2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/27705/10/10_chapter 2.p… · potential antimicrobial property (Doughari et al., 2008). Reuben et al.,

Phytochemical and Pharmacological activities of Portulaca oleracea L in Albino rats

Dept. of Biotechnology, Gulbarga University, Gulbarga.Karnataka. India. Page 18

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Literature survey on use of medicinal plants revealed that a large number of

researchers, professionals, academicians and scientists have worked on “Screening of

medicinal plants for the treatment of various ailments.

Charaka (1000-800 B.C) was the first treaditional practitioner who mentioned the

therapeutic applications of a large number of medicinal plants, in his treatise “Charaka

Samhita”. Sushruta (1000-800 B.C) has recorded number of plants having medicinal use

in his book “Sushruta Samhita”. Jain S.K (1968) also mentioned the curative properties of

herbs and the use of plants as medicines in India. Marjorie Murphy Cowan (1999)

described the current state of plant components using as antimicrobials in the United

States and their extracts effective in treating HIV infections. He was also mentioned that

thousands of phytochemicals have inhibitory effect on all types of microorganisms.

Dushyent Gehlot and Bohra (2000) screened the toxic effect of various plant extracts from

alcoholic and aqueous solvents and the results shown that the stem and leaf extracts were

more effective against pathogenic organisms. The highest inhibition of the growth of

organism is seen with Fagonia cretica leaf extract and was more effective than the

standard antibiotic tetracycline.

Study of Leena Daswani and Bohra.A (2000) suggest that the antimicrobial

activity of various spice plants is due to some phytochemicals present in them. Gislene et

al., (2000) have reported the antibacterial activity of plant extracts and phytochemicals on

antibiotic resistant bacteria. They proved that Plant extracts have great potential as



antimicrobial compounds against microorganisms. Hence, they can be used in the

treatment of infectious diseases caused by resistant microbes. Karin Springob and Kazuki

Saita (2002) have explained the role of biotechnology in improving the medicinal plants

and also the yield of secondary metabolite production.

Sharma and Singh (2002) screened many plants for antimicrobial activity; all those

belong to different plant families. Of these Asteraceae (Compositate) species were proved

to have promising antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory activity and are used in treating

conjunctivitis. Among the family Asteraceae, Ageratum has shown anti-inflammatory

activity, while Calendula officialis has anti-inflammatory activity and antimicrobial

activity against Staphylococcus aureus. The Papaveraceous plant Argemone mexicana L.

having antibacterial activity.

Antimicrobial activities of Clary Sage (Salvia Sclarea L) by means of disk

diffusion methods with eleven microbial species and four fungal species have been studed

by IIhami et al., (2003). They showed that, the Clary Sage extract were effective in

inhibiting the growth of the organisms except for Escherichia coli, and the antifungal

activity of each of the extracts was lower than the antimicrobial activity. Similarly Ayfer

et al (2003) have tested 5 different plant species with various solvents like alcohol, ethyl

acetate, acetone and chloroform for the antimicrobial activity. Seth and Bhawana Sharma

(2004) described the advantages of traditional system of medicines with respect to their

safety and efficacy in “Medicinal Plants in India”. The importance of Indian herbal plants

and their products in the world market and the measures to be adopted for global



promotion of Indian herbal products have been recommended by Dubey et al, (2004). Ijah

et al., (2004) studied the antimicrobial activities of methanol extracts of Eucalyptus

camaldulensis and Terminalia catappa against some pathogenic microorganisms and both

the plants have been reported to have an effective results against some pathogenic

microorganisms which are the inhabitant of wounds, burns and skin infections.

Studies of Onyeagba et al., (2004) on the antimicrobial effect of garlic (Allium

sativum Linn.), ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and lime (Citrus aurantifolia Linn.)

against Staphylococcus aureus; Bacillus spp., Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp.

indicates that the aqueous and ethanol extracts are having synergetic effect. Antibacterial

activities of hot water, methanol and ethanol extract of the plants Syzyium aromaticum,

Cinnamomum cassia, Salvia officinalis, Thymus vulgaris and Rosmarinus officinalis were

tested in vitro against four different bacterial species by disk diffusion and micro-dilution

method indicats different pattern of of inhibition varied with the plant extract, the solvent

used for extraction, and the organism tested (Bassam abu-shanab et al., 2004). Jigna

parekha et al., (2005) have screened twelve medicinal plants for antibacterial activity by

agar well diffusion method. Amongest all these plant the Caesalpinia pulcherima swartz,

extract has shown the best antibacterial activity.

Adebolu et al., (2005) have reported antibacterial activity of different extracts

from the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum. The extracts such as cold and hot water

extract and steem distillation extracts tested against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia

coli, Salmonella typhi and Salmonella typhimurium, pathogenic organism that cause



diarrhea. Among all the three extracts steem distillation extract has shown potent

inhibition effect on the above pathogenic bacteria. The aqueous and methonolic extracts of

12 plants belong to different families were screened for phytochemical and antibacterial

activity against medically important bacteria is carriedout by Jigna Parekh et al., (2006).

Antimicrobial activity of 18 ethnomedicinal plant extracts were evaluated against

nine bacterial strains (Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus

epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, Ervinia sp, Proteus vulgaris) and one fungal strain (Candida albicans). The

collected ethnomedicinal plants were used in folk medicine in the treatment of skin

diseases, venereal diseases, respiratory problems and nervous disorders (Veeramuthu et

al., 2006).

The methanol and petroleum ether extracts of the leaf and stem bark of Nauclea

latifolia, Bridelia atroviridis and Zanthoxylum gilletii showed antimicrobial activity

against the test organisms. The methanol extracts of the plants exhibited significant

inhibition activity than the petroleum ether extract against the test organisms (Agyare et

al., 2006). The hexane, ethyle acetate and methanol extracts of Jatroph curcas has been

analysed phytochemically and tested against different microorganisms responsible for

various infections expecially Sexually Transmitted Diseases. The Jatroph curcas root and

bark extracts of hexane, ethyle acetate and methanol fractions were displayed potent

antimicrobial activity including standards; this is due to presence of many secondary

metabolites such as steroids, alkaloids and saponins (Aiyelaagbe et al., 2007).



The leaf extract of Senna obtusifolia L tested against both clinical and laboratory

isolates of both bacteria and fungi using the disc diffusion method demonstrated a

potential antimicrobial property (Doughari et al., 2008). Reuben et al., (2008) work on

phytochemical screening and In Vitro antimicrobial investigation of the methanol extract

of Croton Zambesicus stem bark indicates that the folkloric use of plant as a remedy for

urinary tract infection, skin disease and other infections caused by the pathogens. The

antimicrobial potency of Lasianthera africana and Heinsia crinata on Escherichia coli,

Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans have been investigated by

Mboto et al., (2008).

Acetone ethanol extract of Madhuca longifolia, Parkia biglandulosa,

Pterospermum acerifolium are having greater antibacterial potentiality (Mangesh Khond et

al., 2009). Antibacterial potency and synergistic effect of crude aqueous and methanolic

extracts of nine plant parts such as unripe Carica papaya fruit, Citrus aurantifoliia, Anana

sativus, Citrus paradisi, Cymbopogon citratus, Cocos nucifera chaffs, brown leaves of

Carica papaya, leaves of Euphorbia heterophylla and Gossypium spp.were tested against

multi-drug resistant S. typhi indicates that the antimicrobial activity increased with

increased concentration of extract. Synergetic activity of crude aqueous and methanolic

extracts of the plant parts in various combinations of two to nine against the tested

organisms is ranges from 10-33 mm zone of growth inhibition this suggest that the plant

materials posses antimicrobial activity with grater efficacy when used synergetically on

test organisms (Oluduro Anthonia et al., 2010). Limonene, Caryophyllene oxide and beta

eudesmol are the main constituents of Desmostachya bipinnata Linn have antibacterial



activity against gram positive and negative bacterias (Ashok Kumar et al., 2010).

Methanolic extracts of Eucalyptus camaldulensis contains saponin, saponin glycosides;

steroid, cardic glycoside, tanins, volatile oils, phenols and balsam tested for in vitro

antimicrobial activity inhibited the growth of Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus,

while it has no effect on Escherichia coli (Mohammad jouki et al., 2010). According to

Bhawna Sunil Negi and Bharti P Dave (2010) the methanolic extract of A. catechuis a

medicinal and economical important plant was found to have antimicrobial activity against

B. subtilis, S. aureus, S. typhi, P. auerogenosa and C. albicus.

The studies of Al-Jiffri et al., (2011) on urinary tract infection with Escherichia

coli and antibacterial activity of some plants extracts reveals that the alcoholic extracts of

clove, ginger, peppermint, spearmint and thyme were shown to posses effective

compounent against selected isolates of E. coli. The aqueous, methanol and petroleum

ether leaf extract of Merremia emarginata has shown potent antimicrobial activity

(Elumalai et al., 2011). Various extracts of leaves of Solanum nigrum were mildly potent

as antibacterial agent against panel of microorganisms such sa P. maltocids, E.coli,

B.subtilis and S. aureous while the antifungal activity of A. nigram leaves extacts against

A. niger, A. flavar and R. salani was poor (Muhammad Zubaır et al., 2011)

Petroleum, benzene, ethyle acetate, methanol and aqueous extracts of seeds of

Melia azedarach tested against some hospital isolates human pathogenic bacterial strains

reveals that the petroleum fractions has maximum inhibition against B. subtilis, P.

merabilus, and Shigella flexneri and benzene extract was significantly inhibited the growth



of P. merabilus, and Shigella Flexner. Ethyle acetate extract inhibited the growth of

S.aureus, B. subtilis, P. aueroginosa and shigella flexneri and Methnol extract was found

to be most effective against Shigella dysenteriae and Plesiomonas shigelloides, where as

aqueous extract has showed a moderate degree of sensitivity against all the tested

pathogenic bacteria (Abdul V Khan et al., 2011). Investigation on the methanol extract of

the aerial part of Andrographis paniculata for antimicrobial activity against four bacterial

cultures such as Staphylococcus aureus, Escherchia coli, Bacillus subtilis and Klebsiella

pneumoniae) and four fungal cultures such as Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger,

Fusarium sp. and Penicillium spp. (Divya et al., 2011).

The ethanol, aqueous, chloroform, benzene, acetone and petroleum ether extracts

of Hemigraphis colorata (H. colorata) leaves and stem and Elephantopus scaber (E.

scaber) leaves, root and flower for the presence of phyto-constituents and the anti-bacterial

activity against the selected pathogens has demonstrated remarkable potent activity (Vimal

et al., 2012).

Antibacterial activity of ethanolic extracts of 33 folk medicinal plants used for the

treatment of parasitic diseases was examined with four bacteria (two Gram positive-

Bacillus subtilisand Staphylococcus aureusand two Gram negative - Escherichia coliand

Salmonella typhi) following disc diffusion method. Among 33 plants examined 21 (63 %)

plants showed antibacterial property with B. subtilis, 16 (48 %) plants with S. aureus, 18

(54 %) plants with E. coliand 8 (24 %) with S. typhi. Five of the medicinal plants



(Asparagus racemosus, Prunus cerasoides, Rhododendron arboreum, Terminalia bellerica

and Woodfordia fruticosa) were found inhibitory against all the bacteria (Sharma, 2013).

Aqueous and methanol extracts of Zingiber officinale, Curcuma longa,

Commiphora molmol and Pimpinella anisum were investigated for antimicrobial activity.

The microorganisms employed were Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus,

Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The susceptibility of bacteria strains

against the two extracts was determined using the disk diffusion method. The most

susceptible micro organisms were S. pyogenes, S. aureus, while the least susceptible was

E. coli. Highest antibacterial activity was observed with methanol extract of C. Longaand

C. Molmolagainst S. Pyogenesand S. aureus respectively while minimum activity was

observed with aqueous extract of P. anisum against E. coli and P. aeruginosa. (Sooad Al-

Daihan et al., 2013).

Antibacterial activity and photochemicals of five green leafy vegetables against a

panel of five bacteria strains by disc diffusion. Methanol extracts was found to be active

against all the test bacterial strains (Ramesa S B and Sooad Al-Daihan, 2014). Essential

oils are complex volatile compounds, naturally synthesized by various parts of the plant

during the secondary metabolism of plants. A wide range plants having the medicinal

properties have been explored and used for the extraction of essential oils worldwide

due to their antimicrobial properties against the bacterial, fungal and viral pathogens.

The presence of a large number of alkaloids, phenols, terpenes derivatives

compounds and other antimicrobial compounds makes the essential oils more



précised in their mode action against the ample variety of pathogenic microorganisms

(Mohd Sayeed Akthar et al., 2014).

The therapeutic value of medicinal plants lies in the various chemical constituent’s

presents in it. The bioactivity of plant extracts is attributed to phytochemical constituents.

For instance, plant rich in tannins have antibacterial potential due to their basic character

that allows them to react with proteins to form stable water soluble compounds thereby

killing the bacteria by directly damaging its cell membrane. Flavonoids are a major group

of phenolic compounds reported for their antimicrobial activity.

Natural products for fertility Regulation

Population control is an issue of global and national public health concern, world

population increasing at alarming rate which rely heavily on the use of traditional

medicine as their primary source of health care. Population of India is multiplying

tremendously and has crossed one billion. This rate of population explosion has created a

grave set back in the economic growth and all-round development of the country. Hence

the fertility regulation has become the major concern of people. Family planning is being

practiced through several methods of contraception’s; synthetic contraceptive agents

available in the market are can not be used continuously due to their severe side effects.

Therefore, in the 21st century it is the need of the hour to search for safe and potential

contraceptive agent from medicinal plants.



In recent year people around the world are looking back to age old tradition of

using herbal medicine which has less or no side effects. Generally, scientists all over the

globe are engaged in the search of safe, cheap, effective, non-steroidal and easy

administrable antifertility drugs derived from medicinal plants acceptable by both male

and female.

Hence, it is appropriate and necessary to assemble the information on medicinal

plants which are having contraceptive properties. Therefore, a brief account on medicinal

plants which are used for fertility control is described.

Antifertility compounds present in plant may act as antiovulatory, antiimplantation,

abortificient and uterine stimulatory agents in female and androgenic, antiandrogenic,

spermicidal, and antispermatogenic activities in male (Kamboj and Dhawan 1982;

Ericson, 1974). The isolated fractions of plant composed of glycoside butin and plastrin

which significantly inhibit the number of implants (Khanna and Chowdhury, 1968).

Ethanol extract of the seeds of Butea frondosa is found to have prominent antifertility

activities in female mice and rats when administered orally (Razdan et al., 1969). Oral

administration of aqueous extract of whole plant of Uraria lagopodioides prevented

implantation in albino rats (Khanna et al., 1969).

The leaves of Ocimum sanctum were subjected to extract in Benzene and

petroleum ether and administered from day 1-5 of pregnancy showed 80% and 60%

antifertility activity respectively in rats (Batta and Santhakumari, 1970). Datta et al.,



(1970) have investigated the VIDR-2GD isolated from Ensete superburn has weak

estrogenic activity and also reported to intercept implantation in rat, mice, guinea pigs and

hamsters. Aqueous extract of Aloe barbadensis leaves and saponins of seeds of Albizzia

lebbeck have shown a potent anti-ovulatory activity in rabbits (Gupta et al., 1971).

Ethanolic extract of Solanum Khasianum showed potent antiovulatory activity in female

albino rats when administered orally (Kohli et al., 1971). Petroleum ether, ethanol and

aqueous extracts of Areca catechu nuts possess anti-implantation activity (Garg, 1971).

Ocimum sanctum a well-known sacred plant leaves has been tested for various biological

and pharmacological effects (Kasinathan et al., 1972). Rhizomes of Costus speciosus

exhibited antiimplantation activity (Singh et al. 1973).

Petroleum ether, Alcohol and aqueous extracts of seeds of Daucus carota showed

80-100% inhibition of implantation in rats (Garg, 1975). Anti-implantation activity in

mice was found in petroleum ether and chloroform extracts of Abroma augusta root.

Benzene extract of Achyranthes aspera (stem bark) and Sesbania aeglyptica flowers and

alcohol extract of Woodfordia fruticosa flowers (Pakrashi et al., 1975). A. augusta also

showed abortifacient activity. The flavone–glycosides isolated from leaves of Curciligo

orchioides was found to exhibit prominent abortifacient activity due to its uterine

stimulant property (Sharma et al., 1975).

Screening of 32 botanically identified plant materials showed significant

antifertility activity in only Arbus precatorius seeds, Ananas comosus unripe fruit



Moringa pterygosperma root and Terminalia arjuna bark. Ethanol extract of Cichorium

intybus showed significant resorptive activity (Prakash & Mathur, 1976).

Contraceptive herbal drugs with the ingradients derived from Lucifer lacca, Embelia ribes

and Areca catechu were proved to be potent abortificient drugs in women. The embalin

isolated from dried berries of Embelia ribes has traditional reputation for antifertility and

antiimplantation activity (Rathinam et al., 1976; Prakash and Mathur, 1976).

Ethanol and benzene extracts of Artobotrys odorotissimus fresh leaves were found

to disrupt the normal estrus cycle in rats (Prakash and Mathur, 1977) and prolong the

diestrus stage (Prakash, 1978a). Anti-estrogenic activity reported in rats (Prakash 1978 b)

was confirmed in the ethanol and benzene extracts which decreased the alkaline

phosphatase and elevated the acid phosphatase activity (Prakash, 1979).

Aristolic acid and sesquiterpene isolated from the roots of Azardica lndica showed

antiimplantation activity in mice while P-Coumaric acid isolated from the roots of same

plant has showed 100% interceptive activity (Pakrashi and Chakrabarti, 1978; Pal et al.,

1982; Pakrashi and Shaha, 1977; Pakrashi and Pakrashi, 1978). Garg et al, (1978)

screened about 201 extracts of 36 plants among these 9 extracts of 7 plants such as

Curcum longa rhizomes, Daucus carota (seeds), Embelia ribes (roots), Menhta arvensis

(leveas), Polygonum hydropiper (roots), Sapindus trifoliatus (seeds) and Butea

monosperma seeds showed significant antifertility activity.



The studies of Mehrotra and Kamboj (1978) on Coronariodine isolated from

Tabernaemontana heynea reveals estrogenic activity. Whole plant of Datura quercifolia

has shown significant pregnancy interceptive and estrogenic properties due to the presence

of Daturalactone (Chandhoke, 1978). Chloroform extract of leaves of Pedocarpus

brevifolius has shown antiestrogenic and antiiplantaion activity at the dose level of 20

mg/l00g of body weight (Kholkute and Munshi, 1978). Extracts of Annona squamosa

seeds and Cuscuta reflexa (whole plant) and Crotalaria juncea seeds showed antifertility

effect (Rao et al, 1979).

-trichosathin isolated from the root of Trichosanthin Kikilowii administered

alone to pregnant mice from day 1-4 was not able to disturb gestation in mouse (Change,

1979). Laccardia lacca (Laksha) -a resinous substance deposited by an insect (Carteria

lacca) on this tree-had an anti-implantation effect when administered in the early stages of

pregnancy in rats. It revealed an antiuterotropic effect without an anti-estrogenic activity

(Ghosh et al, 1980).

Studies of Srivastava et al, (1980) indicated that the antifibrinolytic activity in the

roots and phenolic glycoside (punarnavoside) of Boerrhavia diffusa was useful in

controlling uterine bleeding in monkeys. Khanna et al, (1980) of CDRI Lucknow have

developed a new cervical dilator (Isaptent) from the husk of Plantago ovate. Alcohloic

extract of Lygodium flexosum, a plant used by an Adivasi population in Maharashtra,

showed antifertility activity in rats, mice and rabbits, by exerting its effect on the zygote

and / or blastocyst (Gaitonde and Mahajan, 1980). Ethanolic extract of Physalis minima



was found to possess significant abortifacient activity due to the presence of Physalin-B

and Physalin-D (Dhawan et al., 1980). Kamboj & Dhawan, (1982) screened 28 plants and

about some number of isolated materials which are shown anti-implantation (interceptive)

activity. Chaudhury and Haq (1980 a) listed 11 plants having 100% antifertility activity in

one species or the other viz., Aristolochia indica, Curcuma longa, Cuminum cyminu,

Daucus carota, Embelia ribes, Ensete superbum, Hyptis suaveolens, Mentha arvensis,

Podocarpus brevifolia, Polygononum hydropiper and Sapindus trifoliatus. Also reported

another 9 plants to have less than 100% (but more than 60%) activity are Ananas

cosmosus, Areca catechu, Butea monosperma, Carica papaya, Grewia asiatica, Hibiscus

rosa sinensis, Ocimum sanctum, Plumbago Zeylanica and Sida cordifolia (Chaudhury &

Haq (1980 b). On the other hand Kamboj & dhawan (1982) listed 16 plants as more active

antifertility agents viz., Abrus precatorius, Achuranthes aspera, Aristolochia indica,

Artabotrys oderatissimus, Datura quercifolia, Daucus carota, Embelica ribes, Ensete

superbum, Hibiscus rosa sinensis, Laccardia lacca, Lygodium flexosum, Plumbago

zeylanica, Polygonum hydropiper, pueraria tuberose, Randia dumerorum and

Tabernaementana heyneana.

Vasicine an alkaloid isolated from plant Adathoda vassica has shown uterotonic

and potentiated prostaglandin induced uterine contractions in rats (Lal and Sharma, 1981).

Embelin is also known as tuberos acid or to be chemically accurate 2, 5-dilydrony-3-

undecyl-2, 5-cyclohexadiene-l.4-benzoquinone (Merck Index), which has inhibited

pregnancy and also possesses antiestrogenic and weak progestational activity. Therefore,

administration of embelin may cause disturbance in the hormonal level and thus prevent



implantation, since specific hormonal equilibrium of estrogen and progesterone is required

for egg implantation (Prakash. 1981). Chromatographic fraction of Mentha arvensis

caused significant interruption of pregnancy when admistered subcutaneously to rats from

day 1-10 of pregnancy (Karanjanapathi et al., 1981).

Root extract of Aristolochia indica showed anti-implantation activity in mice due

to the presence of Aristololic acid (Pal et al., 1982). Oral administeration of ethanolic

extract of Craleva narvala bark showed 60% antiimplantation activity at dose level of

250mg/kg body weight from 1-7 days of pregnancy in rats (Sharma et al, 1983). Root

extract of Polygonum hydropiper has shown significant antifertility and estrogenic activity

in female mouse because of its Delta lactone and 2-quercetic glycosides (Fukuyama,

1983). Flowers extract of Malvaviscus conzatti have shown significant estrogenic activity

due to the presence of Kaempfenol and its derivatives (Achari et al., 1984). 3, 5, 4-

Trihydroxy dibenzyl isolated from Cannabis sativa and also its synthesized compounds

have shown potent estrogenic activity (El-Feraly, 1984). Whole plant ethanolic extract of

Lepidium capitatum at dose level of 125 mg/kg showed 70% antiimplantation activity

when administered to female rats from days 1-7 of post-coitum (Singh et al., 1984).

In China an active indole alkaloid compound, Yuehchukene isolated from the

plant Murraya pankalata is used to regulate fertility because it has potent anti-

implantation effect (Kong et al., 1985).



Various extracts of Pueraria tuberosa tubers administered to normal cycling rats

induced cornification of vaginal epithelial cells and increased uterine weight indicating the

estrogenic nature of the extracts (Prakash et al. 1985). Methanol extract of fruit pulp of

Lagenaria breviflora administered to the rats at the dose level of 2.5 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg

of body weight resulted in 80% and 100% antiimplantation activity respectively (Elujoba

et al., 1985). Ethanol and Chloroform extract of fruit peel of Citrus hystrix has found to

inhibit implantation effectively when administered orally to pregnant rats, (Piyachaturawat

et al., 1985). Administration of acetone extract of Codonopsis ovata plant showed 70%

antiimplantation activity in female rats (Prakash el. al., 1985). Zoaptale Aqueous crude

extract of Montanoa frutescens showed total inhibition of implantation sites when

administered through Intrauterine on the 4th day of pregnancy in rat (Pedron el al., 1985).

Oral administration of Butanol extract of Pueraria tuberosa on days 1-2, 1-3, 2-3

and 3-5 post-coitum, prevented pregnancy (100%) in female rats. However, 100%

inhibition was obtained by higher dose of 150-200 mg/100g body weight when

administered to hamsters (Prakash et al, 1985). Carotane sequiterpanes isolated from the

rhizomes of Ferula jaeschkeana administered to ovariectomised immature rats, exhibited

estrogenic activity (Singh et at., 1985).

Ethanol extract of leves of Adathoda vassica showed 60-70% antiimplantation

activity when administered orally from day 1 to 7 of rat pregnancy (Prakash et al., 1985).

Oral administration of butin isolation from the seeds of Butea monosperma to adult female

rats at dose level 5, 10 and mg/rat showed antiimplantation activity in 40, 70 and 90%



respectively (S.K Bhargava et al., 1986). Ethanol and benzene extracts of flowers of

Hibiscus rosa sinensis have been reported to possess antiimplantation activity (Pakrashi et

al., 1986).

Seeds extract of Butea monosperma exhibited significant estrogenic and

anticonceptive activity in ovariectomized rats due to the presence of butin (Bhargava,

1986). Several active chemical constituents accountable for uterotonic effects are

discovered in various plant species from time to time. For instance two tri-terpenic

saponins called ardisiacrispin A and B are isolated and characterized from the crude

extracts of Ardisia crispa root. This plant root is used by Thai people for washing

out dirty blood in woman suffering from menstrual pain. The isolated compounds

were responsible for uterocontracting properties in treated rats (Jansakul et al.,

1987).

Aqueous seeds extract of Coriandrum sativurn showed significant antiimplantation

activity when administered orally to pregnant rats; this extract produced a significant

decrease in serum progesterone levels on day 5 of pregnancy, which may be responsible

for antiimplantation effect (Al-said et al., 1987).

Y Q Yong and X Y Wu (1987) reported on that Gossypol acetic acid when

administered orally at the dose level 30, 60, 90 and 120 mg/kg/day to mature female rat

was significantly block the pregnancy. The large numbers of indigenous plants are

recommended in Ayurvedic, Yunani and Folk medicines that are used as oral

contraceptives by tribal and other section of people (Satyavati et al., 1987).



Phyllis M wise, (1987) have investigated the role of neuroendocrine and

neurochemical changes in the age-related deterioration of cyclic female reproductive

function. During middle age the timing and amplitude of the proestrous and

estradiol-induced LH surge was altered. Sharma et al., (1988) have studied on the root

extract of Echinops echinatus have reported an excellent antiestrogenic activity. The water

extract has showed moderate antiestrogenic activity, while benzene, hexane and alcohol

extracts showed to possess rich antiestrogenic active principle. Oral administration of

ethanolic extract of Caesalpina decaptela at dose level of 500 mg/kg exhibited prominent

contraceptive activity in female hamster (Keshri et al., 1988). Aqueous root extract of

Moringa oleifera increased the uterine wet weight of bilaterally ovariectomized rats when

administered orally. This estrogenic activity is supported by stimulation of uterine

histoarchitecture (Shukla et al., 1988).

The Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) Lucknow in 1950s was intiated the

systematic integrated approach of authenticated plant samples and proper animal models.

A similar approach has been made by Indian Council of Medical research (ICMR) after 10

years Even World Health Organization (WHO) has collective task programme with one of

its center in India that is computer rating of antifertility plants (Kambjo, 1988).

Ethyl acetate extract of flowers of Gardenia jasminoides showed a significant

action on termination of pregnancy in rats. Two cycloartene triterpenoids, gardenic acid-A

and gardenolic-B were isolated and identified as the active ingradients. Gardenic acid

showed potential activity to damage the pregnancy in women (Zhou et al., 1989). Fruits of



Illicium anisatum have shown 100% antiimplantation and estrogenic activity at the dose

level 80mg/kg body weight because of Trans-anethole, a major constituent of star anise oil

derived from the fruits of this plant (Dhar et al., 1990). Striga lutea showed 100%

inhibition of implantation sites in albino rats due to administration of Petroleum ether and

chloroform extracts (Hiremath et al., 1990). Flavones of Strrgi lutea such as Acacetin and

Luteolin have shown significant antiimplantation activity (Hiremath and Hanumantha

Rao, 1990).

D N Choudhary et al., (1991) studies on ethanolic leaf extract of Alstonia

scholaris, Cleistanthus colinus and Terminalia bellirica and root extract of Muraya

paniculata were showed significant activity in albino rats. Ethanol, benzene and hexane

extracts of leaves of Artabotrys odoratissimus were found to have antiimplantation activity

in female albino rats (Mehata et al., 1999). Oral administration of powdered root and

aerial parts of Rua graveolens to female rats (days 1-10 post coitum), showed significant

antiimplantation activity (Gandhi, et al., 1991). An ether soluble fraction of methanol

extract of seeds of Ricinus communis showed antiimplantation and anticonceptive

activities when administered subcutaneously to adult female rats and rabbits at doses 1.2

g/kg and 600 mg/kg respectively (Okwuasaba et al., 1991).

Methanol extract of Ricinus communis showed increased uterine wet weight in

immature rats and further, the extract induced premature opening of the vagina and

increased number of cornified cells in the vaginal smear, indicating its strong

estrogenecity (Okwuasaba et al., 1991). Oral administration of Plumbagin a crystalline



compound isolated from Plumbago zeylanica at dose level 1 and 2 mg/l00g body weight

have shown potent antiimplantation and abortifacient activity in albino rats without any

teratogenic effect (Devarshi et al., 1992). Petroleum ether extract of seeds of Nelumbo

nucifera and Polygonum hydropier roots have shown antiovulatory activity in mice and

rabbits respectively (Majumadhar et al., 1992).

Dhar et al., (1992) have reported the ethanol extract of Achrostichum aureum and

its fractions for post-ovulatory antifertility activity in female rats, Also indicated that the

water-soluble fraction of the ethanolic extract prevented 100% pregnancy when

administered to female rats from day one to 7th post-coitum. The purified fraction of

rhizomes of Wilbrandia species that contained two non-cucurbitacin glycosides

demonstrated potent antifertility effects in rats and mice. And in regularly cycling mice,

the treatment suppressed the incidence of estrous phase of the reproductive cycle,

suggesting a possible antiovulatory effect (Almeida et al., 1992). Alcoholic extract of leaf

and stem bark of Ailanthus excelsa at a dose of 250mg/kg body weight exhibited early

abortifecient activities (Dhanasekaran et al., 1993). Ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of

Ixora finlaysoniana were treated to immature rat reveals estrogenic activity as evidenced

by dose dependent increase in uterine weight and cornification of the vaginal epithelium,

It also induced premature opening of the vagina (Singh et al., 1993).

Aqueous and ethanol extract fractions of Ischinochiton camptus exhibited

significant antiimplantation and antiestrogenic activity in rats (Dhar et al., 1993). Aerial

parts of Ixora fintaysoniana has prevented 100% pregnancy in female albino rats due to



the oral administration of ethanolic extract from day 1-7 post coitum at dose level 250

mg/kg (Singh et al., 1993). Aqueous seed suspension of Peganum harmola was found to

cause abortion in 68.5% rats when administered at the daily dose of 200 mg/kg body

weight from day 1-10 of post-coitum (Nath et al., 1993).

Plants with estrogenic property can directly influence pituitary action by

peripheral modulation of LH and FSH decreasing secretion of this hormones and block

ovulation. The decrease in LH and FSH could explain ovulation and estrous cycle

blockage by some plant extracts. All substances able to inhibit this release could

provoke an ovulation disruption by decreasing the number of mature follicles

(Waterhoff et al., 1994).

Striga orohanchiodes has exhibited prominet antiimplantation activity in female

albino rats due to Ethanol extract administration (Hiremath et al., 1994). In vitro exposure

of two cells mouse embryo to Azardia indica (neem) oil has resulted in failure of

balstocyst development, trophoblast attachment, proliferation of cells and fertility loss

(Juneja et al., 1994).

Four successive solvent extract of whole plant Striga orobanchioides have been

screened for antifertility activity in albino rats, of all these ethonolic extract was found to

be most potent antiimplantaion activity, where in case of ethanolic extract at the dose of

200 mg/kg shwn estrogenic activity as reported by Shivayogi et al., (1994) in their studies.



Marsdenia tinctoria plant extracts and their compounds like hydrated alcohol extract and

alkaloidal fraction showed prominent abortifacient activity in female mice and rats

(Chowdhury et al., 1994). Belachew Desta (1994) study on total of 210

extracts/fractions from 70 traditionally used Ethiopian plants for uterotonic and anti-

implantation bioassays, indicates a total of 24% of the samples had uterotonic

activity and 33% exhibited anti-implantation activity, while 13% had both uterotonic

and anti-implantation activity. The percentage cumulative activity for aqueous, 95%

ethanolic and n-butanolic extracts/fractions was l0%, 31% and 25%, respectively.

Alkaloids isolated from ethanol extract of Marsdenia tinctoria have shown

significant antiimplantaion activity in female mice and rats when administered orally at a

dose level of 400, 100, 80 and 10 mg/kg body weight for consecutive seven days

(Chowdhury el al., 1994). Ethanol extract of seeds of Dattura carota have showed dose

dependent response on antiimplantation and foetal resorption activity (Bhatnagar, 1995).

The site of action of antifertility agents in females consists of the

hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary, the ovary, the oviduct, the uterus and the

vagina. The Hypothalamus controls the action of the uterus via follicle stimulating

hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH) releasing hormones. Antifertility

agents may therefore exert their effort at this level either by disrupting hormonal

function of the hypothalamus and/ or the pituitary, or by interrupting the neural

pathway to the hypothalamus that control the liberation of gonadotrophin releasing

hormones (Bullock et al., 1995).



Oral administration of crude extract of Srilankan marine algae Gelidiella acerosa

to female albino rats on day 7-8 of pregnancy at the dose level of 100 mg/kg body weight

has showed to possess potent post-coital contraceptive activity (Premakumara et al, 1995).

Arun Kumar and Pranab L Pakrasi (1995) have reported on estrogenic agonistic and

antagonistic properties of Clomiphene citrate in mice at various doses like 0.1, 1.0, 10 and

100 μg in imatured bilaterally ovarctomized mice which showed uterotrophic activity.

Ethanol and petroleum ether extracts of rhizome of Curcuma longa, resulted in total

inhibition of pregnancy in rat when administered orally (Bhatnagar, 1995). Estrogenic

activity in immature rats has been exhibited due to oral administration of ethanolic extract

of seeds of Bupleurum morginatum (Jonathan et al., 1995).

The Uterus is the main site of antifertility effects in mammals and comprises

outer myometrial cells which are responsible for the contraction of the uterus, inner

endometrial cells which are secretary and the cervix. The physiology of the uterus

and its response to oxytocic drugs differs greatly in different species. Moreover the

type of motility and the threshold for the response to oxytocic drugs differs with the phase

of the oesterus cycle and the stage of pregnancy (Williamson et al., 1996).

Striga densiflora has exhibited significant antiimplantation activity in rats after

oral administrations of ethanol extract (Hiremath et al., 1996). Praneem a purified

Azadirachata indica (Neem) extract administered orally to pregnant rats, lead to resorption

of embryos with elevated levels of interferon gamma (IFN-Y) and tumor necrosis factor

alpha (TNF-), (Mukherjee and Talwar, 1996). Oral administered of neem to rabbit and



baboon also exhibited similar post implantation abortifacient activity (Mukherjee et al.,

1996).

Early researchers in the area of female fertility regulation focused their

attention on phytoestrogens following the recognition that excess ingestion of plants

containing estrogenic compounds resulted infertility in animals and humans (Williamson

et al., 1996). Ethanolic extract of Striga densiflora and Striga orobanchioides showed

estrogenic activity as evidenced by significant increase in the uterine weight, premature

opening of the vagina and increase in number of cornified cells in the vaginal smear in

immature ovariectomized rats (Hiremath et al., 1996).

Ethanol and petroleum ether extrcts of leaves of Catharanthus roseus and ethanol

extract of Centratherum anthelminticurn resulted in total inhibition of pregnancy in female

mice and rat respectively when admistered orally (Mathur et al., 1996; Sharma et al.,

1992). Plant drugs have been used since time immemorial for their effects upon

sex hormones particularly for suppressing fertility, regularizing menstrual cycle, relieving

dysmennoroea, treating enlarged prostate, menopausal symptoms, breast pain and

during and after childhood (Williamson et al., 1996).

Hexane extract of dried seeds of Carica papaya administered orally at the dose

level of 1 mg/kg to adult female rats from day 1-10 of post-coitum prevented pregnancy in

70% animals. The administration of isolated fraction of seeds of Carcica papaya obtained

from column and preparative thin layer chromatography has much progressed

antiimplation activity (Chinoy et al., 1997). Administrationof Benzene extract of Hibiscus



rosa sinensis to the prepubertal mice for 5 days showed significant estrogenic activity

(Murthy et al., 1997). The partially fractionated active principle of neem has been

suggested to function as an immunomodulator in causing pregnancy failure with decline in

chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) and progesterone levels in the baboon (Talwar et al.,

1997). Striga orobanchiodes flavones like apigenin and luteolin showed dose dependent

and prominent antiimplantation activity when administered from day 1 to 4 of pregnancy

(Hiremath et al., 1997).

The methanol extract of Asparagus pubescens Bak root was investigated for its

contraceptive activity in mice, rats and rabbits. The extract dose-dependently (0.5 – 1.5

g/kg) protected the animals from conception for 4-14 gestational periods in rabbits, rats

and mice. It inhibited fetal implantation, as was confirmed by laparotomy on day 10 of

pregnancy (Paul A. Nwafor et al., 1998). Similarly, the methanolic roots extract of

Asparagus pubescens showed significant reduction in implantation sites when

administered to mice, rats and rabbits from day 4-14 of pregnancy at the dose level of

1.5g/kg (Nwafor et al., 1998a).

Oral administration of methanolic extract of Asparagus pithescens to

ovariectomized immature rats and mice, showed decreased in uterine weight and exhibited

closed vagina indicating its antiestrogenic activity (Nwafor et al., 1998b). Ethanolic

extracts of aerial parts of Memcylon lushingtonii exibited significant antiirnplantation

activity when administered orally to female rats from day 1-10 post-coitum (Keshri et al.,

1998). Oral administration of Ethanolic extract of aerial parts of Solanuni crassypetalum



and their fractions to female albino rats on days 1-10 of post-coitum, showed significant

antiimplantation activity (Keshri et al., 1998). Ricinus communis (Castor bean) extract and

Ricin-A-chain caused midterm abortion in female mice and Rabbits (Saihab, 1996; Salhab

et al., 1998).

Four successive solvent extracts of the whole plant Acalypha indica L.

(Euphorbiaceae) were tested for post-coital antifertility activity in female albino rats. Of

these, the petroleum ether and ethanol extracts were found to be most effective in causing

significant anti-implantation activity. The antifertility activity was reversible on

withdrawal of the treatment of the extracts. Both the extracts at 600 mg/kg body weight

showed estrogenic activity (Shivayogi P. Hiremath et al., 1999).

Needle extract of Pinus ponderosa administered to cows and guinea pigs showed

potent abortifacient activity at a dose level of 1 000 gm/kg body weight (Ford et al., 1999).

Ricinus communis and ricin-A-chain exhibited significant reduction in implantation sites

when intraperitonial injections has given on days 1-6 of gestation (Saihab et al, 1999), The

seed extract of Ricinus. Communis also exhibited significant antiimplantation and

abortifacient effects in guinea pigs (Makonnen et al., 1999).

The effects of administration of dietary soy on reproductive function and fertility

of female Wister rats was reported by D. Gallo et al., (1999). Hexane and benzene seeds

extract of Nigella saliva and their chrornatographic fraction have prevented pregnancy in

female albino rats when administered from 1-10 dayof pregnancy (Mehtha et al., 1999).



Methanol and Chloroform extracts of Blepharispermum subsessile rhizomes were found to

have antiimplantation activity and isolated compound desmenthyl isoencecatin from

Chloroform extract showed higher effect (Agarwal et al., 1999).

Antifertility activity of a triterpenoid glycoside, DSS, isolated from the root of

Dalbergia saxatilis was investigated in female Wistar rats administered by gastric

intubation at a dose level 200 mg/ kg/ body weight at the premating period; conception

was inhibited in 71.4% of the treated animals (C.N. Uchendu et al., 2000).

Aqueous extract of seeds of Cassia fistula administrated orally to female rats from

day 1-5 of pregnancy at the doses of 100 and 200mg/kg body weight resulted in respective

57.14% and 71.43% prevention of pregnancy. Where as 100% of pregnancy was inhibited

at the dose level of 500 mg/kg body weight (Yadav and Jam, 1999). Aqueous extract of

bark of Ficus religiosa has post-coital contraceptive activity in females. The pre-

implantation loss is mediated via powerful rhythmic contractions of the uterine

musculature (Ratnasooriya, 1999).

Ethanolic extract of Ferula asaftida resin administration at the dose level of 400

mg/kg body weight daily from day 1-10 of post-coitum prevented 80% of pregnancy in the

female rats. Column chromatographic eluents of hexane and chloroform fractions of the

extract have shown significant antifertility (Keshri et al., 1999). When the Recinus

communis (Costor bean) or/and its ricin-A-Chain treated for 10 consecutive days to the

female rabbit a reflux ovulatory show reduction in the formation of corpora lutea



indicating anti-ovulatory properties of castor bean (Salhab et al., 1999). Oral

administration of petroleum ether and ethanol extract of whole plant of Acalypha indica

from day 1 to 7 of pregnancy at 600 mg/kg dose level showed prominent antiimplantation

activity in female albino rats (Hiremath et al., 1999).

V Murugan et al., (2000) have reported that the petroleum ether, ethnol,

chloroform, ethyle acetate methanol and water extract of stem bark of Alangium

salviifolium L administered orally to the swiss albino mice and Wister albino rats showed

potent abortificent activity.

The papaya (Carica papaya, Caricaceae) latex extract (PLE) was tested on rat

uterine preparations in vitro at various stages of the estrous cycle and gestation periods.

Rat uterine contractile activity was remarkably increased by different doses of PLE in

proestrus and estrus stages compared to metaestrus and diestrus stages of the estrous

cycles (Thomas Cherian, 2000). Ethyl acetate and petroleum ether extracts of the stem and

bark of Alangium salvifolium has shown significant anti-implantation activity in rats at the

dose level of 500 mg/kg body weight (Murugan et al., 2000).

Shivayogi P. Hiremath et al., (2000) investigated on two flavones, apigenin and

luteolin, isolated from Striga orobanchioides administered from day 1 to day 4 of

pregnancy at dose level 5–25 mg/kg body weight/day for endocrine and contraceptive

properties showed dose-dependent and significant anti-implantation activity.



Dalbergia soxalilis has significant antifertility activity in rats at dose level of 200 mg/kg

body weight this is due to the presence of Triterpenoid glycosides (DSS) (Uchendu et al.,

2000).

H. N. Sarma and H. C. Mahanta (2000) reported on the modulation of

morphological changes of endometrial surface epithelium by Scanning Electron

Microscope (SCEM) in the adult albino rat after oral administration of roots extract of five

plants, i.e., Plumbago rosea, Borassus flabellifer, Carica papaya (male), Dolichos lablab,

and Shorea robusta in mixed form, has been traditionally used by the folk women of this

region through oral route during the first seven daysof a menstrual cycle to prevent

conception. Oral administration of seed extract of Randia dumetorum from day 1 to 7 of

pregnancy has shown 50-60% of pregnancy inhibition in female albino rats (Singh et al.,

2000). Hsueh et al., (2000) investigated on the hormonal regulation of early follicle

development in the rat ovary, that the endocrine hormone FSH is not only a survival factor

for early antral follicles but also a potent growth and differentiation factor for preantral

follicles. Desmodium oxyphyllum and Dumbaria villosa plant extracts were screened for

their estrogenic activity with the Ishikowa cell system with EC50 values of less than 10

/mL (Yoo et al., 2001).

Phytoestrogens are any plant compounds structurally and/ or functionally

similar to ovarian and placental estrogens and their active metabolites (Patritia and

Heater, 2001). This as lead to exploit new antifertility compounds from natural products,

some active constituents were isolated and are in clinical practice as antifertility agents

(Jayshree, 2001). Flowers and stem extracts of Pueraria thunbergiana have showed



estrogenic activities when tested with the Ishikowa cell system using EC50 values of less

than 10 mg/mL (Yoo et al., 2001).

Extracts of the Kumnerowia striata whole plant, Lespedeza bicolor stem, Mackia

amurensis leaves, and stem, fruits and Mackia fauriei stem bark and stem heartwood

exhibited estrogenic activity with the Ishikowa cell system using EC50 values of less than

10 g/mL (Yoo et al., 2001). Ethanol extract of Pergularia daemia showed 100%

abortifacient activity at a dose level of 600 mg/kg body weight in female mice (Sadik et

al., 2001a). Ethanol extract of Pergularia daemia and its steroidal and alkaloidal fractions

possess a good antifertility activity. Oral administration of alkaloidal fraction when

compared to steroidal fraction was found to be more pronounced at a dose level of 200

mg/kg body weight with significant activity in pre-implanation stage of female mice

(Sadik et al., 2001b). Whole plant extracts of Sophora flavescens when screened for their

estrogenic activites with the Ishikowa cell system using EC50 values of less than 10

g/mL showed estrogenic activities (Yoo et al., 2001).

The hydroalcoholic extract of Maytenus ilicifolia leaves was administered orally at

a dose of 1000 mg/kg/day to mice has caused a pre-implantation embryonic loss, but it did

not have an effect on implantation in female mice (Tatiana Montanari and Estela

Bevilacqua, 2002). Oral administration of ethanol extract of Rivea hypocrateriformis

aerial parts at a dose level of 200 mg/kg body weight to female rats has shown significant

increase in number of atretic follicles and decrease in number of Graafian follicles and

corpora lutea indicating its antiovulatory effect (Shivalingappa et al., 2002).



Administration of ethanol bark extract of Terrninalia belliricu from day 1-7 of pregnancy

has shown significant antiimplantation activity in female rats (Satishgouda, 2002).

The effects of diphenyltin dichloride DPTCl on uterine decidualization in

pseudopregnant rats, effects of ovarian hormones on uterine decidualization in

ovariectomized rats, and effects of progesterone on the DPTCl-induced preimplantation

embryonic loss in pregnant rats were determined by Makoto Ema and Emiko Miyawaki

(2002) in their study the female rats were given DPTCl by gastric intubation at 4.1, 8.3,

16.5, or 24.8 mg/kg on days 0–3 of pseudopregnancy and the decidual cell response was

induced on day 4 of pseudopregnancy. The uterine weight on day 9 of pseudopregnancy

served as an index of uterine decidualization. A significant decrease in uterine weight,

which indicates suppression of uterine decidualization, was detected at 16.5 and 24.8

mg/kg. Ovarian weight and number of corpora lutea in the DPTCl-treated groups were

compared to the controls.

The ethanol extract of the roots of Calotropis proceru has been tested on albino

rats, in order to explore its hormonal and antifertility activity. A strong antiimplantation

activity and uterotropic activity was observed at the dose level of 250 mg/kg body weight

(Kamath and Rana, 2002). The ethanol extract of the seeds of Momordica charantia

inhibit the implantation sites at high dose level (Sharanbasappa, 2002). Trifoliun tuberose

extract caused an increase in uterine weight and differentiated vaginal cells, but did not

stimulate cell proliferation in the mammary glands when administered to virgin,



ovariectomized 50 days old female rats. These data suggest that the extract is weak

estrogenic in the ovariectomized rat model (Burdette et al., 2002).

According to Angie et al., (2003) studies on rat model of endometriosis it reveals

that the hyperalgesia would develop postsurgically in parallel with the cysts, and the

hyperalgesia would vary with estrous, being greatest when estrogen levels are high

(proestrus) and least when low (estrus). Fruits extract of of Balanitis roxburghii possess

mild estrogenic activity in albino rats when administered at a dose level of 600 mg/kg

body weight (Basavraj, 2003). Ethanolic extract of roots of Melia azedarach has shown

significant reduction in the number of implantations sites (Keshri el al., 2003). The

petroleum and chloroform extracts of the roots of Cyclea hurmanni have been found to

possess significant antifertility effect in rats (Panda et al., 2003).

The mixture of powdered roots of Cassia occidentalis, Derris brevipes

varietycoriacea and Justicia simplex ethanolic extract were screened for antifertility

activity in proven fertile female rats at 200 and 600 mg/kg body weight, respectively and

given orally on Day 1 to 7of pregnancy. Both doses of the root powder of Derris brevipes

varietycoriacea showed 50% anti-implantation activity and also a significant reduction in

the number of litters born. The ethanolic extract exhibited 40% anti-implantation activity

when given orally at 600 mg/kg body weight in female rats.

The ethanolic extract of Derris breviceps exhibited 40% antiimplantation activity

when given orally at 600 mg/kg body weight dose level. However, the results of further



investigation suggested that the extract possessed more abortifacient effect than

antiimplantation activity (Badami et al, 2003).

B. Leuner et al., (2003) studied the effects short-term estrogen replacement on

associative memory formation. In their study the adult ovariectomized female rats

received two injections of estradiol (10, 20 or 40 lg) 24 h apart and were trained for 4 h

following each injection on the hippocampal-dependent task of trace eyeblink

conditioning. Balanitis roxbhurgii possess 60.12% abortifacient activity at a when

administered ethanol extracts of fruits at dose level of 600 mg/kg body weight in albino

rats (Basavaraj, 2003).

Sotiriadou S. et al., (2003) investigated on the effect of administration of estrogen

on plasma creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LD) levels in female

ovariectomized rats after downhill running. They observed that the plasma CK and LD

levels were significantly lower in the estrogen supplemented, ovariectomized animals

which suggests that less muscle damage occurred compared to the controls immediately

and 72 h after exercise.

Seed extracts of Momordica Charantia has shown antiovulatory and

antiimplantation activities in female albino rats due to treatment of Phenolphthaleinisolate

(Sharanabasappa et al., 2002, 2003). The ethanol extract of Crotalaria juncea showed

estrogenic activity in immature mice by early opening of the vagina, premature



cornification of the vaginal epitheliurn and increased uterine weight at dose level 25

mg/100g body weight (Vijaykumar et al., 2004a).

K Ghosh and T.K Bhattacharya (2004) evaluated the petroleum ether, ethyl acetate

and ethanol seed extracts of Thespesia populnea for antimplation activity in female rats

and reported that among the three extracts petroleum ether extract shown significant

antiiplantation activity at the dose level 110mg/kg body weight.

Leaves of Epimedium brevicornurn has shown estrogenic activity due to the

presence of polyphenolic compounds and its five fractions was demonstrated by solid-

phase extraction using estrogenresponsive bioassay in vitro method of yeast cell assay and

the Ishikowa Var-I assay (Naeyer et al., 2004). The ethanol extract of Crotalaria Juncea

seeds have shown prominent anti-ovulatory activity in female albino rats when

administered orally (Vijaykumar, 2004b). Ethanol extract of Aristilochia tagala was

investigated for antifertility activity in female albino rats, exhibited respective 72% and

100% antiimplantation activity at dose level of 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg body weight

(Balaji et al., 2004). Petroleum ether, benzene and ethanol extracts of the seeds of

Crotalaria juncea were tested for antiimplantation and pregnancy interruption activities in

female’s albino rats. Among these three extracts, the ethanol extract found to be the most

efecacy at 200 mg/kg body weight dose level (Vijaykumar et al., 2004).

Petroleum ether and ethanol extracts of whole plant of Oxalis corniculata possess

significant estrogenic activity at the dose level of 20 mg/100 g body weight in female



immature albino rats (Kalawati, 2004). Miroestrol compounds isolated from the roots of

Pueraria mirfica prevevented the implantation of blastocyst, promoted uterine weight,

vaginal growth and increased the amount of vaginal fluid in normal female rat and disturbs

the ovarian function and menstrual cycle in normal cyclic monkeys (Trisomboon et al.,

2004). Administration of seeds extract of Lepidiun sativum (garden cress) at a dose level

of 1 g/day showed 100% of interruption of pregnancy (Sharief and Ghani. 2004).

The ethanol, petroleum ether and ethyl acetate extracts of the seeds of Hesperia

popular and their chromatographic fractions showed significant anti implantation activity

at the dose level of 110 mg/kg body weight (Ghosh and Bhattacharya, 2004). Significant

effect of methanolic extract of roots of Moghania philippinensis is observed on

proliferation of MCF-7 cells and induction of 3-galactosidase activity in a yeast two-

hybrid assay. Several active flavonoides isolated from the same plant also possess

significant estrogenic and antiestrogenic activities in rats (Ahn et al., 2004). Ethanol

extract of Ammania baccifera L was evaluated for antisteroidogeic activity in female mice

at dose level 100,200 and 400 mg/kg of body weight significantly arrested normal estrus

cycle at diestrus phase and decreased the weight of ovaries as reported in the studies of

Pamaiyan Dhanapal et al., (2005).

A O Akparnthi et al., (2005) have worked on effect of Gaicinia kola seed extract

on estrus cycle, ovulation and featal development in adult female rats by oral admiration at

the dose levels 200 mg/kg of body weight altered estrus cycle significantly. Dhali et al.,

(2005) have studied to establish the profiles of luteinising hormone (LH), follicle



stimulating hormone (FSH), estradiol 17β (E2) and progesterone (P4) secretion and their

interrelationships during the natural estrous cycle of mithun (Bos frontalis). Azadirachta

indica seeds produced significant reduction in follicles in albino rats after the

administration of polar and non-polar fractions (Roopa et al., 2005).

The study of R. Koneri, et al., (2005) reveals that there is highly significant

decrease in the duration of the estrous and the metestrous phases and increase in the

duration the proestrous phase and also a highly significant decrease in ovarian weight and

increase in cholesterol level, was observed indicating that the extract of Momordica

cymbalaria has caused significant inhibition of ovulation and acted as abortifecient when

administration of extract at dose level 500 mg/kg of body weight to the pregnant rats

during organogenesis. Aqueous and ethanol extracts from the root of Momordica dioca

Roxb. And Plumbago zeylanica were shown abortifacient activity (Shreedhar et al, 2005).

Geremew tafesse et al., (2005) investigated on in vitro and in vivo antifertility and

antiimplantation propertis of Leonstis ocymifolia in female rats and reported that the

aqueous and ethanol leaves and roots extracts showed 37 and 20 % of antiimplantation and

antifertility activity respectively. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis flowers possess antifertility and

abortifacient activity and antiimplantation activity of aqueous extract in female mice

(Manish Nivsarkar et al., 2005).

Benzene seeds extract of Momordica charantia and root extract of Momordica

dioca Roxb showed estrogenic activity as evidenced by increase in uterine weight and

cornification of the vaginal epithelium in immature ovariectomized rats (Shreedhar, et al.,



2005). The methanolic extract of the roots of Rumex steudelii was investigated for their

antifertility activity in female rats and found that the extract reduced significantly the

number of litters. It also produced antifertility effect in a dose dependent manner by

manifesting the contraceptive effect for a definite period of time and the extract prolonged

significantly the estrus cycle in female rats (Endalk Gebrie et al., 2005).

Oral administration of ethanol seeds extract of Citrus limonmn at the dose level of

200 mg and 500 mg/kg body weight has shown reversible antifertility action in female

albino mice but the fraction of ethyl acetate showed most encouraging antiimplantation

activity (Kulkarni et al., 2005). In vitro studies of Kenia M et al., (2005) suggest that the

pesticides deltamethrin (D) and endosulfan (E) exert estrogen-like effects. There is

concern that interaction between weakly estrogenic compounds can increase their

estrogenic potency. Achyranthes aspera when tested for antifertility activity in proven

fertile female albino rats by oral administration of ethanol root extract at the dose level of

200 mg/kg body weight on days 1-7 of pregnancy exhibited 83.3% anti-implantation

activity (Neeru, 2006a). Ethanol extract of roots of Achyranthus aspera showed 100%

abortifacient activity in rabit at a dose level of 200 mg/kg body weight treatment and

Benzene extract also showed 100% abortifacient activity at a single dose of 50 mg/kg

body weight treatment and the roots of Abrorna augusta and Achyranthes aspera have

been reported to possess estrogenic activity in female albino rats (Neeru and Sharma,

2006b). The powdered fruits of Piper longrun, crude extract, different fractions and the

major pure compound from the active fraction were possessing antifertility effect in



female albino rats. The crude extract and hexane fractions exhibited 100 and 86% efficacy

of antiimplantation respectively (Lakshmi et al, 2006).

The methanol extract of Rhaphidophoru perlusa whole plant possesses estrogenic

activity in cows and rats (Santhosh et al., 2006). Ethanol seeds extract fraction-I of

Crotalaria juncea L seeds have shown prominent effect on Follicular kinetics, anti-

ovulatory, estrus cycle and also reduced the number of healthy follicles, corpus lutea but

increased the number of regression follicles in female albino rats (Vijayakumar B M and

Saraswati B., 2007). Methanol extract of three different seed varieties of Ricinus

communis L have shown significant antifertility and anti-implantation effect when

administered orally at the dose level of 200 mg/kg of body weight in female albino mice

(Sani U M and Sule M I., 2007). Oral administration of aqueous extract of Azadirachta

indica at the dose level of 25 mg/kg of body weight of has shown potential abortive effect

and anti-estrogenic effect in female albino rats (Mohsen et. al., 2008).

Aqueous extract of Bougainvillea spectabilis Leaves have shown potential

antifertility effect when administered orally at dose level of 800 mg/kg of body weight in

both male and female Swiss albino mice (Mishra et. al., 2009). Oral administration of

methanol root extract of Careya arborea Roxb at dose level 500 mg/kg of body weight

shown prominent effect on ovarian histology, reduction in number of graffian follicles,

corpora lutea and degeneration of corpus luteum in albino mice (Haloi et. al., 2009).



Ethanol extract of Sida acuta Brm have shown significant anti implantation and

estrogenic activity also causes hormonal imbalance when administered orally at dose level

50 and 100 mg/kg of body weight in female albino rats (Londonkar et. al., 2009). Acetone

and Ethanol extract of Plumbago rosea leaves have shown significant effect on ovulation

in female albino rats (Sheeja et. al., 2009).

Oral administration of ethanol extract of Allium cepa L orally at the dose level 300

mg/kg of body weight in female albino rats has shown potential anti implantation and anti-

ovulatory activity (Vishmu et. al., 2009). Aqueous extract of Aspilia african shown

effective on estrous cycle and ovulation in female Wister rat (Oyesola et. al., 2010). Oral

administration of petroleum ether extract of Trignella foenum graecum Seeds at dose level

500 mg/kg body weight have shown prominent anti fertility effect in female albino rats

(Dheeraja et. al., 2010). Methanol extracts of Bassia latifolia and Cajanus cajan posess

significant anti fertility effect in female albino mice (Bandyopadhyay et. al., 2010).

Jyothi et al., (2011) have investigated on ethanol extract Areca catechu observed a

prominent anti ovulatory and abortifecient effect when administered orally at dose level

300 mg/kg of body weight in female albino rats. Ethanol extract of Rhynchosia sublobata

is having a dose dependent prominent effect on estrous cycle in Wistar rats when

administered orally at the dose levels of 2500, 5000 and 1000 mg/kg of body weight

(Mustaph et. al., 2011). Varshzade et al., (2012) have reported that the oral administration

of alcoholic and aqueous extract of Dolichandrone falcata leaves have a strong (100%)

abortifecient activity at the dose level 200 and 400 mg/kg of body weight treatment and



also significant effect on estrous cycle in female albino rats. Ethanol extract of

Tabernaemontana diavaricata L leaf have significant anti implementation and anti-

ovulatory effect when administration orally at the dose level 250 and 500 mg/kg of body

weight in albino rats (Sachin et. al., 2012).

Aqueous, alcoholic and chloroform of Cannabis sativa leaves administered orally

possess antifertility activity. The Aqueous extract has shown most prominent abortifecient

activity in female albino rats when compared to other extracts (Varsha zade et. al., 2013).

Ethanol and Aqueous extract of Jatropha gossypifolia posess significant anti fertility

activity in female albino rats due to the terpenoids, phytosterols, and flavonoids present in

the extracts may be responsible for their activity. (Sachin Jain et al., 2013). Gurumani et

al., (2014) have reported that the ethanol Extract of Achyranthus aspera is a potentent anti

fertility activity in female albino rats.

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/27705/10/10_chapter 2.p… · potential antimicrobial property (Doughari et al., 2008). Reuben et al.,

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