CHAPTER II THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK, RATIONALE, RESEARCH HYPHOTHESES A. Theoritical Framework 1. The Nature Of Descriptive Writing a. The Definition Of Writing Writing has for many years, even centuries, occupied a large place in teaching and learning procedures in schools. To be literate has implied the ability to read and write in the native language, and it is these skills which students have practiced in class. This approach to native-language learning has easily transferred to the foreign-language classroom, without too much thought given to its appropriateness or inappropriateness in a situation where the student does not have the spoken form the language already at his command. Writing exercises keep students busy and out of mischief. They are easy to set; the inexperienced or poorly qualified teacher may take them directly from the textbook, with which a key to 9
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CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK, RATIONALE, RESEARCH
HYPHOTHESES
A. Theoritical Framework
1. The Nature Of Descriptive Writing
a. The Definition Of Writing
Writing has for many years, even centuries, occupied a large place in
teaching and learning procedures in schools. To be literate has implied the ability
to read and write in the native language, and it is these skills which students have
practiced in class. This approach to native-language learning has easily transferred
to the foreign-language classroom, without too much thought given to its
appropriateness or inappropriateness in a situation where the student does not
have the spoken form the language already at his command. Writing exercises
keep students busy and out of mischief. They are easy to set; the inexperienced or
poorly qualified teacher may take them directly from the textbook, with which a
key to acceptable answers is usually provided; they may often be corrected as a
group procedure in the classroom; and they yield a wide spread of evaluative
grades for entry in the teacher’s records. With so much writing in foreign-
language classes over so many years, one would expect to find that this is the skill
for which effective methods have long since been evolved and with which the
students have the most success. Unfortunately, examinations, disappointing, and
teachers of advanced courses in colleges and universities continue to deplore the
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inability of students with four, five, and six, years of secondary school study of
the language behind them to express themselves in a clear, correct, and
comprehensible manner in writing. We would do well to examine critically the
role of writing in foreign-language learning at high school level, to analyze what
is involved in the process of writing a foreign language, and to trace out the steps
which this skill can be progressively mastered.
Traditionally, writing activities in foreign-language classes have taken the
form of the writing out of paradigms and grammatical exercises, dictation,
translation from native language to foreign language and from foreign language to
native language, and imitative and free composition. These exercises have often
been the only sections of language study tested in examinations and have
therefore become, in the eyes of students and teachers alike, the most important
occupations in foreign language classroom.
These various kinds of writing as follow:
1) Notation: In its simplest form writing can be the act of putting down in
conventional graphic form something which has been spoken. This act
may involve nothing more than the correct association of conventional
graphic symbols with sounds which have for the writer no meaning and no
significant interrelationship.
2) Spelling: This process is sometimes useful when specific sound-symbol
conventions are under consideration, or when the student is being asked to
discriminate among various sounds. If recognizable units of the foreign
language are involved.
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3) Writing practice: Writing becomes a more complicated process when it
involves putting in graphic form, according to the system accepted by
educated native speakers, combination of words which might be spoken in
specific circumstances (that is, which convey certain elements of
meaning). This type of writing which is involved in grammatical exercises,
the constructions of simple dialogue, and uncomplicated translation
exercises.
4) Composition: In its most highly developed form, writing refers to the
expression of ideas in a consecutive way, according to the graphic
conventions of the language; the ultimate aim of a writer at this stage is to
be able to express himself in a polished literary form which requires the
utilization of a special vocabulary and certain refinements of structure
(Riyes, 1970).
According to Riyes (1970:245-246) there are five stages of development to
write:
1) Copying
Copying (sometimes called transcription), is often despised by foreign-
language teachers as an unworthy and unchallenging occupation for
adolescent students. This attitude is unfortunate and ignores the fact that there
are many aspects of another language which are very strange to the students
and with which he needs to familiarize himself very thoroughly if he is to
write the language confidently. At this stage, he repeats a sentences to himself
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as he copies it, and then tries to say it over to himself two or three times
without referring to the script.
2) Reproduction
Stage the student will attempt to write, without originality, what he has
learned orally and read in his textbook. This he will be able to do all the more
successfully if he has been trained in habits of accuracy during the copying
stage. If sound writing habits are to e firmly established, the learning
situations must be continually structures so that the students will write
correctly. As a first he will be to rewrite immediately each sentence he has
copied without reference to his copy or to the original. He will then compare
this version with the original for correction. Next he will be asked to write
down sentences he has memorized, read, and copied as they are dictated to
him.
3) Recombination
Where the student is required to reproduce learned work with minor
adaptations. This parallels in conception the recombination stage in oral work
and reading. It must, however, be continually borne in mind that the work for
recombination in writing will always be some distance behind what is being
spoken and read. At this stage, writing practice may take a number of forms.
Students will write out structure drills of various kinds: making substitution of
words and phrases, transforming sentences, expanding them to include further
information within the limits of learned phrases, contracting them by
substituting pronouns for nouns or single words for groups of words.
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4) Guided Writing
The student will be given some freedom in the selection of lexical
items and structural patterns for him written exercises, but within a framework
which restrains him from attempting to compose at a level beyond his state of
knowledge. At the guided writing stage the student may begin with
completion exercise where parts of sentences are given and the structural
pattern is thus established for him. Writing at this stage is still under
supervision.
5) Composition
The final stage of composition involves individual selection of
vocabulary and structure for the expression of personal meaning. In foreign
language, the student is still not capable of being truly creative in his writing
at this level, since he must write as a native speaker would write, without
having, as yet, the same mastery of the language in all its flexibility. At this
stage he will bee increasing his understanding of the differences between
speaking and writing a foreign language (Rayes, 252).
b. Types of Writing
The types of writing has two types, it is according to Alice Oshima (1999:
16-18).
1) Writing a Paragraph
A paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group
of related sentences develops one main idea. A paragraph can be as short as
one sentence or as long as ten sentences. The number of sentences is
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unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the
main idea clearly.
A paragraph may stand by itself. In academic writing, a paragraph is
often used to answer a test question such as the following: “Define
management by objectives, and give one example of it from the reading you
have done for this class.”
A paragraph may also be one part of a longer piece of writing such as a
chapter of a book or an essay. You will first learn how to write good
paragraphs, and then you will learn how to combine and expand paragraphs to
build essays.
A paragraph has three major structural parts; a topic sentence,
supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence.
The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only
names the topic of the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one areas that
can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. The specific
area is called the controlling idea.
Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence by giving reasons,
example, facts, statistics, and quotations.
The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves
the reader with important points to remember.
In addition to the three structural parts of a paragraph, a good
paragraph also has the elements of unity and coherence.
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Unity means that you discuss only one main idea in a paragraph. The
main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting
sentence develops that idea. If, for example, you announce in your topic
sentence that you are going to discuss two important characteristics of goal or
gold mining.
Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand
because (1) your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order and
(2) your ideas are connected by use of appropriate transition signals. For
example, in the paragraph about gold, there are two supporting ideas: Gold is
beautiful, and gold is useful. Each of these supporting ideas is discussed, one
after the other, and an example is given for each one. This is one kind of
logical order. Furthermore, the relationship between the ideas is clearly shown
by using appropriate transition words and phrases such as first of all, for
example, another important characteristic, and in conclusion.
2) Writing an Essay
An essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs long instead of just
one or two paragraphs. It is written about one topic, just as a paragraph is.
However, the topic of an essay is too complex to discuss in one paragraph.
Therefore, you must divide the topic into several paragraphs, one for each
major point. Then you must tie all of the separate paragraphs together by
adding an introduction and a conclusion.
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Writing an essay is no more difficult than writing paragraph except that
an essay is longer. The principles of organization are the same for both, so if
you can write a good paragraph, you can write a good essay.
An essay has three main parts.
a) An introductory paragraph
b) A body (at least one, but usually two or more paragraphs)
c) A concluding paragraph
The introductory paragraph consists of two parts: a few general
statements about your subject to attract your reader’s attention and a thesis
statement to state the specific subdivisions of your topic and/or the “plan” of
your paper. A thesis statement for an essay is just like a topic sentence for a
paragraph: it names the specific topic and the controlling ideas or major
subdivisions of the topic.
The body consists of one or more paragraphs. Each paragraph develops
a subdivision of your topic, so the number of paragraphs in the body will vary
with the number of subdivisions or subtopics. The body is longest part of the
essay and can contain as many paragraphs as necessary to support the
controlling ideas of your thesis statement. The paragraphs of the body of the
essay are like the main supporting points in a single paragraph. Furthermore,
you can organize the paragraphs in an essay just as you organize the ideas in a
paragraph, by chronological order, logical division of ideas, comparison and
contrast, etc.
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The conclusion in an essay, like the concluding sentence in a
paragraph, is a summary or review of the main points discussed in the body.
The only additional element in an essay is the linking expressions
between the paragraphs of the body. These are just like transitions within a
paragraph. You use transitions within a paragraph to connect the ideas
between two sentences. Similarly, you use transitions between paragraphs to
connect the ideas between them.
c. Kinds of writing
George and Julia (1980: 378) divided kinds of writing four kinds:
1) Narration
Narration is the form of writing used to relate the story of acts or
events. Narration places occurrences.
2) Description
Description reproduces the way things look, smell, taste, feel, or
sound; it may also evoke moods.
3) Exposition
Exposition is used in giving information, making explanations, and
interpreting meanings.
4) Argumentation
Argumentation is used in persuading and convincing. It is closely
related to exposition and is often combined with it.
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d. Teaching Writing
The reasons for teaching writing to students of English as a foreign
language include
1) Reinforcement: some students acquire language in a purely oral/aural way,
but most of us benefit greatly from seeing the language written down. The
visual demonstration of language construction is invaluable for both our
understanding of how it all fits together and as an aid to committing the
new language to memory. Students often find it useful to write sentences
using new language shortly after they have studied it.
2) Language development: we can’t be sure, but it seems that the actual
process of writing (rather like the process of peaking) help us to learn as
we go along. The mental activity we have to go through in order to
construct proper written texts is all part of the ongoing learning
experience.
3) Learning style: some students are fantastically quick at picking up
language just by looking and listening. For the rest of us, it may take a
little longer. For many learners, the time to think things through, to
produce language in a slower way, is invaluable. Writing is appropriate for
such learners. It can also be quiet reflective activity instead of the rush and
bother of interpersonal face-to-face communication.
Writing as a skill: by far the most important reason for teaching writing, of
course, is that it is a basic language skill, just as important as speaking, listening
and reading. Students need to know how to write letters, how to put written
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reports together, how to reply to advertisements- and increasingly, how to write
using electronic media. They seed to know of writing’s special conventions
(punctuation, paragraph construction etc.) just as they need to know how to
pronounce spoken English appropriately. Part of out job is to give them that skill
(Harmer, 1998: 79)
e. Descriptive Writing Theories
Writing is one way to improve the student’s or personal development, as
we write, we become more potent thinkers and active learners, and we eventually
to a better understanding of ourselves through the clarifying and organizing of our
personal experiences and our innermost thoughts, and also writing helps fulfill our
to communicate. In this paper the write would like to explain about the descriptive
writing, correlate to the statement above, that writing is the way to improve the
student’s skill, so the writer interested to analyze the descriptive writing.
1) The meaning of descriptive
Descriptive is one of form of form of writing. The form of writing are narration, exposition, persuasion. In writing, it is not avoided that the students make an error in their performance, such as in making a descriptive writing. Descriptive is writing about the way persons, animal, or thins appear. Descriptions tell us how something looks or feels or sound (Randal, 1976: 254).
We could describe a person from head to toe, or vise or versa, or begin
with his most noticeable, feature and work from there.
Description is used nearly always as supporting device of on the other
three: narration, exposition, persuasion:
Descriptive is most useful in painting a word-picture of something concrete, such as a scene or a person. Its use in not restricted, however, to what we can
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perceive with our sense: we can also describe or attempt to describe an abstract concept, such as an emotion or quality or mood. But most attempt to describe fear, for instance, still resort to the physical-a “coldness around the heart, “perhaps-and in such concrete ways communicate the abstract to the reader (Randal, 1976: 253).
The purpose of description is to make a readers see, hear, or otherwise
experience something, description reproduces the way things look, sound, smell;
it may also evoke moods, such as happiness, loneliness. So between the writer and
readers have a same conclusion at the end. According to Djoko Widagdho (109) :
Karangan deskripsi adalah karangan yang berusaha melukiskan dan
menggambarkan ataumengemukakan, tingkah laku seseorang, suasana dan
keadaaan suatu tempat atau sesuatu lainnya, dan harus diusahakan agar
pembaca seolah-olah melihat sendiri apa yang kita lukiskan tersebut.
When we describe something, we draw a picture of it in words, such as if
we describe someone in one paragraph, “A descriptive paragraph is a paragraph
that describes something.” (Warriner, 1977: 329). In describing a descriptive
writing, we can describe a person, place etc. The following is an example of
descriptive writing place.
Until I was thirteen and left Arkansas for good. The store was may favorite place to be. Alone and empty in the morning, it look like an unopened present from a stranger. Opening the front doors was pulling the ribbon off the unexpected gift. The light would come in softly (we faced north), easing it self over the shelves of mackerel, salmon, tobacco, thread. It felt flat on the big vat of lard and noontime during the summer the grease had softened to a thick soup. Whenever A walked into the in afternoon. I sensed that it was tired. I alone could hear the slow pulse of its job help done. But just before be a time, after numerous people had walked in and out. Had argued over their bills, or joked about their neighbours, or just dropped in “ to give sister ‘Henderson a’ Hi y’ all,’ “the promise of magic mornings returned to the store and spread it self over the family in washed life waves (Warriner, 1977: 330)
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Describing person;
Tom’s wife was a tall termagant, fierce of temper, loud of tongue, story of arm. Her voice was often heard in wordy warfare with her husband; and his face sometimes showed signs that their conflicts were not confined to words. Thus room was a universal friend of the needy and acted like a “friend in need,” that is, he always exacted good pay and good security. In proportion to the distress of applicant was the highness of this terms. He accumulated bonds and mortgages and gradually squeezed his customers closer and closer, and send them at length, dry as a spone from his door.From the eyes the panther and other stories, ladder edition (pyramids communications, inc, 1972)
Washington irring
The devil and Tom Walker
2) The types of descriptive (Ismail Marahimin, 2001: 45-47).
In descriptive writing, there are two types of descriptive, expository and
then impressionist.
a) Expository
In making writing, we have to prepare anything. In writing too the have to
open our mind to write in apiece of paper. The writer must give about
information in writing based on the facts. According to warriner’s an
expository is giving the information about something or explains something.
The example of expository
No bird in the world is better equipped for per suit than the peregrine falcon, bullet headed, broad in the shoulder and tapering to the tail, a powerful, perfectly streamlined machine whose pointed wings are capable of putting it into a power dive estimated to reach 175 miles per hour. But the peregrine is effective only in open terrain; for this reason falconry as a sport has never caught on in wooded eastern North America as it has on the moorlands of north England and Scotland. Most falcons are strong fliers of the open country, although some of smaller ones, the kestrels, are more like helicopters, hovering for mice, grass hoppers, and the petty pray (Wariner, 1982: 331).
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b) Impressionists
Actually, every writer want to make a reader understand about her/she
writing, so the purpose of the writer is making a reader to see or feel what the
writer want. In writing, the writer tries to show the situations, idea or make the
reader interest to read. According Herman William: “ The purpose of someone
interested in writing impressionistic description is thus to make us see and
thereby share and experience (William 1977: 199).
The Example of impressionist:
Our backyard is dominated by huge old live oak tree. The base of the trunk measures approximately ten feet around. The thick muscular trunk rises solidly for about eight feet and then separates into four main branches. From these, the lower branches spread out horizontally over the ground, reaching into the neighbors’ yard. The main branches continue to rise, up and up. Where they compete with each other for air and sunlight from this heights, the neighborhood cardinal and blue joys sing to each other, keeping a sharp eye out for cats. As the bird sway in the wind, they look as if they are riding a ship across a gently swelling ocean. From these heights too, it is easy to see the variety of shrubs and sweet smelling flowers lining the two long sides of our rectangular yard, the small walkway along the back of the house, and the back fence that runs along the alley (Regina, 1995: 80).
In the first language education, learning to write to involves learning
specialize version of language already known to students. This specialized
language differs from spoken language, both I form and in use, but build upon
linguistic resources those students already posses. The ultimate goal of learning
to write is for most the value of being able to write effectively increase as
students’ progress through compulsory education on to higher education. At
the university level in particular, writing is seen not only as standardized
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system of communication but also as essential tool for learning. At least in the
English Foreign Language, one of the main functions of writing at higher
levels of education is to expand one’s own knowledge through reflection rather
than simply to communicate information.
While the specific goals of writing instruction may vary culture to culture,
it is clear that writing is an important part of the curriculum n schools from the
earliest grade onward, and that most children in countries that have a formal
education system will learn to write. At least at the basic level in relatively
standardized within a particular culture.
2. The Nature Of Teaching Approach
Approach can be interpreted as a turning point or point of view we have on
the learning process, which refers to the view of the occurrence of a process that is
still very general nature, in which accommodating, strengthen, and supported
learning method with certain theoretical coverage. Seen from the approach, there
are two types of teaching learning approaches, namely: (1) learning-oriented
approach or based on students (student-centered approach) and (2) learning-
oriented approach or based on teacher (teacher-centered approach).
According to the Department of Education (1990: 180) approach can be
interpreted, "as a process, act, or how to approach things."
In the opinion of Wahjoedi (1999 121) that, "teaching approach is a way to
manage student learning activities and behavior so that he can actively perform
learning tasks so as to obtain an optimal learning outcomes".According
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Syaifuddin Sagala (2005: 68) that, "The teaching approach is a path that will be
used by teachers and students in achieving instructional objectives for a particular
instructional unit". According to Sanjaya, (2008:127) approach to student-
centered learning strategies reduce discovery and inquiry learning and inductive
learning strategies. According Suherman (1993:220) argues in the learning
approach is a road, way or policies adopted by the teacher or the students in
achieving the learning objectives from the perspective of how the process of
learning or the learning materials, general or special. According Soedjadi
(1991:102), differentiates into two mathematics learning approach, as follows.
1) Approach the material (material approach), which is the explanation of certain
mathematical topics using other math materials. learning approach (teaching
approach), which is the process of delivering or presenting specific math topics in
order to facilitate students' understanding.
From theories above we can conclude that, the teaching approach is a way
to have the system working to facilitate the implementation of the learning
process and student learning to assist in achieving the goals set.
a. Teacher Centered Approach
Teacher centered learning in the classroom is that the planning and eacher-
centered instruction. In this method a teacher (both teachers and lecturers) is
instrumental in providing teaching materials for their students. There are three
common tool in schools to implement teacher centered, ie creating behavioral
targeting (behavioral), analyzing the task, and preparing instructional taxonomy.
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They mean that gurulah a bigger role for the smooth process of teaching and
learning in the classroom (Santrock, 2008). Meanwhile there is the same theory
advanced by Santrock teacher centered, Sudjana (2001) suggested approach
centered learning educators are learning activities that emphasize the importance
of activity in teaching or membelajarkan learners. Planning, implementation and
assessment of learning outcomes fiber process conducted and controlled by
educators.
Both the above theory can be interpreted that the teacher centered
approach to learning is a learning approach in teaching and learning teacher-
centered. Teacher as one - only center students receive information and the raw
information from the teacher and follow all instructed by the teacher.
1) General Tool Teacher centered approach
Three common tools that are useful in planning school teacher centered is
to create behavioral targeting (behavioral), analyzing tasks, and develop