1 Elsevier items and derived items © 2007 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier, Inc. Chapter 34 HIV/AIDS
1Elsevier items and derived items © 2007 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier, Inc.
Chapter 34
HIV/AIDS
2Elsevier items and derived items © 2007 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier, Inc.
Origin of HIV and AIDS
• Might have been as early as the 1940s• Not recognized as a new pathogen until the
early 1980s• Immune-deficiency conditions began to show
up among primarily urban, gay men in the United States
• In 1986, HIV-1 and HIV-2 were isolated as causal viruses of AIDS
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Origin of HIV and AIDS
• Gay men were just the first to be affected• Infection soon seen in other populations
• Hemophiliacs• Patients who received a transfusion with HIV-
infected blood or blood products• Newborns and breast-fed infants of HIV-infected
mothers• Injection drug users• Partners having unprotected sex with those infected
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Demographics
• Age• More than half of new infections in young adults 15
to 24 years of age—at least 27% of these are women
• Since 1981, HIV/AIDS has affected 123,711 adults older than 65 years of age
• Race• 1984
• Whites 49%, African Americans 27%, and Hispanics 12%
• 2004• Whites 37%, African Americans 40%, and Hispanics 22%
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Pathophysiology
• Retrovirus• Transcription of genetic material is reversed
• RNA made into deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) rather than the normal pattern of DNA to RNA
• Reverse transcriptase• An enzyme that is responsible for transcribing RNA into
DNA
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Pathophysiology
• The life cycle of HIV• Penetrates body via blood and body fluids• Spherical• Two protein markers protrude from the virus
• gp120 and gp41• Attach to protein markers found on macrophages and T4
helper cells or CD4 and infuse genetic material into the host cell
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Pathophysiology
• HIV DNA incorporated into host cell’s DNA• Billions of copies of HIV are made
• 21 billion new HIV virions are produced daily• Only about 2 billion new T4 cells are produced
• Eventually, the body is unable to maintain a healthy immune response and shows symptoms of HIV/AIDS
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Pathophysiology
• The body’s response to HIV infection• Mounts a defense against the HIV virus through
antibodies and T cells• About 12 weeks after infection, the body produces enough
antibodies to be detected by standard HIV test• HIV viral load begins to drop, indicating partial
effectiveness of the body to rid itself of HIV• CD8 cells drop drastically in the late stages, and CD4 cells
slowly decline throughout the whole infection
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Stages of HIV Infection
• Initial stage• Lasts 4 to 8 weeks• High levels of virus in the blood• Generalized flulike symptoms
• Latent stage• Lasts 2 to 12 years• Virus is inactive• Levels are high in the lymph nodes but low in the
blood
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Stages of HIV Infection
• Third stage• Lasts 2 to 3 years• Patient experiences opportunistic infections • TH CD4 cells are usually <500 cells/mm³• Viral levels in the blood increase• Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
• CD4 cell levels drop <200 cells/mm³
• This stage ends in death, usually within 1 year
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Signs and Symptoms of HIV Infection
• Initial stage• Generalized flulike symptoms
• Latent stage• May have no symptoms initially• Eventually, frequent and persistent infections
• Fever, night sweats, swollen lymph nodes, headache, skin lesions, sore throat, dyspnea, burning with urination, or diarrhea
• Extreme fatigue and weight loss
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Opportunistic Infections
• When CD4 cells, CD8 cells, and/or HIV antibodies fall below normal, infections and cancers take advantage and cause infection or cancer in the body
• Causes: parasites, fungi, bacteria, viruses• Leading cause of death with AIDS is
pneumonia due to unspecified organisms
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Parasitic Infections
• Cryptosporidiosis and isosporiasis• Fairly common in the environment• Watery diarrhea; may be severe/persistent• Nursing care: preventing dehydration and
maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance• Antidiarrheal drugs• Intravenous fluids• Antimicrobial agents• Teach good hand washing and personal hygiene
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Parasitic Infections: Toxoplasmosis
• Cats, mammals, and birds serve as hosts• Humans become infected by ingesting
contaminated, undercooked meats or vegetables or by contact with cat feces
• Affects any tissue; mainly brain, lungs, eyes• Toxoplasmosis encephalitis the most common
in immunosuppressed patients• Dull, constant headache, weakness, seizures
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Parasitic Infections: Toxoplasmosis
• Pulmonary infection• Feverish illness that mimics Pneumocystis jiroveci
pneumonia with shortness of breath and nonproductive cough
• Eye infection• Loss of visual acuity as well as photophobia
• Wash hands, avoid undercooked raw meats, and avoid cat litterboxes
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Fungal Infections
• Microsporidiosis• Source of human infection is unknown• Watery diarrhea with weight loss, malabsorption,
abdominal cramps, and flatulence• No curative therapy; treat the symptoms
• Low-fat, low-residue, high-protein, high-calorie diet• 3 L of fluid per day; avoid milk products• Teach good hand washing and good hygiene; avoid
ingestion of food or water contaminated with fecal matter
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Fungal Infections
• Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia• Acquired by inhalation • Second leading cause of death in AIDS patients• Cysts prevent the exchange of gases• Shortness of breath on exertion, fever, and a
nonproductive cough• Treated with Bactrim, dapsone, clindamycin, and
pentamidine
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Fungal Infections
• Aspergillosis• Lives in soil, water, and air• Pulmonary infection can develop when spores are
inhaled• Causes fever, cough, dyspnea, chest pain, and
hemoptysis• Usually fatal within 8 weeks• Avoid wet, cool places; decreases risk of infection
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Fungal Infections
• Candidiasis• Found in most foods, soil, and inanimate objects• Approximately 80% of HIV patients will develop
candidiasis• Affects the mouth, vagina, and/or anus• Thrush: oral form of candidiasis• Candidal plaques can be scraped off
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Fungal Infections
• Coccidioidomycosis• Endemic in the southwestern United States and
northern Mexico• Particles inhaled into the lungs• Fever, weight loss, fatigue, dry cough, or pleuritic
chest pain• Dissemination to other organs may occur • People with HIV should avoid exposure to disturbed
soils in endemic areas
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Fungal Infections
• Cryptococcosis• Most common systemic fungal infection in AIDS
patients• Symptoms appear approximately 30 days after
exposure• Fever, headache, malaise, nausea, vomiting,
altered mental status, and a stiff neck
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Fungal Infections
• Histoplasmosis• Endemic in the central and southern United States• Found in soil and bird droppings• Involves the lungs after spores are inhaled, then can
be disseminated to other organs• Fever, night sweats, weight loss, and shortness of
breath• Avoid cleaning bird cages to prevent infection
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Viral Infections
• Cytomegalovirus (CMV)• Found in semen, cervical secretions, saliva, urine,
blood, and organs• Mainly transmitted by blood and body fluids through
unprotected sex• Complications include chorioretinitis, radiculopathy,
subacute encephalitis, colitis, esophagitis, and pneumonia
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Viral Infections
• Herpes simplex (HSV) and herpes zoster (HZV)• Reactivated HSV in HIV patients can cause serious
disease and tissue destruction• HSV infection follows a predictable pattern
• Primary outbreak, latency, and possible reactivation at some later point in life
• Most adults carry HZV because of exposure to chickenpox virus as a child
• Reactivation of HZV usually occurs as shingles
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Viral Infections
• Oral hairy leukoplakia (OHL)• Thick white patches on the buccal mucosa, soft
palate, floor of mouth, and tongue• Associated with Epstein-Barr virus• More common among smokers• The mouth is often painful
• Advise patient to drink from a straw• Ice cream or Popsicles can numb the area• Hot/spicy foods and alcohol may exacerbate mouth pain
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Viral Infections
• Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy
• Caused by the Jamestown Canyon virus• Develops in 2% to 4% of AIDS patients• Progressive degeneration of white matter of the
brain• Death within 4-6 months after the onset of
symptoms• Symptoms include weakness and progressively
impaired speech, vision, and motor function• No effective treatment
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Bacterial Infections
• Bacillary angiomatosis (BA)• Causes skin lesions; may affect any organ• Transmitted by cats and their fleas
• Due to a bite or scratch
• Papules/plaques occur anywhere on the skin• Advise HIV patient to avoid rough play with cats and
to make sure cats are treated for fleas
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Bacterial Infections
• Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC)• Found everywhere, including most food, animal, and
soil sources• May affect any organ of the body• Causes fever, fatigue, weight loss, night sweats,
abdominal pain, and diarrhea• Not contagious
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Bacterial Infections
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB)• HIV patients much more likely than a healthy person
to become infected with TB if exposed, especially when CD4 counts drop below 200 cells/mm³
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Kaposi’s Sarcoma
• Common neoplasm that develops with AIDS• Affects the skin first, appearing as a macular
painless, nonpruritic lesion• Color varies: pink, red, purple, and brown• Tumors may spread to the gastrointestinal
system and lungs• Treatment: observation, HAART, surgical
removal, cryotherapy, radiotherapy, chemotherapy
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Lymphomas
• A type of cancer that originates in lymphoid tissue: bone marrow, spleen, thymus gland
• Two types: Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s • Second most common malignancy in AIDS
patients• Causes fever, night sweats, and weight loss• Diagnosis based on a biopsy of lymphoid
tissue
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Medical Diagnosis of HIV
• HIV diagnosis• Positive HIV antibody test
• ELISA• Done first; 99% reliable
• Western blot• Used as a confirmation test; 99.99% reliable
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Medical Diagnosis of HIV
• AIDS diagnosis• CD4 count of <200 cells/mm³; asymptomatic• CD4 count of <200 cells/mm³; with category B
symptoms• Category C symptoms regardless of CD4 count
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Medical Treatment: Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART)
• Recommended for HIV viral load of 5000-30,000 copies/mL and CD4 counts of 350-500 cells/mm
• Usual drug combination: 1 protease inhibitor and 2 nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
• Ability/willingness to comply with therapy• If patient will not be compliant with the medication regimen,
better to not even start
• GI upset common; reason for noncompliance• Many side effects; usually subside in a few weeks
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Assessment
• Signs and symptoms of infection• Most common sites are lungs, mouth, GI tract, skin,
blood, and central nervous system
• Any changes should be reported to a registered nurse or physician
• Determine how much patient knows about the disease and treatment
• Assess how patient is coping with disease
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Health History
• Sexually transmitted infection history• Surgical history• Medication history and allergies• Immunization history• Family history• Sexual history• Needle and blood exposure history
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Health History
• Tobacco/alcohol use history• Illegal drug use history• Pet history• Occupational history• Nutritional history• Gynecologic history
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Physical Examination
• Height, weight, vital signs• Skin• Head, ears, eyes, nose, and throat• Lymphatic system• Respiratory system• Cardiovascular system• Abdominal• Musculoskeletal• Neurologic• Genitourinary• Laboratory profile
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Interventions
• Ineffective Therapeutic Regimen Management• Patient should receive accurate, consistent
information from all members of the health care team
• Clinical nurse specialist or other specially trained nurse can provide information about disease and treatment
• Excellent sources of information on the Internet• www.thebody.com• www.hivinsite.ucsf.edu
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Interventions
• Anxiety• Dealing with emotions of facing a life-threatening
illness• Encourage patients to ask questions and talk about
their feelings• Information about disease and treatment may help
patient and family deal with their anxiety• May need referral to a social worker, chaplain, or
mental health counselor
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Interventions
• Infection• Early detection and prompt treatment are vital• May be on anti-infective drugs prophylactically • Important to take drugs as prescribed• May need intravenous antibiotics
• Clinic or home administration
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Interventions
• Impaired Oral Mucous Membrane• Encourage regular teeth and mouth cleaning with
dental floss and a soft toothbrush• Encourage fluids to maintain hydration to keep
mucous membranes moist• Topical anesthetics applied before eating• Regular dental evaluations can help prevent and
manage oral disease and infections
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Interventions
• Imbalanced Nutrition: Less Than Body Requirements• Refer to dietitian for nutrition counseling as soon as
the patient is diagnosed• Oral supplements with Carnation Instant Breakfast,
Ensure, Sustacal, or Resource• Administer medications
• Improve appetite (megestrol, dronabinol)• Relieve nausea (prochlorperazine, metoclopramide)• Control diarrhea (diphenoxylate hydrochloride with atropine
sulfate)
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Interventions
• Disturbed Thought Processes• Patients with HIV encephalopathy may experience
cognitive and motor impairment• May withdraw from social activities because of
embarrassment• May become angry and hostile• Safety constantly reevaluated based on mental and
physical capabilities
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Interventions
• Pain• From opportunistic infections, viral invasion into the
nerves and muscles, malignant tumors, and diagnostic procedures
• Closely monitor pain level and medication use• Flow sheet of pain reports on a 10-point scale• Pain and amount of medication used can guide
nurse and physician to the appropriate type and amount of pain medication