintof a wooded scene, subtly transform-ingthebanal andscape magewith ref-erence to the jarsof coloredwater setin the windowsof Frenchpharmacies.Only throughthe titles'referencesanda viewer'sunderstandingof culturallyspecificaspectsof French raditiondidworks such as these takeon anyimpor-tancefor the viewer.The lackof visualinterest hatthereadymadeshemselvesoffer is consistent with Duchamp'sdesire to shift modern art awayfrom a purelyvisual tradition (which he decried as "retinalart")toward conceptualconcerns,returningart to "theservice of the mind"(quoted in Tomkins1996,64).

Duchampdiscounted hereadymades' esthetic mportance, urningaway romthe Kantianaesthetic traditionthat defines art objectsas "disinterested,"onutil-itarian,andself-sufficient, equiringno furthercontext or explanation(Kant1951).By contrast, n the intellectualizedaestheticproposedby Duchamp'sreadymades,the meaningof theworksdependson the contextof their exhibition asmuch as onthe objectsthemselves.When firstdisplayed n the artist'sstudio, the readymadeswerestudioparaphernalia, ersonalobjectswhose importancemostviewerswould


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not recognize.On exhibitin a museum or gallery, heircontext-and therefore heirmeaning-changes. Longafterthe firstreadymadeswerelost, Duchamp supervisedthe meticulous production of series of reproductions (Schwarz1997).The mostnotorious of the readymadeswasFountain,a urinalselected fordisplay n the Soci-etyof IndependentArtists'open exhibitionof 1917 Figure ). Duchamp,a memberof thesociety'ssupervisory ommittee,submitted t underthepseudonym"R.Mutt,"with which he signed the urinal.Although iconoclastic, Fountainresponded di-rectlyto the society's declaredmission to remove contemporaryart from earliertraditionsof judgmentand tasteby acceptingartworks rom anyonewho paidtheexhibition fee. In this historically specific context, Duchamp's Fountaintook itsmeaning from the society'sresponseto the work (the society exhibited it not withthe rest of the art but beyond the exhibition space, where it was concealed by acurtain) (Camfield1989).Fountainrevealed hesociety's nabilityto follow itsstatedmissions and goalsto theirlogical conclusion.

UNEASY MONUMENTS: DUCHAMP's FOUNTAIN AND THEBASILIQUE DU SACRE-COEUR

Fountain'srounded forms echo those of a particularmonument of the Parisianlandscape, he Basiliquedu Sacre-Coeur(Figure o). Begunin 1871,he basilicawasnot consecrateduntil 1919,hough its formwasrecognizable ong beforeDuchampselected his Fountain n 1917.The history of the Sacr6-Coeur s a case study in theculturalgeographyof modernParisand of monumentalurbanconstructionin gen-eral(Harvey1985; onas2000;Mitchell2000;Burton2001).Althoughitsforty-eight-year period of construction (1871-1919) coincides with the development ofmodernism,the Sacre-Coeurhas had a contestedrelationshipwith Parisand withmodern art. The geographerDavid Harveyhas contributed much to the criticalunderstandingof Sacr&-Coeur s an uneasymonument, a site that has remainedmired n culturalconflictsince its inception (Harvey1985).Thebasilicawasbuilt ona sitewhere,duringthe politicalturmoil of the ParisCommune (1871),police forcesmassacredcitizens of Pariswho had takento the streets to protest the social andpolitical circumstancesthat followed the Franco-PrussianWar.Pledging to buildthebasilica n a politicallyreactionaryactof "atonement,"he"NationalVow of theSacredHeart"respondedto this period of war.

RaymondJonashas chronicled the history of the concept of the Sacred Heartandits role in the life of modern Parisand of CatholicismacrossFrance.Althoughthe cult of the SacredHearthas its origins in the reactionaryroyalistpolitics of theprerevolutionaryperiod,Jonassees the modern phenomenon of pilgrimageto thebasilicaas parallelto, and consistentwith, the secularpilgrimagesto world's fairsandthe caf6concerts,cabarets,andothercelebratedentertainmentsof Montmartre(2000). Amid this fin de sidcleclimate of Bohemianentertainmentthe basilica"soanimated ocalactivitythat,overtime,Montmartrecame to dependupon the Sacrd-Coeuras much as the Sacrd-Coeurdepended on it" (2001, 111).To this day the Sacr&-Coeurretainsits uneasyposition as a monument built during the modern period,


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prosperingundermodern engineeringand constructiontechniques,yet deliveringreactionaryand premodern architectural,religious and political messagesto thecity of Paristhatexpandsbeneathit.

Despite(orbecauseof) thisuneasyrelationshipwiththe twentiethcentury,manyartistsweredrawn o theBasiliqueduSacr&-Coeurs amodernsubject.PabloPicassoand manyother modern artistspaintedthis massive structureoverlookingthe cityfromtheartists' ommunitiesof Montmartre.WhenDuchampfirstcame to Parishelivedwith hisbrotheron the Montmartrehill,in the shadow of the "whiteelephant,"as the structurehasbeen called. Becauseof the sizeandthe cost of the project t wasnot completeduntilmanyyearsafter he death of itsdesigningarchitect,PaulAbadie(1812-1884) Abadie1984;MNMF988).Throughoutthe many yearsof its construc-tion itsoversizedproportionsandwhite exterior nvitedcriticism rommanycamps.Critics condemned the basilica for its inappropriatepasticheof styles.EventodayParisiansmakelight of its domes as "the breastsof Paris."Those who negotiatethegeographyof Parisremarkon the ideal ocation that the Sacr&-Coeurccupies:Fromits steps one can take in the panoramaof the city below.Walking n Paris,one isfrequently urprisedby repeatedglimpsesof the basilicarisingin the distance.De-spiteitscontested dentity, heSacrd-Coeur ssumed tsplaceamongthemonumentsof modern Parisevenbeforeit wascompleted.

Duchamp's ndustrial-porcelain rinal,with itssmooth,whitesurface, s a small-scaleversionof thebasilica.Fountainpunninglyechoesthedistinctive ormandcolorof theSacr&-Coeur.lthough heoriginalFountaindisappeared efore1920,Duchamplater issued carefullycraftedreproductionsof the readymade, ncludingstandard-sizedurinalsand miniatureversionssuchasthoseheplacedat the centerof his"por-tablemuseum,"Boxin a Valise Botte-en-Valise)Bonk 1989;Camfield1989)(Figure11).Beforeit disappeared,Fountainmade its temporaryhome in Duchamp'sNewYorkCitystudio,wherehe mounted it at ceilinglevel (Figure12). Withinhis studio,the location of Fountainmakes a spatialreference o the northern,hilltop settingofthe Sacr&-Coeur.ike the greatwhite basilicaperchedon the Montmartrehilltop,Duchamp's urinal becomes a point of organizational reference for the otherreadymades.Justas the basilica can orient the traveler n Paris,Fountainprovidescontextfor the readymadehat rack(Porte-Chapeau) nd snow shovel (InAdvanceofthe BrokenArm)by orientingthem within the spaceof Duchamp'sstudio.WhereasFountain s a visual pun on the Sacre-Coeur,Hat Rack makesplayfullinguisticreference o anothernortherlypoint within Paris, he city gateknown asthe "Porte de la Chapelle."Visual and verbalpuns were central to Duchamp'sartthroughouthis career(Bauer1989).His emphasison linguistic play is a reminderthatthe artist,the cartographer, nd the geographerall engagein acts of represen-tation that areinherentlyacts of translation.Duchamp told an interviewer,

forme,wordsarenotmerely meansof communication.ouknow,punshaveal-waysbeenconsideredlowformofwit,butIfind hemasource f stimulation othbecause f theiractual oundandbecause f unexpectedmeanings ttachedo theinterrelationshipsf disparate ords.Forme,this s aninfinite ieldofjoy-and it's


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FIG. o-From its seatatopthe Montmartrehill the Basiliquedu Sacr&-Coeurooks over thecity ofParis.The Sacr6-Coeur as the mostself-consciouslymonumentalof the churchesof Paris.As thegeog-rapherDavidHarveyhas shown (1985), ts awkwardmonumentality s matchedby the complexityofassociations hat the site arousedevenbeforeconstructionof the basilicabegan.Duchamp'sFountain(Figure1)pays ronichomageto theSacr&-Coeur,hisessayargues. Photographbytheauthor,2002)

alwaysight thand.Sometimesourorfivedifferentevels fmeaningome hrough.Ifyou ntroduce familiar ord ntoanalienatmosphere,ouhave omethingom-parableo distortionn painting, omething urprisingnd new.(Quotedn Kuh1962, 88-89)

Verbalpuns highlightthe simultaneousfixity and frivolityof linguistic rules: Forinstance,if the Frenchword for horse, cheval,takespluralform as chevaux,whyshouldn'tchapellebe made pluralas chapeaux?The Porte de la Chapelleis thusgivenconcrete form in Porte-Chapeaux, hichhangsto the "east" f the northerlyFountain n Duchamp'sstudio.To the "west"of Fountain n the studio photographhangs a snow shovel, the1915 eadymade itled In AdvanceoftheBrokenArm.Despiteits violent and distract-ingtitle,itsgently curvingform createsa complexvisual-verbalpun on the nameofthe Parisianvillageof Courbevoie."Courbevoie"ranslates rom French o Englishas "curvedway"or "curvedpath."In a visual pun on the place-name,the snowshovel embodiesthe name"Courbevoie"ecause ts shapemarksa paththat is firststraight, hen curvesgently throughits blade.WhenDuchampcameto the United


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FIG.11-Duchamp createdhis own portablemuseum with Box in a Valise Boite-en-Valise), lim-ited-editioneries f boxes hatcontainedminiaturesf hispaintings, rawings,culptures,ndnotes,allmechanicallyeproducedithscrupulousttentiono detail.At thecenter f thebox wereaffixed(topto bottom)sculptural eproductionsf threereadymades:arisAir,Traveler'soldingtem afolding over oranUnderwoodypewriter),ndFountain. t theright itshis infamous eadymadeL.H.O.O.Q.,reproductionf the MonaLisa"corrected"ith moustache ndgoatee.Within heseboxesDuchamp lso ncluded hotographshowinghereadymadesnhis studio.Untilhebegan omake hree-dimensionaleproductionsf hissculpturaleadymadesnthe195os, ox n a Valise astheprimary lacenwhichone could ee allof hisreadymadesogether.MarcelDuchamp,Box in a Valise(Boite-en-Valise),941,PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art: The LouiseandWalter rensbergollection.? 2001ArtistsRights ocietyARS), ewYork ADAGP,aris.Pho-tographeproducedourtesy f thePhiladelphia useum fArt)

Statesn1915 e sawsnowshovelsor the first ime; heywerean Americannven-tion not sold nFrance.How, hen,mightaFrenchmanranslatehe ideaof a snowshovel with tsgently urved, ut notpointed,blade) nto his native ongue?Thatsuchobjects f Americanrigincouldrefer ubtly o French itesandmonumentswould havehadparticularelevance or Duchamp.The snow shovel's itle as areadymade,nAdvanceftheBroken rm,addspoetic evelsofmeaning. uspendedfrom heNewYork ity tudio eilingnthecontext f theseotherminimizedmonu-ments, he ordinary at rackand snowshovel akeon newsignificance.ortheyoungFrenchmann the UnitedStates heycouldrefer,quietly,o a rememberedlandscape f home.

MONUMENTS, POWER,AND MEMORYPLACESMonumentsmarkspecific ites andalso, hroughheirmemorialqualities,marktime.Thus heyareeffectiveorcesnthe creation f culturalandscapesCosgroveand Daniels1988;Schama 995;Cosgrove998, 1999).PierreNoraand a team ofscholars averecently nchoredhisnotionofmemoryplaces, rlieuxdemermoire,


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FIG. 12-Photographof Duchamp'sNew YorkCitystudio at33West67thStreet,circa1917-1918. uchampmaybe the ghostly figureseatedon a chest in the center;hangingfromthe ceiling,left to right,are the readymades nAdvanceof the BrokenArm(faintlyvisiblein the foreground),Fountain,andHat Rack.MarcelDuchampand Henri-PierreRoche,Duchamp'sStudio,circa1917-1918, hila-delphiaMuseum of Art: The MarcelDuchampArchive,Gift of Jacqueline,Paul andPeterMatisse n memoryof theirmother,AlexinaDuchamp.? 20ooArtistsRightsSoci-ety (ARS),New York ADAGP,aris.(Photographreproducedcourtesyof the Philadel-phiaMuseum of Art)


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in the collective French memory through a series of monuments that continue toshape personal and national consciousness in France today (1996-1998). Yet thevery idea of the monument is dominated by sculptural and social conventions. Onceestablished, the conventions of the monument retained an authority that has rarelybeen questioned. Why should the Column of Trajan in ancient Rome, or theVend6me Column in the heart of Paris (Figure 13), take an architectural element,the column, as their form? Practices, conventions, and traditions make this not onlyacceptable but expected, as the antiquity of the concept lends it prestige and conti-nuity within the Western tradition. Because of its visibility and political associa-tions, the Vend6me Column became a target of Parisians' iconoclastic wrath whenthey pulled it down in 1871during the revolutionary period of the Commune. Tar-geting a Napoleonic monument, they expressed their anger against the governmentof Emperor Napoleon III. After his 18o05victory at Austerlitz, Napoleon I had hadthe column cast from the 1,250melted-down cannons captured from his vanquishedopponents. That city gave the name to a Paris railroad station that still operatestoday, the Gare d'Austerlitz, so named because trains traveled from there towardAusterlitz. Choosing the architectural element of a framed French window,Duchamp's readymade, LaBagarred'Austerlitz (Figure 14), refers to the train stationand the Napoleonic battle at the same time. In another act of domestication of themodern monument, its self-importance is deflated: The Napoleonic victory is re-duced to a barroom brawl, or bagarre, and a lesser architectural element ironicallyreplaces the heroic Vend6me Column.

Duchamp's active importation of "monuments" into the Parisian landscape hecreated in his studio recalls historical precedents in which monuments conferredmeaning, power, and prestige to a site. When Charlemagne built his palace at Aachenhe placed there a copy of the Etruscan bronze statue of a she wolf, the lupa, "Motherof the Romans," that was part of the collection of marvels gathered outside theLateran palace in Rome (the first papal residence). As the geographer Asa Boholmhas noted, Charlemagne thus effects a transference of cultural power as he

introducesanew andforcefulobjectwithstrong nherentconnotationsthatarefairlyresistant o changeof context. The environment into which such an objectis intro-duced will absorbmeaningsfrom its presenceand its broadermeaningwill therebybe transformed.Thepresenceof the statueof the she-wolf at Aachenconveysasym-bolic equationbetween Rome and Aachenand, as a logical consequence,betweenthe ideal office of world emperor (with his seat in Rome) and Charlemagneas anactualperson (withhis seat in Aachen). (1997, 261-262)6Unlike these imperial examples, Duchamp's act was personal. By installing variantsof Parisian monuments in his studio he created a nexus of power and memory thatlinked Paris with New YorkCity.Yet the very functionality of the objects Duchampchose for his readymades turned the idea of the monument on its head because, "incontrast to other edifices, monuments are not built for functional ends" (Boholm1997, 251).


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FIG. 3-The Vend6meColumn was erected n 1810to markNapolkon's ictoryin the Battleof Austerlitz iveyearsbefore. It stands at the center of the PlaceVend6me,a square n Paristhatis a hallmark f late-seventeenth-centuryrbandesign.The RomanauthorPliny,nNatu-ralHistory(XXXIV.xii.27),oted that "theuse of columns is to raise [a statue] above othermortals" quoted in Rykwert1996,363and 515,no. 74). Napoleonraised a statue of himselfdressedas a Roman Caesaratopthis column decoratedwith bronze reliefs(basedon those ofthe Column of Trajann Rome).Althoughthe originalwasreplacedby subsequentstatuaryin the nineteenthcentury,NapoleonIIIset a replicaof the figureatopthe column.In1871hestatue was torn down duringthe Commune,to be restoredby the ThirdRepublicwith an-otherreplicaof the Napoleonicfigure.(Photographby the author,2002)


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FIG. 4-Duchamp deflates helofty pretensionsof theVend6meColumnin LaBagarred'Austerlitz.Its title refers o specificgeographicalocations at the same time that it is a monumentto a punning"Battleof AustereBeds."MarcelDuchamp,LaBagarred'Austerlitz,921,Staatsgalerie tuttgart. 20oo1 rtistsRightsSociety(ARS),New York ADAGP,aris.(Photographreproducedcourtesyof the Staatsgalerie tuttgart)


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Duchamp'sreadymades et the stagefor the artist, n a theatricalsense,by pro-viding a Parisianbackdrop n his New YorkCity studio.Noting the importanceofthe nineteenth-centuryart of the diorama as an indicator of the changingmodernconcept of landscape,J.B. Jacksonwrote that it "marks he appearanceof a newkind of drama-one which takesplacein adomestic interior and involves domesticand psychologicalproblems,hidden from the publicworld"(1980, 75).Duchamp'sarrangementof the readymades o createa landscapewithin his studio complicatesthis notion by introducing a space that is both public and private.As a meetingplacefor fellow artistsand patrons, Duchamp'sstudio functioned as a semiprivatesiteinwhich heperformedhis identityasa Franco-American rtist.His FerrisWheel/ BicycleWheelon the floor wasasreadilyat home in New YorkCityorChicagoasinParis, nd hisFountain, levated o theceiling,was an American-madetem of plumb-ing that could recallthe basilicaperchedatopthe Montmartrehill.A complex rela-tionshipis established nwhich American-madeobjectsstandin forFrenchnationaltreasures.In his studio, Duchamp could be in Parisand New YorkCity simulta-neously.Such a situation hinges on the possibility (demandedby avant-gardeart-ists) that modern artworks foster multiplicity of meanings instead of singularinterpretations.Linda Henderson'sencyclopedic investigationof TheLargeGlass and relatedworks is one of the few publicationsto address andscapeissues in Duchamp'sartwhileemphasizingthe diversityof meaningsthatcoexistwithin these works (1998).Elements that takemechanical form in TheLargeGlass are made recognizableinDuchamp'sfinal work, in which landscapeplays a central role. Unveiledposthu-mously,that workis a sculptural nstallationpoeticallytitled Given:1otheWaterfall,20 the Illuminating Gas (1946-1966) (d'Harnoncourt and Hopps 1973;Duchamp1987).7Given... can be seen only by a lone viewer who peers through a pair ofpeepholes in a door installed in the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art. Beyond thosedoors is the sculpted body of a nude female figurewhose genitaliaarerevealedasshe leans back on a bed of twigs set in a pastoral andscape.Both TheLargeGlassand Given .. challengea viewer'ssensibilities.The lifelikefiguresof the latterputthe viewer in the place of a voyeur,whereas The BrideStrippedBarebyHer Bach-elors,Even does not deliver the striptease ts title promises.Both engagenontradi-tional materialsand methods of artisticproduction.In TheLargeGlass, andscapeelements areimplied by the supplementarynotes or providedby relateddrawings.Bycontrast,Given... incorporatesactual andscapeelements-branches, twigs,andleavesscavenged rom New YorkCity'sparks-in the dioramasettingof an illusion-istic painted landscape.A description by the curatorsAnne d'HarnoncourtandWalterHopps emphasizesthe strangeeffect of this view:

One looks throughajaggedhole in a brickwall,apparentlya few feetaway,at a nudewomanlyingon herbackamonga mass of twigsand leaves.Her face is farthestawayfromthe viewer and is hiddencompletelyby a wave of blonde hair.Herlegs extendtoward the door;her feet are obscuredby the brick wall. Her right arm cannot beseen,but herleftarm is raised,andin her handshe holds up the verticalglassfixture


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of a smallgas amp,whichglows aintly.nthedistance hilly,wooded andscaperisesabove hewaters f apond, he cloudsaresoftandwhite n a bluesky,andtothe farrighta waterfalllowsand parklesndlessly-theonlymoving lementnthesilent ableau,which sbathednbrilliantight rom nvisible ources.Thescene s atoncestartlinglyaturalisticndeerilyunreal,hequality f unrealityomehow o-cusingontheone man-madebjectnview: he ittlegas amp,whose ncongruitysyet an integralpartof the whole conception. (1973,8)

As in the readymades,a specialrole is performedhereby the manufacturedobjectin Duchamp'sfinalwork-a gaslamp (a Bec Auer brand commercialproduct).The wooded settingof Given .. correspondsto that of a specifictype of land-scape painting popularin late-nineteenth-centuryart. Suchpaintings,called sous-boisby the French,often carriedan aura of sexuallicense,sometimes madeexplicitby the inclusion of a nude. Although the Englishtranslationof sous-bois,"underwood,"does not have the same naughty currency, andscapehere enters the realmof the readymades hroughan act of verbaltranslation.Suchwordplaypunctuatesall of Duchamp'swork (Lebel1959; Sanouillet1973; Sanouilletand Peterson1973;Bauer 1989).When Duchamp found the words "under wood" emblazoned on amanufactured tem-a coverfor an Underwoodtypewriter-he declared t a ready-made sculpturein 1916and called it Traveler'soldingItem(Schwarz1997, 645). Asthe object'srelation to landscape is distanced and intellectualizedby the play oftranslation,the manufacturedqualities of the object obscure the words' connec-tions to nature.Although landscape is one of the elements that may be used toreveal a unity behind the diversityof Duchamp'soeuvre,landscapedoes not pro-vide a simpleor a singular nterpretive ens throughwhich to understandhis work.Duchamp'sTheLargeGlassand the readymadesdo, however,challengeandremakethe traditions of landscaperepresentation hat were establishedfirmlybefore thetwentiethcentury.The complex, layeredassociations of the readymadesare consistent with themultiplicityof meaningsfound,individuallyandcollectively,n theworks that makeup Duchamp'sentire creativeoutput. For Duchamp, things are never only whatthey seem to be. A bit of bloody gauzecan become the profileof George Washing-ton, but, viewed from anotherperspective, he same work becomes a map of thephysicalnationthepresidentrepresents.8 ontextandperspective hange he viewer'sexperience,anda geographically roundedreadingof Duchamp'sartproposesnewmeanings for the well-known work of this majormodern artist. As this essayhasargued,the geographystructuredby the monuments of Paris has influenced car-tography, ourism,and the readymadesculpturesof MarcelDuchamp in waysthathave not previously been recognized. Duchamp's Fountain can stand in for theBasiliquedu Sacr&-Coeurt the same time that it is an iconoclastic challengetoartistic traditions. The histories of modern art and geographyare relatedin waysthat arenot alwaysapparentand that oftenrequirecomplexinvestigationand inter-pretation.Althoughmodern artdoes not alwaysrepresent he landscapein imme-diatelyrecognizableways, herelationshipbetweenmodernartandgeographymerits


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further consideration.Perhaps,with examplessuch as those offeredby Duchamp'sreadymades o consider,geographerswill identify previously unrecognizedmeth-ods and traditionsof landscaperepresentation n art and in everyday ife.

NOTES1. A significantyet limitedexceptioncan be found in GunnarOlsson's llustrationof Duchamp'sBicycleWheelandFountainwithout discussionof either work or of Duchamp(Olsson 1994,216,234).2. This statementdoes not implythattherecan everbe a purely objectiveor documentarymodeof artisticrepresentation.The expeditionaryartist RichardKern'sactivespeculationabout and reor-ganizationof NativeAmericanpueblosoffersan exampleof subjectivetransformationof documen-tary evidence (Balm 2ooo, 594-595). The notion of objectivity in documentary photographywasquestionedin the nineteenthcentury, ong before the riseof digital photographic echnologiesvirtu-allyeliminatedthe faith in "transparent"ealityof documentary images (Goldberg1981;Krauss1982;Bolton 1989; Solomon-Godeau 1991; Tagg 1993; Goin 2001). In a significant essay published in thisjournal,Peter Goin urgedreaders o evaluate their perceptionsand assumptionsregardingphotog-raphy'saestheticsand objectivity:Althoughocial cientists re ommonlyrmedwithcameras ndmayproduceompetent hotographs,there s onlyscantevidence hatprevailingonventions f pictorial epresentationreunderstoodrevenchallenged.hemythof objectivityshardly ebated,much essthecomplexityf aphotograph'sconstructionndcontext.Theparadoxsomnipresent:hotographsredocuments t one levelof thevisual pectrum. et hephotographsaconstructedllusionwovenwithinaculturalrame freferenceandpointofview.Within nyphotographhesubjectmaybecome symbolhatcantranscendtsownappearance.tthe same ime, hepolitics f representationannotbeignored.2001, 367)

By raisingissues of authorship, ntention, and audience,of relationshipsbetween word and image,and of the conditions of production, presentation,exhibition,or publicationof images,Goin pointsto areas n which thecurrentmethods of art and arthistorymightbe harnessedproductivelyby otherdisciplines.

3. Criticalevaluationsof French andscapepaintingnecessarilybuild on the"site-specific"radi-tions of art-historical cholarship;Nicholas Green's ophisticatedanalysisof the economics and ide-ologies atwork in Frenchnaturetourism thereforecomplementsRobertHerbert's nterest n tourism(Herbert1988;Green1987,199o).Scholarshaveyet to build on KermitChampa'sattemptto integratehistoricallygroundedyet novel theoreticalperspectives nto his interpretationsof the successof thegenreof landscapepaintingin nineteenth-centuryFrance(1991).4. This discussionof the Vidaliantraditionin Frenchgeography s not meant to be comprehen-sive; orfurtherdiscussion see Anne Buttimer's1971monograph.In abook Iam writingIbuild on thearguments n this essayand engageFrancophonegeographical hought at greater ength.5. My argumentthat the readymadesrepresentthe landscapeof Paris monuments builds onJeffreyWeiss'sobservationthat the forms of BottleRackand BicycleWheelparallelthose of the EiffelTowerandthe FerrisWheel(1994).Duchamp's riend FrancisPicabiaandother artistsassociatedwiththe dada movementsin modern artdevelopedthe tradition of the object portrait, n which an objectstandsin for the personit represents.Picabia'sworkof 1915 ives two excellentexamplesof this con-cept as developed in two-dimensionalart:Portraitof Alfred Stieglitz(l'Ideale)substitutes a brokencamera forthe photographer amous for his promotion of modern art,and a line drawingof a sparkplugbecomes thesexuallychargedstand-in for a YoungAmerican irl n a StateofNudity(Corn1999).6. In a similar transferenceof culturalpower that preceded Charlemagne'sact, a collection ofearlyChristianmarvelshad been transported rom the Holy Landto the site of the Lateranpalaceinmedievaltimes. Transferringhe Ark of the Covenant(containingthe tablets of the Ten Command-ments) and other relics associatedwith the Old and New Testaments o Rome,"thecity had become

equivalent to Jerusalem" (Boholm 1997, 260).7. Duchamp'ssculptural nstallationGiven .. waspresentedto the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Artin 1968bythe CassandraFoundation.Under the terms of thatagreement,publicationof photographsof the interiorview of the work was banned for at least fifteenyears (Duchamp1987).Followingthesesentiments,a writtendescriptionmaybe a better than a black-and-whitereproductionmight offer.


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For,as Anned'HarnoncourtndWalterHoppswrote n the firstextendeddiscussion f thework," W]hatoneactuallyeescanbereduced owords,but the initial mpact ofviewing]s oneof themostcrucial spects f thework,andone whichcannotberenderedecond-hand"1973,8).8. Duchamp'sGenreAllegoryGeorgeWashington]asrejected y thejurythathadsolicitedcontributionsorthe coverof Voguemagazinen1943.Viewed orizontally,tresembledmapof theUnitedStates;eenvertically,t outlined heprofile fWashingtonSchwarz997, 69).REFERENCES

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