1psych200 whatispsycholoy-ppt-110319195855-phpapp01

• 1. Chapter oneWhat is psychology?

2. What is Psychology?Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behaviorand mental processes.Chapter one 3. Psychology as a ScienceTheories: Formulations of apparent relationships amongobserved events. Theories allow for prediction.Chapter one 4. What Psychologists doPure researchno immediate application, research for its own sakeApplied researchdesigned to find solutions to specific personal or social problemsPractice psychologyapplying psychological knowledge tohelp individuals change their behaviorTeachingsharing psychological knowledge.Chapter one 5. Fields of PsychologyWhat you want to be? 6. Fields of PsychologyClinical psychologists: Help people with psychological disorders adjust to the demands of life Largest subgroup of psychologistsCounseling psychologists: Similar to clinical psychologist but clients typically have adjustment problems and not serious psychological disorders More than half of all doctoral students are in programs of clinical or counselingChapter one 7. Fields of PsychologySchool psychologists: Employed by school systems to assiststudents with problems that interferewith learning. One focus is that of placement ofstudents in special classesEducational psychologists: Like school psychologists. Attempt to facilitate learning but focus on course planning,instructional methods. Focus on motivation, intelligence, testing, and student andteacher behavior.Chapter one 8. Fields of PsychologyDevelopmental psychologists: Study the changes, physical, cognitive, social andpersonality, that occur throughout the life span.Personality psychologists: Focus on identifying and measuring human traits,determining influences on human thought processes,feelings, and behavior and explaining psychologicaldisorders.Social psychologists: Primarily concerned with individuals thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations.Chapter one 9. Fields of PsychologyEnvironmental psychologists: Study how people and environment influence each otherand Study ways to encourage recycling, for example.Experimental psychologists: Conduct experiments, and Specialize in basic processes such as the nervous system,sensation and perception, learning and memory, thought,motivation, and emotion.Industrial psychologists: Focus on the relationship between people and work.Chapter one 10. Fields of PsychologyOrganizational psychologists: Focus on the relationship between peopleand organizations such as business.Human factors psychologists: Provide suggestions and create technical systems such asdashboards, computer keyboards, etc. to be more userfriendly.Chapter one 11. Fields of PsychologyConsumer psychologists: Study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence their behavior.Health psychologists: Examine the ways in which behavior and mental processesare related to health.Sport psychologists: Help people improve their sports performance.Chapter one 12. Philosophical Contributions 13. Philosophical ContributionsPlato (ca.427-347 BC) Recorded Socrates advice toKnow Thyself which is amotto of psychology. Also advanced Socratessuggestion of relying onrational thought andintrospection.Democritus (around 400 BC) Suggested that we could thinkof behavior in terms of a bodyand mind (interaction of biological and mental processes).Chapter one 14. Philosophical Contributions Aristotle: (384-322 BC) Wrote About the Psyche covering topics such as personality, sensation, perception, thought, intelligence, needs, motives, feelings, emotions and memory. A proponent of empiricism. (experimentation) He outlined the laws of associationism.Chapter one 15. 19th Century Contributions 16. 19th Century ContributionsGustav Theodore Fechner (1801-1887) Showed how physical events (light and sounds) are related topsychological sensations and perceptions. Some consider this to bethe beginning of psychology.Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) Gets the credit for being the founder of psychology. In 1879 he established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig,Germany.Chapter one 17. Structuralism and FunctionalismStructuralism Attempts to break conscious experience down into objective sensations such as sight, or taste, and the subjective feelings such as emotional responses. Believes that the mind functions by combining objective and subjective elements of experience. Wundt was considered to be a Structuralist.Functionalism In the study of individuals the focus should be on behavior as well as the mind and consciousness. Look at how experience helps us function more adaptively in our environments. William James (1842-1919) is often considered the first true American Psychologist.Chapter one 18. Behaviorism: Practicing Psychology in PublicJohn Broadus Watson (1878-1958) Considered to be the founder of American Behaviorism. Believed that psychology should limit itself to observable, measurable events and behavior.B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Believed organisms learn to behave in certain ways because ofreinforcement.Chapter one 19. Gestalt Psychology: Making Psychology Whole Gestalt translates to pattern or organized whole. Demonstrated that learning is a accomplished by insight, notby mechanical repetition. Founders included: Wertheimer (1880-1943), Koffka (1886-1941), and Kohler (1887-1967).Chapter one 20. Gestalt PsychologyThe Importance of Context.Gestalt psychologists have shown that our perceptions depend not onlyon our sensory impressions but also on the context of our impressions.You will interpret a man running toward you very differently dependingon whether you are on a deserted street at night or the beach in themorning.Chapter one 21. Gestalt Psychology 22. Gestalt Psychology 23. Gestalt Psychology 24. Gestalt Psychology 25. Psychoanalysis: Digging beneath the surfaceFocus on the unconscious - a seething cauldron of conflictingimpulses, urges and wishes. Founded by Sigmund Freud Often called psychodynamicChapter one 26. Todays Psychologists 27. Todays PsychologistsEvolutionary and Biological Perspectives Focus on the evolution of behavior and mental processes. Much like Darwin, believe that inherited tendencies move us in certaindirections.Cognitive Perspective: Keeping Psychology In Mind Mental processes to understand human nature How we perceive, learn, remember problem solve, etc. (the mind) Roots in Socrates, know thyselfHumanistic-Existential Perspective Humanistic stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment Existentialism views people as free to choose and as beingresponsible for choosing ethical conduct. Carl Rogers Abraham MaslowChapter one 28. Todays PsychologistsPsychodynamic Perspective 1940s-50s Sigmund Freud Neoanalysts Karen Horney and Erik EriksonPerspectives on LearningEffects of experience on behavior Theory 1 people do things because of learning history, situations, and rewards. (Watson) Theory 2 people modify and create their own environments and engage in intentional learning by observing others. (Social Learning)The Sociocultural Perspective Ways people differ Influences of ethnicity, gender, culture and socioeconomic factorsChapter one 29. Evolutionary and Biological Perspectives Focus on the evolution of behavior and mental processes. Genes can be transmitted from generation to generation. Biological perspective seek the links between the electricaland chemical activity of the brain. Use of PET and CAT scans.Chapter one 30. 1/24/11Cognitive Perspective Venture into the realm of mental processes to understand human nature. Cognitive psychologists study those things we refer to as the mind. Chapter one 31. Humanistic-Existential PerspectiveHumanism stresses the human capacityfor self-fulfillment.Existentialism views people as free to chooseand be responsible forchoosing ethical conduct.Stress the importance ofsubjective experience. Abraham Maslow and CarlRogers; two prominentpsychologists in this area.Chapter one 32. Psychodynamic Perspective Freuds influence continues to be felt though contemporarypsychodynamic theorists would likely call themselves neoanalysts. Famous neoanalysts include: Karen Horney (1885-1952) Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Former APA presidentDorothy Cantor.Chapter one 33. Perspectives on Learning Learning through repetition and reinforcement. Social-cognitive theorists formerly termed social learning theorists suggest that people can modify or even create their environments. Intentional learning by observing others.Chapter one 34. Sociocultural Perspective Addresses the ways people differ from one another. Studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, andsocioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes.Ethnicity Ethnic groups are united by their cultural heritage, race, language, and commonhistory. Study cultural heritages and ethnic differences in vulnerability to problems.Gender Refers to the culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity. Involves a complex web of cultural expectations and social roles.Chapter one 35. Ethnicity and Gender 36. Gender, Ethnicity, and PsychologyMary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) Studied at Harvard, completed her degree requirements, but Harvardwouldnt give her the degree. They were not admitting women. Pioneer in research in memory: primacy and recency effect. Became first female president of APA in 1905.Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930) Taught at Johns Hopkins and Columbia Universities. Formulated a theory of color vision.Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939) First woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology. Wrote The Animal Mind a work that would later become part ofbehaviorism.Chapter one 37. Gender, Ethnicity, and PsychologyHelen Bradford Thompson (1874-1947) First psychologist to study psychological gender differences. Wrote a book in 1903 titled The Mental Traits of Sex. Today more than half of American college students arewomen. Nearly 3/4 of the undergraduate degrees in psychology and2/3 of the doctoral degrees are earned by women.Chapter one 38. Ethnicity and Psychology 1901 Gilbert Haven Jones, an African American, received hisPh.D. in psychology in Germany. Kenneth Clark and Mamie Philips Clark. Jorge Sanchez was among the first to show how intelligencetests are culturally biased. 6% of first year doctoral students are African American, 6%are Asian American, 5% are Latino and about 1% are NativeAmerican.Chapter one 39. Critical Thinkingand Pseudoscience 40. Critical Thinking & Pseudoscience Pseudoscience: false science. Critical thinking: taking nothing for granted. Thoughtfullyanalyzing and probing questions, statements and argumentsof others.Skills needed for critical thinking: Development of skepticism Ability to inquire about cause and effect Increase curiosity about behavior Knowledge of research methods Ability to analyze arguments carefullyChapter one 41. Principles of Critical Thinking Be skeptical. Examine definitions of terms. Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments. Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence. Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence. Do not oversimplify. Do not overgeneralize.Chapter one 42. Critical Thinking TaskIs square A and Bthe samecolor?Explain youranswer. 43. The Scientific Method 44. The Scientific MethodScientific method is an organizedway of using experience andtesting ideas in order to expandand refine knowledge. Hypothesis: is a specificstatement about behavior ormental processes that is testedthrough research. Test the hypothesis throughcontrolled methods such as theexperiment. Replication: repeating a study tosee if the findings hold up overtime with different subjects.Chapter one 45. The Scientific Method a. A systematic way of organizing andexpanding scientific knowledge. b. Daily experiences, common beliefs,and scientific observations allcontribute to the development oftheories. c. Psychological theories explainobservations and lead tohypotheses about behavior andmental processes. d. Observations can confirm thetheory or lead to its refinement orabandonment.Chapter one 46. Samples and PopulationsSampleIndividuals from a segment of the population who are studied.PopulationGroup targeted for study.Types of SamplingRandom sample: each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate.Stratified sample: selection is made so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately in the sample.Volunteer bias:people who volunteer as participants differ systematically from peoplewho do not.Chapter one 47. Methods of ObservationThe Case Study Information collected about individuals and small groups. Anecdotes (Typically unscientific accounts of peoples behavior.) Compelling portraits but may have factual inaccuracies.The Survey Used to study individuals who cannot be observed in the naturalsetting or studied scientifically. Employs questionnaires and interviews or public records.Naturalistic Observation Observe people in their natural habitats. Unobtrusive measures are used to avoidinterfering with the observed behaviors.Chapter one 48. Correlation Investigates whether one observed behavior or trait isrelated to (correlated) with another. Mathematically expressed as a correlation coefficient; anumber the varies between +1.00 and -1.00. Positive correlation: the higher scores on one variable tend tocorrespond with higher scores on the second variable. Low with low.(e.g. Intelligence test scores and academic performance). Negative correlation: Higher scores on one variable tend tocorrespond with lower scores on the second. (e.g. Amount of stressexperienced and functioning of the immune system).How things are RelatedChapter one 49. Correlation 50. Correlational Relationships, Cause, & EffectCorrelational relationships may suggest but do notdemonstrate cause and effect.Consider the examples of academic grades (X) and juveniledelinquency (Y) in part B. Do poor grades lead to delinquency, Doesdelinquency lead to poor grades, or do other variables such as brokenhome or peer influences contribute to poor grades and delinquency. 51. ExperimentsThe preferred method for answering questions about cause andeffect. Involves Independent and Dependent Variables.Independent variable: manipulated by the experimenters so that the effects of various levelsmay be determined.Dependent variable: the measured outcome or result.Experimental and Control Groups Experimental groups obtain the treatment. Control groups do not receive the treatment.Chapter one 52. Experiments Placebo or sugar pill Blind study: control for the expectations of effects by creating conditions where the subjects are unaware of the treatment Double blind study: neither the subjects nor the experimenters know who has obtained the treatmentChapter one 53. ExperimentsFigure 1.7 The Experimental Conditions in the Lang Study. The taste of vodka cannot be discerned whenvodka is mixed with tonic water. For this reason it was possible for subjects in the Lang study on the effects ofalcohol to be kept blind as to whether or not they had actually drunk alcohol. Blind studies allow psychologiststo control for the effects of subjects expectations.Chapter one 54. Ethical Issues 55. Ethical Issues in Research & PracticeBasic standards Intended to promote individual dignity, human welfare and scientificintegrity. Do not undertake research methods that are harmful.Research with Humans Ethics review committees review research according to ethicalguidelines. Informed consent: individuals give consent before they canparticipate in research. Confidentiality is kept.Chapter one 56. Controversy in PsychologyIs it ethical for psychologist to deceive research participantsabout the methods and objectives of their research?APAs Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct May deceive only when the benefits of the research outweigh thepotential harm. The individuals would have been willing to participate if they hadunderstood the benefits. Subjects are debriefed(the purposes and methods of the research are explained afterward.)Chapter one 57. Research with Nonhuman Animals Psychologists generalize to humans the results of researchconducted with animals. Animals may be harmed only when there is no alternative; whenthe researchers believe that the benefits justify the harm.Chapter one 58. Questio ns & CommeChapter one