ABSTRACT An inverter is an µ electronic circuit§ for converting µ direct current§ (DC) to µ alternating current§ (AC). Inverters are used in a wide range of applications, from small µ switched power supplies§ for a computer to large µ electric utility§ applications to transport bulk power. This report contains details of the design and construction of a modern 3000W dc to ac inverter. The system consists of the main inverter stage, the charging unit and the overload protector. These units are further subdivided into different stages. The main inverter performs the basic operation of converting the input DC signal from the battery into an AC signal. It then amplifiers the AC signal by the use of transistor MOSFET drivers and then step-up the signal to the require power (3000W) by the use of step-up transformer. The charging unit contains an automatic switch that transfers the battery from supply to charge when it senses supply from mains. Lastly, the overload protector is a thermal detector that determines the heat generated by the step-up transformer. This heat is directly proportional to the current drown from the transformer and thus to the load. . Chapter one contains an introduction to inverters, chapter two contains a review of related literature, chapter three contains the circuit design analysis, chapter four contains the contraction details ,and five contains the summery.
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ABSTRACTAn inverter is an µelectronic circuit§ for converting µdirect current§ (DC) to µalternating current§ (AC). Inverters are used in a wide range of applications, from small µswitched power supplies§ for a computer to large µelectric utility§ applications to transport bulk power. This report contains details of the design and construction of a modern 3000W dc to ac inverter. The system consists of the main inverter stage, the charging unit and the overload protector. These units are further subdivided into different stages. The main inverter performs the basic operation of converting the input DC signal from the battery into an AC signal. It then amplifiers the AC signal by the use of transistor MOSFET drivers and then step-up the signal to the require power (3000W) by the use of step-up transformer. The charging unit contains an automatic switch that transfers the battery from supply to charge when it senses supply from mains. Lastly, the overload protector is a thermal detector that determines the heat generated by the step-up transformer. This heat is directly proportional to the current drown from the transformer and thus to the load. . Chapter one contains an introduction to inverters, chapter two contains a review of related literature, chapter three contains the circuit design analysis, chapter four contains the contraction details ,and five contains the summery.
are generally applied to the lowest harmonics filtering
is more effective at high frequencies than at how
frequencies. Multiple pulse width or carrier based
(PWM) control scheme’s produce waveforms that are
composed of many narrow pulses. The frequency
represented by the number of narrow pulses per
second is called the switching frequency or carrier
frequency. These control scheme’s are often used in
variable frequency motor control inverters because
they allow a wide range of output voltage and
frequency adjustment while also improving the quality
of the waveform.
Multilevel inverters provide another approach to
harmonic cancellation. Multilevel inverters provide an
output waveform that exhibits multiple steps at several
voltage levels. For example it is possible to produce a
more sinusoidal wave by having split rail direct current
inputs at two voltages, or positive and negative inputs
with a central ground. By connecting the inverter
output terminals in sequence between the positive rail
and ground, the positive rail and negative rail, the
ground rail and the negative, then both to the ground
rail, a stepped waveform is generated at the inverter
output. This is an example of three level inverter; the
two voltages are ground.
Fig. 2.9: 3 PHASE IVNERTER WITH WYE CONNECTED
LOAD
Three phase inverter are used for variable frequency
drive applications and for high power applications such
as HVDC power transmission. A basic three phase
inverter as show in Fig 2.4 consists of three single
phase inverter switches each connected to one of the
three load terminals. For the most basic control
scheme, the operation of the three witches is
coordinated so that one switch operates at each 60
degree point f the fundamental output waveform. This
creates a line to line output wave form that has size
steps. The six step waveform has a zero voltage step
between the positive and negative sections of the
square wave such that the harmonics that are multiples
of three are eliminated as described above. When
carrier based PWM techniques are applied to six step
waveforms, the basic overall shape, or envelope, of the
waveform is retained so that the third harmonic and its
multiples are cancelled.
3.3 CIRCUIT DESIGN ANALYSIS
3.3.1 DESIGN SPECIFICATION
Output power = 3000W
Frequency = 50Hz
Input voltage = 12Vdc
Output voltage = 220Vac
3.3.2 POWER SUPPLY / CHARGERThe switching unit, timer, thermal sensor/indicator, and the charging unit, require a well-filtered and regulated DC power to drive their individual components. The power supply is made up of step down transformer, which steps the input 220Vac down to 15Vac. The bridge rectifier converts the AC signal to DC of the same voltage
level. The rectifier consists of diodes D1-D4. The circuit arrangement is such that at any point in time, two diodes are conducting while the other two are at cut-off.The filter capacity removes the AC ripples from the DC voltage. The IC regulator regulates the DC signal to give a steady, well-regulated dc output voltage.
Fig. 3.2 power supply circuit
Transformer Rating Required output voltage (V2) =15VInput voltage (V1) =220vPrimary turns (N1) =300Secondary turns (N2) =x
N2 =N1V2/V1
=300(15) 220 =20 turns.Transformer output current = 2VOutput power = 15V x 2A = 30W
Rectifierµ §Fig.3.3 Rectifier circuitAs explained earlier, The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL. For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.Peak Inverse VoltagePeak inverse voltage represents the maximum voltage that the non- conducting diode must withstand. At the instance the secondary voltage reaches its positive peak value, Vm the diodes D1 and D3 are conducting, where as D2 and D4 are reverse biased and are non-conducting. The conducting diodes D1 and D3 have almost zero resistance. Thus the entire voltage Vm appears across the load resistor RL. The reverse voltage across the non-
conducting diodes D2 (D4) is also Vm. Thus for a Bridge rectifier the peak inverse voltage is given by µ § Since transformer output voltage = 15V VM = 15V Diode current rating = 2 x transformer current = 2 x 2A = 4A
Rectifier diode to match this rating = IN4007 (Obtained from diode transistor specification book).
The output from the rectifier is given as –
Without capacitor. With capacitor.
VAC = 1.1x (VDC = 2) VAC = 0.8 (VDC +2)
= 1.1 X (12X2) = 0.8 (14)
1.1 X 14 = 11.2v
= 15.4v
This shows the need of the capacitor. Hence output current
IDC = 1.8 X IDV
= 1.8XO.5A
0.9A
Power output after fliter stage = 0.9 x 11.2
= 10.0w
= 10w
Calculating for the capacitor
C = (Il x t )/Vrip) x106
When Il = 0.9
T = 1/2x60
= 0.008333 (for 60H Z SUPPLY)
Vrip = Vrms x Ripple Vp-p
= 0.325v+ 2.828v
= 0.92
C (uf) (0.9 x 0.00833/0.92) x 106
=0.00814891 x 106
= 1000 uf (standard value)
Capacitor voltage rating should be at least
1.5 x VDA
= 1.5X11.2
= 16.8V
=16V (standard value)
C = 1000uf 16V.
Ripple FactorThe ripple factor for the Full Wave Rectifier is given byµ §The average voltage or the dc voltage available across the load resistance isµ §µ § µ §RMS value of the voltage at the load resistance isµ §µ §Efficiency Efficiency, is the ratio of the dc output power to ac input power µ §µ §The maximum efficiency of a Full Wave Rectifier is 81.2%.
THERMAL SENSING AND INDICATION UNIT
This unit converts the electrical signal from the heat sensor (thermistor) into an electrical
signal. The basic component of the circuit is LM 741 operational amplifier configured in
the comparator mode.
Figure 3.2 Operational Amplifier
Where V+ is non-inverting input pin 3
V- is inverting input pin 2
Vout is output pin 6
Vst is positive power supply pin 7
Vs- is negative power supply pin 4
The general operational amplifier has two inputs and one output, the output voltage is a multiple of the difference between the two inputs (one can be made floating).
Figure 3.3. unit of comparator circuit.
R1 sets the reference (non-inverting) voltage
Vout = t (Vin – Vref),
Where (t is the open-loop gain of the operational amplifier.
In this comparator mode, Vout is HIIGH if the incoming voltage is equal to
or above Vref. Otherwise, the output is LOW.
Since R1 is variable in other to set different reference voltage levels, its
value is not critical. Thus picking a 50K ohms resistor, R1 could be seen as
consisting of two fixed resistors and at 5o% variation, Ra=25K and
Rb=25K.
V = supply voltage x Ra/Ra+Rb
V= 9v x 25000/ 25000+25000
v = 9v x (25000/50000 ohms)
V = 9v x 0.5 ohms
V = 4.5v
µ §
Vin is determine by the resistance of the thermistor. It varies with the
magnitude of heat from the transformer. The resistance can vary from
approximately 200Kohms to about 10 Ohms. In between, different voltages
are produce as a result of the variation in resistance. The output from the op-
amp is then fed to the transistor which drives the buzzer.
THE STEP-UP TRANSFORMER DESIGN
Determination of number of turns is calculated using 3000W
In order to achieve a good number of turns flux density of 1.531tesla was assume and the
following calculation was made
A = (√P/5.58
Where A = Area in square meter (M2), P = power in watts (W) = 3000W and 5.58
is a constant
A = √3000/5.58 = 9.8158CM2 = 9.8158 x 10-4M2
E = 4.44 F ΦmN and
Φm = BmxA
Where E = emf of transformer in volt (V), F = frequency in Hertz (HZ) = 50Hz,
Φm = flux in Weber (w), Bm = flux density in tesla = 1.531tesla, A = Area in
square meter (M2) = 9.8158 x 10-4M2 and N = number of turns
Φm = 1.531 x 9.8158 x 10-4 = 1.5028 x 10-3w = 1.5028mw
Determination of number of turns on primary side, emf per turn E1.
E1 = 4.44 x F x Φm = 4.44 x 50 x 1.5028 x 10-3 = 0.3336 V/turn
Primary turn N1
N1 = V1/E1 = 12/0.3336 = 35.9689turns ≈ 36turns
Secondary turns N2
(N1/N2) = (V1/V2)
N2 = (N1 x V2)/V1 = ( 36 x 220) / 12 = 660turns
Determination of wire diameter
A = I/D and d = √((A x 4)/Π)
Where A = cross-sectional area in square millimeters (mm2), D = current density
= constant = 3.08A/mm2, I = current in Amperes (A), d = diameter in millimeters
(mm) and Π = 3.142
Primary current I1
I1 = 3000/12 = 250A
A1 = I1/D = 250/3.08 = 81.1688mm2
d1 = √((81.1688 x 4) / 3.142) = 10.1653 mm
Secondary current I2
I2 = 3000/220 = 13.6364A
A2 = I2/D = 13.6364/3.08 = 4.4274mm2
d2 = √((4.4274 x 4) / 3.142) = 2.3741mm
3.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF THE SYSTEM
CIRCUIT A CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF A MORDEN 3000W DC-AC INVERTER
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF A 3KW INVERTER
3.4 COMPONENT REVIEWThis unit reviews some of the components used in this circuit design.3.4.1 INTEGRATED CIRCUITA monolithic integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized µelectronic circuit§ (consisting mainly of µsemiconductor devices§, as well as µpassive components§) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of µsemiconductor§ material.A µhybrid integrated circuit§ is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board.Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that µsemiconductor devices§ could perform the functions of µvacuum tubes§, and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in µsemiconductor device fabrication§. The integration of large numbers of
tiny µtransistors§ into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete µelectronic components§. The integrated circuit's µmass production§ capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors.There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by µphotolithography§ and not constructed a transistor at a time. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power, because the components are small and close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square µmm§ to around 350 µmm§2, with up to 1 million µtransistors§ per µmm§2.Advances in integrated circuitsAmong the most advanced integrated circuits are the µmicroprocessors§ or "cores", which control everything from µcomputers§ to µcellular phones§ to digital µmicrowave ovens§. Digital µmemory chips§ and µASICs§ are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are important to the modern µinformation society§. While cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low µpower§ logic (such as µCMOS§) to be used at fast switching speeds.ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per unit area can be used to decrease cost and/or increase functionality—see µMoore's law§ which, in its modern interpretation, states that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. In general, as the feature size shrinks, almost everything improves—the cost per unit and the switching power consumption go down, and the speed goes up. However, ICs with µnanometer§-scale devices are not without their problems, principal among which is leakage current (see µsubthreshold leakage§ and µMOSFET§ for a discussion of this), although these problems are not insurmountable and will likely be solved or at least ameliorated by the introduction of µhigh-k dielectrics§. Since these speed and power consumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. This process, and the expected progress over the next few years, is well described by the µInternational Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors§ (ITRS).Classification
Integrated circuits can be classified into µanalog§, µdigital§ and µmixed signal§ (both analog and digital on the same chip).Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from a few thousand to millions of µlogic gates§, µflip-flops§, µmultiplexers§, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically µmicroprocessors§, µDSPs§, and micro controllers work using binary mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals.Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and µoperational amplifiers§, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like µamplification§, µactive filtering§, µdemodulation§, µmixing§, etc. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as µA/D converters§ and µD/A converters§. Such circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference (see µsignal integrity§).PackagingThe earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the µdual in-line package§ (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to µpin grid array§ (PGA) and µleadless chip carrier§ (LCC) packages. µSurface mount§ packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by µSmall-Outline Integrated Circuit§. A carrier which occupies an area about 30 – 50% less than an equivalent µDIP§, with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package has "gull wing" leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches.µSmall-Outline Integrated Circuit§ (SOIC) and µPLCC§ packages. In the late 1990s, µPQFP§ and µTSOP§ packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end µmicroprocessors§. Intel and AMD are currently transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to µland grid array§ (LGA) packages.
µBall grid array§ (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. µFlip-chip Ball Grid Array§ packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery.Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the µprinted circuit board§ have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself.When multiple dies are put in one package, it is called SiP, for µSystem In Package§. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, it's called a MCM, or µMulti-Chip Module§. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy.3.4.2 DIODEIn µelectronics§, a diode is a µcomponent§ that restricts the direction of flow of µcharge carriers§. Essentially, it allows an µelectric current§ to flow in one direction, but blocks it in the opposite direction. Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a µcheck valve§. Circuits that require current flow in only one direction typically include one or more diodes in the circuit design.Early diodes included µ"cat's whisker" crystals§ and µvacuum tube§ devices (called µthermionic valves§ in µBritish English§ µDialect§). Today the most common diodes are made from µsemiconductor§ materials such as µsilicon§ or µgermanium§.Semiconductor diodesµµ §§µµ §§Diode schematic symbol. Conventional current can flow from the anode to the cathode, but not the other way around.Most modern diodes are based on µsemiconductor§ µp-n junctions§. In a p-n diode, µconventional current§ can flow from the p-type side (the µanode§) to the n-type side (the µcathode§), but cannot flow in the opposite direction. Another type of semiconductor diode, the µSchottky diode§, is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction.A semiconductor diode's µcurrent-voltage, or I-V, characteristic§ curve is ascribed to the behavior of the so-called µdepletion layer§ or µdepletion
zone§ which exists at the µp-n junction§ between the differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, the hole vanishes and the electron is no longer mobile. Thus, two charge carriers have vanished. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of µcharge carriers§ and thus behaves as an µinsulator§.However, the µdepletion width§ cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a 'built-in' potential across the depletion zone.If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator preventing a significant electric current. This is the µreverse bias§ phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be 'turned on' as it has a µforward bias§.µµ §§I-V characteristics of a P-N junction diode (not to scale).A diode's I-V characteristic can be approximated by two regions of operation. Below a certain difference in potential between the two leads, the depletion layer has significant width, and the diode can be thought of as an open (non-conductive) circuit. As the potential difference is increased, at some stage the diode will become conductive and allow charges to flow, at which point it can be thought of as a connection with zero (or at least very low) resistance. More precisely, the µtransfer function§ is µlogarithmic§, but so sharp that it looks like a corner on a zoomed-out graph (see also µsignal processing§).In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the voltage drop across a conducting diode is approximately 0.6 to 0.7 µvolts§. The value is different for other diode types - µSchottky diodes§ can be as low as 0.2 V and µlight-
emitting diodes§ (LEDs) can be 1.4 V or more (Blue LEDs can be up to 4.0 V).Referring to the I-V characteristics image, in the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the µA range) for all reverse voltages up to a point called the peak-inverse-voltage (PIV). Beyond this point a process called reverse µbreakdown§ occurs which causes the device to be damaged along with a large increase in current. For special purpose diodes like the µavalanche§ or µzener diodes§, the concept of PIV is not applicable since they have a deliberate breakdown beyond a known reverse current such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the zener voltage or µbreakdown voltage§). These devices however have a maximum limit to the current and power in the zener or avalanche region.Types of semiconductor diodeµµ §§µµ §§µµ §§µµ §§DiodeµZenerDiode§µSchottkyDiode§µTunnelDiode§µµ §§µµ §§µµ §§µµ §§µLight-emittingdiode§µPhotodiode§µVaricap§µSCR§Some diode symbols
3.4.3 RESISTOR
A resistor is a two-terminal µelectrical§ or µelectronic§ component that resists an µelectric current§ by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in accordance with µOhm's law§: µ §The µelectrical resistance§ is equal to the µvoltage§ drop across the resistor divided by the current through the resistor. Resistors are used as part of µelectrical networks§ and electronic circuits.Calculations Ohm's lawThe relationship between voltage, current, and resistance through a metal wire, and some other materials, is given by a simple equation called µOhm's Law§:µ §where V (or U in some languages) is the voltage (or potential difference) across the wire in µvolts§, I is the current through the wire in µamperes§, and R, in µohms§, is a constant called the resistance—in fact this is only a simplification of the original Ohm's law (see the article on that law for further details). Materials that obey this law over a certain voltage or current
range are said to be ohmic over that range. An ideal resistor obeys the law across all frequencies and amplitudes of voltage or current.µSuperconducting§ materials at very low temperatures have zero resistance. Insulators (such as µair§, µdiamond§, or other non-conducting materials) may have extremely high (but not infinite) resistance, but break down and admit a larger flow of current under sufficiently high voltage. Power dissipationThe power dissipated by a resistor is the voltage across the resistor multiplied by the current through the resistor:µ §All three equations are equivalent. The first is derived from µJoule's law§, and other two are derived from that by Ohm's Law.The total amount of heat energy released is the integral of the power over time:µ §If the average power dissipated exceeds the power rating of the resistor, then the resistor will first depart from its nominal resistance, and will then be destroyed by overheating. Series and parallel circuitsResistors in a µparallel§ configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find their total equivalent resistance (Req):µµ §§µ §The parallel property can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in geometry) to simplify equations. For two resistors,µ §The current through resistors in µseries§ stays the same, but the voltage across each resistor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find their total resistance:µµ §§µ §A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series can sometimes be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,µµ §§µ §
A transistor is a µsemiconductor device§, commonly used as an amplifier or an electrically controlled switch. The transistor is the fundamental building block of the µcircuitry§ that governs the operation of µcomputers§, µcellular phones§, and all other modern µelectronics§.Because of its fast response and accuracy, the transistor may be used in a wide variety of µdigital§ and µanalog§ functions, including µamplification§, µswitching§, µvoltage regulation§, signal µmodulation§, and µoscillators§. Transistors may be packaged individually or as part of an µintegrated circuit§ chip, which may hold millions of transistors in a very small area.Modern transistors are divided into two main categories: µbipolar junction transistors§ (BJTs) and µfield effect transistors§ (FETs). Application of current in BJTs and voltage in FETs between the input and common terminals increases the µconductivity§ between the common and output terminals, thereby controlling current flow between them. The transistor characteristics depend on their type. See µTransistor models§.The term "transistor" originally referred to the µpoint contact§ type, but these only saw very limited commercial application, being replaced by the much more practical µbipolar junction§ types in the early 1950s. Ironically both the term "transistor" itself and the µschematic symbol§ most widely used for it today are the ones that specifically referred to these long-obsolete devices.µ[1]§ For a short time in the early 1960s, some manufacturers and publishers of electronics magazines started to replace these with symbols that more accurately depicted the different construction of the bipolar transistor, but this idea was soon abandoned.In µanalog circuits§, transistors are used in µamplifiers§, (direct current amplifiers, audio amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers), and linear µregulated power supplies§. Transistors are also used in µdigital circuits§ where they function as electronic switches, but rarely as discrete devices, almost always being incorporated in monolithic µIntegrated Circuits§. Digital circuits include µlogic gates§, µrandom access memory§ (RAM), µmicroprocessors§, and µdigital signal processors§ (DSPs).Advantages of transistors over vacuum tubesBefore the development of transistors, µvacuum tubes§ (or in the UK thermionic valves or just valves) were the main active components in electronic equipment. The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are:
Smaller size and lighter (despite continuing miniaturization of vacuum tubes)
Highly automated manufacture Lower cost (in volume production)
Lower possible operating voltages (but vacuum tubes can operate at higher voltages)
No warm-up period (most vacuum tubes need 10 to 60 seconds to function correctly)
Lower power dissipation (no heater power, very low saturation voltage)
Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness (although vacuum tubes are electrically more rugged, and are much more resistant to µnuclear electromagnetic pulses§ and µelectrostatic discharge§)
Much longer life (vacuum tube cathodes are eventually exhausted and the vacuum can become contaminated)
Complementary devices available (allowing circuits with complementary-symmetry: vacuum tubes with a polarity equivalent to PNP BJTs or P type FETs are not available)
Ability to control large currents (power transistors are available to control hundreds of amperes, vacuum tubes to control even one ampere are large and costly)
Much less µmicrophonic§ (vibration can modulate vacuum tube characteristics, though this may contribute to the sound of µguitar amplifiers§)
Typesµµ §§PNPµµ §§P-channelµµ §§NPNµµ §§N-channelBJTJFETBJT and JFET symbolsTransistors are categorized by:
Polarity: µNPN§, µPNP§ (BJTs); N-channel, P-channel (FETs) Maximum power rating: low, medium, high Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, µradio
frequency§ (RF), µmicrowave§ (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by the term fT, an abbreviation for "frequency of transition". The frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain).
Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair
Physical packaging: µthrough hole§ metal, through hole plastic, µsurface mount§, ball grid array, power modules
Thus, a particular transistor may be described as: silicon, surface mount, BJT, NPN, low power, high frequency switch.UsageIn the early days of transistor circuit design, the µbipolar junction transistor§, or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor. Even after MOSFETs became available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for digital and analog circuits because of their ease of manufacture and speed. However, desirable properties of MOSFETs, such as their utility in low-power devices, have made them the ubiquitous choice for use in digital circuits and a very common choice for use in analog circuits.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 CONSTRUCTION
This chapter contains the construction work details. It also contains the list
of tools used in the construction work and the testing and result analysis.
4.1 CIRCUIT CONSTRUTION
The circuit board consists of the vero board and all other components
mounted on it. In its construction, the vero board was cleaned with an iron
brush to remove dirt from its surface which might affect soldering quality.
Subsequently, following the circuit diagram, the components were mounted
on the board one after the other and soldered. The IC was not directly
soldered to the board but was mounted on an IC socket. This is to prevent
6. R.J Maddock and D.M Calcult (1987), ELECTRONIC; A COURSE
FOR ENGINEERING, pub. Longman group LTD, ELBS Edition, pp
601.
7. µ www.wikipedia.com/machine§
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