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EuropeanPsychologist
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Evaluation of the Effectivenessof Autogenic Training
inGerontopsychologyIts Role in Developmental Intervention and Its
Effectson Development-Related Cognitions and Emotionsas well as
Psychosomatic Complaints in the ElderlyGiinter KrampenUniversity of
Trier, Germany
This paper presents the results of two studies on the promotion
of person-al self-regulation of development, personal control over
development anddevelopment-related emotions as well as generalized
locus of control andpsychosomatic well-being in the elderly using
autogenic training (AT),a psychophysiological self-control method
using self-inductions of phys-ical and mental relaxation. Subjects
were 120 adults aged 66-80 years.Study I had a randomized
cross-over design with a waiting list group;Study II had a
randomized cross-over design comparing the effects ofintroductory
courses on autogenic training and of a general health edu-cation
program. Each program phase continued for 8 weeks, with one
small group meeting per week. Tests were conducted in both
studies beforeprogram start, during mid-program, after total
program, and 6 monthsafter the end of the program. Data were
gathered on development-relatedemotions, personal control over
development, personal self-regulation ofdevelopment, psychosomatic
complaints, and generalized locus of con-trol. The results point
towards short-term as well as long-term effects ofautogenic
training on these variables. Possible applications of
autogenictraining in gerontopsychology are discussed as well as its
role in devel-opmental intervention and its references to the
action-theory orientedperspective in developmental psychology.
Keywords: Autogenic training, Treatment effectiveness
evaluation, Developmental intervention, Internal external locus of
control, Gerontopsychology.
To date, most empirical work on the effectiveness ofautogenic
training as well as on its theoretical founda-tions in
psychophysiology, learning theory, and behav-ior modification has
been done with reference to its ap-plications in clinical and
medical psychology (e.g.,Krampen, 1992 a; Luthe, 1969-1973). Only a
few studieshave included applications in educational psychologyand
industrial psychology, focusing for the most part onclinically
relevant aspects in these domains (i. e., the re-duction of test
anxiety or stress reactions, or the promo-tion of coping behavior;
e. g., Krampen, 1992 a; Snider &Oetting, 1966). However, while
the treatment effective-ness of autogenic training is confirmed by
those studies(at least as an effective additional treatment
techniqueaccompanying other methods), most of them remainEuropean
Psychologist, Vol. 1, No. 4, December 1996, pp. 243-254 1996
Hogrefe & Huber Publishers
purely pragmatic and symptom-oriented, i. e.,
withoutdifferentiated reference to a psychological theory (Gor-ton,
1959; Pikoff, 1984). Even worse, up until now, thereare no
conceptually sound nor empirically well-found-ed applications of
autogenic training in applied devel-
Gunter Krampen is Professor in the Department of Psychology at
theUniversity of Trier, Germany, and at the Institut Superieur
d'Etudes etde Recherches Pedagogiques at Walferdange, Luxembourg.
His mainareas of research are developmental psychology, personality
re-search, educational psychology, social psychology, and selected
top-ics of clinical psychology.
Correspondence concerning this, article should be~addressed to
Gun-ter Krampen, University of Trier, Department of Psychology,
D-54286Trier, Federal Republic of Germany, (tel +49 651 2012967 or
+49651 38323, fax +49 651 309915, e-mail [email protected]).
243
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Gunter Krampen
opmental psychology: Its utility as a developmental
in-tervention has rarely been tested, either conceptuallynor
empirically. This is astonishing in view of the clearand
differentiated relationships of autogenic training tothe concept of
developmental intervention and the ac-tion-theory oriented approach
to human developmentin adulthood as well.
Three historical merits of Johannes H. Schultz, the founder
ofautogenic training, must be considered when speaking of the
de-velopment of modern psychological treatment methods. (1)
Veryearly on in the 1920s he dismissed the heterosuggestive
(di-rective) treatment strategy in favor of an approach focusing on
theindividual's competencies and capabilities to actively
regulatehis/her own development,behavior, and experience (Schultz,
1926,1970). Therefore, autogenic training has since been termed an
auto-suggestive self-help technique. (2) From the beginning Schultz
wasengaged in empirical studies (for the most part single-case
reports,but also some group studies), which analyzed the
applicability andthe effects of autogenic training not only in
clinical samples, but inhealthy persons, too together with
preventive treatment indica-tions. (3) This early research was
conducted in group settings. Thus,autogenic training is
historically one of the first if not the first psychological group
treatment approach that aimed at preventiveoutcomes concerning the
improvement of personal self-regulationcompetencies.
Autogenic training is defined as a psychophysiological
self-control technique aiming at physical and mental relaxation
(seee. g., Pikoff, 1984; Schultz & Luthe, 1969). It uses
auto-suggestionsby which individuals learn to alter certain
psychophysiologicalfunctions with, initially, minimal intervention
by another personand, after the technique is learned, with no
intervention by anotherperson. The individual learns postural and
cognitive skills. In arelaxed sitting position (for technical
details see below: Study I Procedure) the training uses seven short
verbal standard formulas,emphasizing feelings of (1) general peace,
(2) heaviness in thelimbs, (3) peripheral warmth, (4) respiratory
regularity, (5) cardiacregularity, (6) abdominal warmth, and (7)
coolness of the forehead.The formulas are introduced in this
sequence, each one being prac-ticed in the introductory course
group and alone at home until theintended effect is observed.
Mastery of all formulas requires dailytraining for several weeks
(at least 2 months). Once learned, auto-genic exercises provide not
only relief from psychosomatic com-plaints and disorders, but
should also become part of a daily relax-ation routine. Individuals
use the exercises as a coping device inanticipation of and during
stress as well as a self-management tech-nique for relaxation and
recuperation: "In its most complete form,then, autogenic training
represents the fusion of physiological, cog-nitive, and behavioral
elements into what for some becomes a life-long method of emotional
and physical self-control" (Pikoff, 1984,p. 622). The specific
treatment objectives of autogenic training referto (1) the
promotion of the person's capabilities to relax and to rest,(2) the
reduction of overwhelming negative affects, (3) the reduc-tion of
nervousness, (4) the promotion of performance (e. g., selec-tive
attention and memory recall), (5) the self-regulation of
auton-omous nervous system processes (like heart rate and body
temper-ature), and (6) the promotion of self-control and
self-actualizationthrough enhanced self-perception and
self-regulation (see, e.g.,Krampen, 1992a; Schultz & Luthe,
1969; Pikoff, 1984).
244
With its focus on primary prevention and competencedevelopment,
autogenic training shows a priori markedcommon features with the
concept and methods of de-velopmental intervention (e.g., Danish,
1981; Danish,Smyer, & Nowak, 1980). Whenever autogenic
trainingtakes into account the developmental status and
possi-bilities of the participants, and whenever it is
conceptu-alized with reference to a theory of human develop-ment,
it effectively becomes developmental interven-tion. Up until now,
most existing, empirically evaluateddevelopmental intervention
programs in gerontopsy-chology have focused on the enhancement of
compe-tence in specific behavioral domains (e. g., cognitiveskills:
Baltes & Willis, 1982; self-assertiveness: Hudson,1983; coping
behavior: Danish, D'Augelli, & Hauer,1981). These programs are
based on theories of humandevelopment which refer to the specific
behavior andattitude domain found in the program. In contrast
toexisting programs, the development-related treatmentobjectives of
autogenic training refer to the promotionof more general
self-regulatory competencies and self-efficacy as well as
development-related emotions, cog-nitions, and efforts.
These variables development-related emotions,cognitions, and
efforts are central concepts of action-theory-oriented,
constructivistic approaches to humandevelopment (e.g.,
Brandtstadter, 1984, 1989; Brandt-stadter, Krampen, & Heil,
1986; Lerner & Busch-Ross-nagel, 1981). This theoretical
orientation is based on thepremise that the individual is not
simply a passive sub-ject of developmental changes, but rather
actively triesto influence and to gain control of development and
ag-ing. Therefore, the action perspective on life-span devel-opment
focuses on (1) the development-related emo-tions of the person
(his/her affective future outlook andautobiographical retrospect)
and (2) the person's effortsactively to regulate his/her own
development. In accor-dance with action theory, both variables are
conceptual-ized within this approach as dependent on both
subjec-tive evaluations of developmental goals and
subjectiveself-efficacy beliefs (e.g., Bandura, 1981, 1989). Of
cen-tral relevance is the concept of personal control over
de-velopment, which is defined as the expectancy of theperson with
regard to his/her possibilities to controland to regulate his/her
own development (Brandt-stadter et al., 1986). Implications of this
theoretical per-spective for developmental interventions include
theobjectives of enhancing the self-regulation competenciesof the
individual, strengthening his/her personal con-trol over
development, optimizing his/her develop-ment-related emotions, and
promoting his/her personal
European Psychologist, Vol. 1, No. 4, December 1996, pp. 243-254
1996 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers
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Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Autogenic Training in
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self-regulation of development. These developmentalobjectives
correspond to the treatment objectives ofautogenic training: the
promotion of a person's capabil-ities of self-regulation and
self-help.
Thus, autogenic training can be considered a formof
developmental intervention. Moreover, as an inter-ventional method,
it preceded the action and self-effica-cy perspective in life-span
developmental psychologyby at least five decades. Yet, there is
little empirical re-search regarding the relevance of autogenic
training indevelopmental interventions. At most, some resultspoint
towards the impact of autogenic training on theenhancement of
generalized internal locus of controland self-concept as well as
the indicative relevance ofthese variables for the effectiveness of
autogenic train-ing (e. g., Johnson, 1976; Krampen, 1991 a; Krampen
&Ohm, 1985). But these results refer directly neither
todevelopment-related emotions, personal control overdevelopment,
and self-regulation of development nor togerontopsychology.
Therefore, the two studies present-ed below empirically test the
conceptual compatibilityof autogenic training as a developmental
interventionwithin the action-theory approach to human
develop-ment. It is hypothesized that autogenic training im-proves
prospective development-related emotions bydecreasing a person's
depressive-resignative outlookand increasing his/her
optimistic-active outlook towardown personal future. As well,
personal control over de-velopment and self-regulation of
development are im-proved. With reference to the specific treatment
objec-tives of autogenic training, it is expected that
psychoso-matic complaints as well as externality in
generalizedlocus of control beliefs will be reduced and internality
ingeneralized locus of control improved upon learningautogenic
training.
Study I: Effectiveness of AutogenicTraining in the
ElderlyMethod
Subjects. The participants of Study I were 60 Germanadults (M =
73.6, SD = 5.3 years; age range: 67-80 years;39 females and 21
males) who were receiving no psychi-atric or psychotherapeutic
treatment and who lived intheir own houses or apartments. Regarding
former oc-cupational status and level of education, subjects
be-longed to the middle-class. They were recruited by
theannouncement of introductory courses on "autogenictraining"
within a community service program. The
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1996 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers
courses were announced with preventive treatment ob-jectives for
the healthy elderly in an institution for openadult education.
Measures. Data were collected before program start, atmidpoint,
and at the end of the program as well as 6months after the program
was over. The measures usedincluded (1) the "Scales for the
Measurement of Prospec-tive Development-Related Emotions" (EM-P;
Brandt-stadter et al., 1986), a German adjective list
measuringpersonal depressive-resignative and
optimistic-activefuture outlook via ratings of 13 different facets
of posi-tive or negative emotional attitudes towards
personaldevelopment over the next two years of life (e. g., "WhenI
think of the coming two years in my life, I feel discour-aged; . .
. I feel depressed;... I feel venturesome;... I feelhopeful";
internal consistency r > .81). (2) The "Scalesfor the
Measurement of Personal Developmental Con-trol" (P-CON;
Brandtstadter et al., 1986), a Germanquestionnaire measuring
subjective evaluation of 20 de-velopmental goals and the
expectancies about one's per-sonal impact on the attainment of
these goals. Goal eval-uations and control expectancies are
aggregated into anindicator of (weighted) internal developmental
controlbeliefs (see Brandtstadter et al., 1986; internal
consisten-cy in the present sample: r(f > .79). (3) The German
ver-sion of "IPC Scales" (Krampen, 1981) of Levenson
(1974)measuring generalized internality (I), powerful
others'control (P), and chance control (C) in locus of control
ofreinforcement; internal consistency rtt > .75. (4) The"Symptom
Checklist for Autogenic Training" (AT-SYM;Krampen, 1991 b), a
German symptom checklist includ-ing four-point rating scales of 48
mainly psychosomaticcomplaints with indicative relevance for
autogenictraining; internal consistency rff > .91. Test-retest
reliabil-ity and validity of all scales used were confirmed in
test-construction studies (see Brandtstadter et al., 1986;Krampen,
1981,1991b).
Procedure. After randomization and pretest, the subjectsof Group
1 (n - 30) participated in two separate intro-ductory courses on
autogenic training (15 participantsper course, one group-meeting
per week for 8 weeks);the subjects of Group 1(n- 30) were the
waiting controlgroup. After 8 weeks Group 2 became the
treatmentgroup (in two separate AT-courses), and group sessionsin
Group 1 stopped.
Autogenic training was imparted to the partici-pants of all
(four) courses in the same way, using stand-ard procedure and
formulas (see Schultz & Luthe, 1969):After exercise of the
"simple sitting posture" (which was
245
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Gunter Krampen
preferred to the horizontal training posture and the re-clining
chair posture because of its higher practical val-ue), closure of
eyes, and passive concentration (imply-ing a casual and functional
passivity toward the intend-ed functional changes), and the
technique of comingback to normal (flexing arms vigorously,
breathingdeeply, opening eyes), the standard exercises of
auto-genic training were introduced and trained. Two formu-las were
introduced in each group meeting after an in-troductory discussion
with the participants. The mentalstandard exercises refer to
auto-suggestions of thestandard formulas (a) "I am at peace" -
"Peace," (b) "Myright/left arm is heavy" - "Heaviness" (the
dominantarm was selected), (c) "My right/left arm is warm"
-"Warmth," (d) "Breathing calm and regular" - "Itbreathes me," (e)
"Heartbeat calm and regular," (f) "Mysolar plexus is warm," and (g)
"My forehead is cool."Participants were trained to practice passive
concentra-tion and "mental contact with the part of the body
indi-cated by the formula (e. g., the right arm), and mainte-nance
of a steady flow of a film-like (verbal, acoustic orvisual)
representation of the autogenic formula in themind" (Schultz &
Luthe, 1969, p. 15). Thus, from a psy-chophysiological point of
view, the stage is set for relax-ation and self-regulation during
autogenic exercises bythe reduction of extero- and proprioceptive
stimulation,and by the verbal content of the formula implying
thatthe relevant psychophysiological system works auto-matically.
Participants practiced the learned autogenicexercises alone at
least twice daily.
Data were collected in both groups on all variablesbefore
(pretest) and after (first posttest) the programstart in Group 1.
After the first 8 weeks, Group 2 becamethe treatment group, and
Group 1 did not receive fur-ther treatment. Following the treatment
of Group 2, asecond posttest was performed in both groups on
allvariables. In addition, a follow-up was carried out on
allevaluative variables 6 months after the end of the entireprogram
for both groups. Furthermore, the "Follow-upInventory for Autogenic
Training" (AT-KATAM; Kram-pen, 1991 b) was included in the
follow-up, measuringattitudes towards autogenic training, general
well-be-ing, the frequency of autogenic exercises in everydaylife,
and the subjective effectiveness of the differentautogenic
formulas.
Results
Mean comparisons for all pretest variables indicatedthat the
randomization procedure resulted in compara-ble groups ((58) <
1.43). There were four dropouts in
246
Group 1 and three dropouts in Group 2 during the train-ing
program. All dropouts were due to acute physicaldisorders and the
need for hospitalization. Thus, theevaluative results presented
here are based on a total of53 participants. Means and standard
deviations for pre-test, posttests, and follow-up measures are
summarizedfor both experimental groups in Table 1.
A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)with the factor
Groups (1,2) and the repeated measure-ment factor Time (1,4) was
computed, including all sev-en measures. Single mean comparisons
between groupsand times of measurement were computed by univari-ate
analyses of variance (resulting in estimates of effectsize d;
Cohen, 1977) and validated by a posteriori tests(Duncan procedure).
Significant results are presentedgraphically in terms of
standardized T-scores (see Fig-ures 1-6).
MANOVA yielded significant main effects for thegrouping factor
(F(7, 45) = 5.06, p < .01), the repeatedmeasurement factor
(F(21,31) = 7.69, p < .01), and a sig-nificant interaction
between Group and Time (F(21, 31)= 8.05, p < .01). Single mean
comparisons betweengroups (treatment versus control group) for the
firstposttest showed (1) significantly higher scores in
active-optimistic future outlook (p < .01, effect size d = .82)
andsignificantly lower scores in depressive development-
60 -i
58-
56-
54-bo3 5 2 -
50-
48-
Pretest 1st Posttest 2nd Posttest Follow-up
Figure 1Depressive future outlook at pretest, posttests and
follow-up in Experimental Group 1 and Experimental Group 2(Study
I).
European Psychologist, Vol. 1, No. 4, December 1996, pp. 243-254
1996 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers
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Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Autogenic Training in
Gerontopsychology
Table 1Means and standard deviations of dependent variables in
Experimental Group 1 (n = 26) and Experimental Group 2 (n= 27) in
Study I.
VariablePretest
M SDFirst posttestM SD
Second posttestM SD
Follow-upM SD
Depressive future outlookGroup 1Group 2
Optimistic-active future outlookGroup 1Group 2
Personal control over developmentGroup 1Group 2
Internality (IPC-I)Group 1Group 2
Powerful others control (IPC-P)Group 1Group 2
Chance control (IPC-C)Group 1Group 2
Psychosomatic complaints (AT-SYM)Group 1Group 2
8.28.0
22.021.8
154.1150.4
29.230.0
27.326.9
30.530.3
56.357.2
5.35.8
5.14.9
44.246.0
4.84.1
3.94.1
4.94.7
18.419.2
6.48.1
26.122.0
173.5149.7
33.829.8
28.127.4
25.729.9
35.857.3
5.45.7
4.95.1
43.047.3
4.94.2
4.14.1
4.94.6
17.919.0
6.56.7
26.327.2
175.6178.1
33.934.0
27.727.9
25.224.1
35.235.4
4.94.7
5.04.9
45.246.5
4.44.3
4.04.0
5.04.8
17.818.5
5.75.4
28.127.9
189.4188.3
34.534.2
26.927.4
24.924.7
32.133.3
5.05.4
5.15.1
44.345.2
4.14.3
4.04.1
4.84.9
17.617.8
60-i
2 5 8 -oo
b 56"1 54~3
52-an]
5 4 8 -C3
1 4 6 -
U 4 4 -O
4 2 -
4 0 -
60-i
58-o
H Group 1 g 56_
| Group 2^ ^
_
i ^^M
m 1 54~ 1 52-B 3 50-H - 48-H 8 46-^ B g 44-^ H 42-
" ^ ^ - 40 -
n
iiipB_Pretest 1st Posttest 2nd Posttest Follow-up Pretest
Group 1
Group 2
_ _
""Ij
L-PJ
1iH
L-P-1st Posttest 2nd Posttest Follow-up
Figure 2Optimistic-active future outlook at pretest, posttests
andfollow-up in Experimental Group 1 and ExperimentalGroup 2 (Study
I).
Figure 3Personal control over development at pretest, posttests
andfollow-up in Experimental Group 1 and ExperimentalGroup 2 (Study
I).
European Psychologist, Vol. 1, No. 4, December 1996, pp. 243-254
1996 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers 247
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Gunter Krampensc
ore
s)
b"
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Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Autogenic Training in
Gerontopsychology
that all positive changes last for at least 6 months (p .83),
the IPC Scales (r >.73), and the AT-SYM (rtt > .88). The very
extensive P-CON-Scales were dropped in favor of the more
econom-ical German research questionnaire "Questionnaire forthe
Measurement of Development-Related Action Ef-forts" (E-REGU;
Krampen, 1992 b), which assesses tenlife and behavior domains in
which subjects havechanged actively over the last 6 months (e. g.,
"In the last6 months of my life I have actively changed
somethingfor the better in the life domain of social relations";
"...of family relations"; "... of mass media consumption";"... of
eating habits"; r > .64).
Procedure. After randomization and pretest, the subjectsof Group
1 (n = 30) participated in two separate intro-ductory courses on
autogenic training (15 participantseach, one group-meeting per week
for 8 weeks), andsubjects of Group 2 (n = 30) participated in two
separatecourses of a General Health Education Program. The lat-ter
program lasted for eight weeks with one group-meeting per week. It
was implemented to control fornonspecific treatment factors
resulting from group-meetings and related social activities (see
above). Ittherefore included only simple group discussions
ofgeneral health topics (i.e., diets, sleep disorders, andphysical
exercise) and after short lectures was re-alized in a nondirective
group leadership style. After thefirst posttest, Group 1 changed to
the Health EducationProgram and Group 2 to the introductory
AT-courses.Following the entire program, a second posttest was
in-troduced as well as a follow-up 6 months later, includ-ing all
variables and, again, the follow-up inventory AT-KATAM.
Results
Mean comparisons in all pretest-variables confirmedthat the
randomization procedure resulted in compara-ble groups ((58) <
0.91). There were four dropouts ineach group during the course
program and in the fol-low-up. Six participants dropped because of
acute phys-ical disorders and hospitalization, and two died.
Thus,evaluative results are based on a total of 52 subjects.Means
and standard deviations of all variables for allpretest, posttest,
and follow-up-measures are summa-rized for both experimental groups
in Table 2.
249
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Gunter Krampen
Table 2Means and standard deviations of dependent variables in
Experimental Group 1 (n = 26) and Experimental Group 2 (n= 26) in
Study II.
VariableDepressive future outlook
Group 1Group 2
Optimistic-active future outlookGroup 1Group 2
PretestM
8.68.8
20.220.6
Personal self-regulation of developmentGroup 1Group 2
Internality (IPC-I)Group 1Group 2
Powerful others control (IPC-P)Group 1Group 2
Chance control (IPC-C)Group 1Group 2
0.40.5
28.629.7
29.128.9
31.631.2
Psychosomatic complaints (AT-SYM)Group 1Group 2
57.056.9
SD
5.85.7
5.15.0
0.91.0
4.14.2
4.03.9
4.95.0
17.818.9
FirstM
6.98.3
25.324.9
2.32.2
31.829.4
28.228.4
31.130.6
38.553.0
posttestSD
5.25.7
4.94.9
0.70.9
4.34.7
4.14.0
5.04.8
18.119.5
SecondM
6.07.1
26.325.4
2.72.5
33.931.7
28.327.9
32.031.5
36.739.4
posttestSD
5.25.6
5.14.8
0.80.9
4.74.1
4.54.1
4.94.9
16.517.8
Follow-upM
5.86.3
28.527.6
4.84.2
33.732.9
29.328.9
31.430.9
37.238.0
SD
5.04.9
5.15.7
0.91.0
4.34.2
4.14.0
5.04.7
17.918.4
60 -i
5 8 -
40-
6 0 -
Pretest 1st Posttest 2nd Posttest Follow-up
Figure 7Depressive future outlook at pretest, posttests and
follow-up in Experimental Group 1 and Experimental Group 2(Study
II).
Pretest 1st Posttest 2nd Posttest Follow-up
Figure 8Optimistic-active outlook at pretest, posttests and
follow-up in Experimental Group 1 and Experimental Group 2(Study
II).
250 European Psychologist, Vol. 1, No. 4, December 1996, pp.
243-254 1996 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers
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Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Autogenic Training in
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30Pretest lstPosttest 2ndPosttest Follow-up
Figure 9Personal self-regulation of development at pretest,
post-tests and follow-up in Experimental Group 1 and Experi-mental
Group 2 (Study II).
E'a
oo
a
o
Group 1
Group 2
Pretest lstPosttest 2nd Posttest Follow-up
Figure 11Psychosomatic complaints at pretest, posttests and
follow-up in Experimental Group 1 and Experimental Group 2(Study
II).
Pretest 1 st Posttest 2nd Posttest Follow-up
Figure 10Internality at pretest, posttests and follow-up in
Experimen-tal Group 1 and Experimental Group 2 (Study II).
A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)with the factor
Groups (1,2) and the repeated measure-ment factor Time (1,4) was
computed including all sev-en measures. Again, single mean
comparisons betweengroups and times of measurement were computed
byunivariate analyses of variance (resulting in estimates ofeffect
size d; Cohen, 1977) and validated by a posterioritests (Duncan
procedure). Significant results are pre-sented graphically in terms
of standardized T-scores (seeFigures 7-11).
MANOVA yielded significant main effects for thegrouping factor
(F(7, 44) = 4.19, p < .01), the repeatedmeasurement factor
(F(21,30) = 5.45, p < .01), and a sig-nificant interaction
between Group and Time (F(21, 30)= 5.64, p < .01). Single mean
comparisons for time andbetween groups for the first treatment part
(i. e., AT in-troduction versus Health Education Program
participa-tion) showed the following results (see Table 2 and
Fig-ures 7-11):1) Positive effects of both treatments (AT and
Health Ed-
ucation Program) leading to an increase of optimistic-active
future outlook (Group 1: p < .01, d = 1.02; Group2: p < .01,
d = .86; between groups: p > .10) and of
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Gunter Krampen
personal self-regulation of development (Group 1: p .10). As
indicated, these effects proved to be sig-nificant in time
comparisons for both treatmentgroups, but not to be significant in
between-groupcomparisons. Thus, with reference to these two
vari-ables, both treatments show similar effects for twocentral
variables of the action-theory approach to de-velopment.
2) Specific positive effects of the autogenic training inthe
reduction of psychosomatic complaints (betweengroups: p < .01, d
- .77; within group 1: p < .01, d =1.03), in the reduction of
depressive future outlook(between groups: p < .01; within group
1: p < .05, d =.31), and in the increase of generalized
internality inlocus of control (between groups: p < .01, d =
.53; with-in group 1: p < .01, d = .77)). As indicated, these
specificeffects of autogenic training are significant with
refer-ence to pretest-first posttest comparisons for Group 1as well
as with reference to between-group compari-sons for the first
posttest data.
3) There were no specific positive effects of the
HealthEducation Program implemented in Group 2 (be-tween groups: p
> .10; within group 2: p > .10).
4) There were no treatment effects neither in the be-tween- (p
> .10) nor in the within-group comparisons(p > .10) for
powerful other's control and chancecontrol in generalized locus of
control beliefs.
The results found for the (second) posttest data (collect-ed
after the total program) indicate cumulative effects ofthe two
treatment elements, an increasing tendency be-ing observed for all
described positive changes (see Ta-ble 2 and Figures 7-11). The
results show some advan-tages for Group 1, which participated first
in the AT-in-troduction and then in the Health Education
Program(pretest-second posttest comparisons for Group 1: p