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Film and tourism: the imagined

place and the place of theimagined

Rafael Pires BasanezThe Travellers Club, London, UK, and

Hadyn IngramLondon School of Commerce, London, UK

Abstract

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to consider how film can induce image, both individually andcollectively. In particular, the psychological drivers of film are explored and how these may impact on

tourism visitation. The impacts of film and cinema are explored, as is the relationship betweentourists motivation and purchase behaviour.

Design/methodology/approach The authors review the limited literature on the subject, seekingcommonalities and resonances between film and tourism. A focus group is used to develop aperceptual map with which to better understand the phenomenon and a questionnaire was conductedto research attitudes towards film and propensity towards film-induced behaviour.

Findings The paper suggests that there are commonalities between film and tourism and that filmcan evoke powerful and long-lasting images with the viewer, thus creating marketing opportunities fordestination marketing organisations (DMOs).

Practical implications With greater understanding of the nature and power of filmic image, it ishoped that tourism DMOs may develop more effective strategies for attracting visitors to destinations.

Originality/value Research in this topic is very limited and, as far as the authors are aware, thereis nothing which adopts an in-depth approach on the nature and application of film-induced tourism.

Keywords Film, Tourism, Marketing, Consumer behaviour, Film-induced tourism,

Destination marketing, Destination marketing organizationsPaper type Research paper

IntroductionTourism behaviour is affected by myriad influences, some of which are more obviousthan others. Goeldner and Ritchie (2009) suggest that tourism is an interdisciplinaryarea that relates to sociology, leisure, sports, economy, technology and many others.This study aims at providing a further understanding of tourism and factors withwhich it maintains continually-enriching interactions, in this case, film and cinema.

In contemporary society, access to films is becoming increasingly easier, either bygoing to the cinema, visiting a video-rental store, or even watching online. Cinemabrings to people what they want in their lives: love, emotion, extravagance, adventure,seduction, even eroticism. It is possible to temporarily lose oneself for a few hours and

to be drawn into a fictional story. As with tourism, people need to put aside theirroutines, at least for a period to allow them to relax and restructure (Krippendorf, 1987).It is possible to categorise films that affect tourism into four types:

(1) animated films;

(2) documentaries;

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/1755-4217.htm

Film and tourism

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Worldwide Hospitality and TourismThemes

Vol. 5 No. 1, 2013pp. 39-54

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited1755-4217

DOI 10.1108/17554211311292439

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(3) motion-pictures made from original stories; and

(4) films that are based on novels, people or historical events.

Each may have a different effect on the film-induced tourist.Featherstone (2007, p. 22) posits that film creates a pseudo reality which can be

exploited by various media through advertising or promotional artifices used inpersuasion in order to influence consumption of products, for instance holidays.Therefore, it is of vital importance to understand how images are imagined and of howplaces created by films are perceived by the film spectator (potential tourist), as theimagery tends to impact on the tourist decision making (Aziz and Zainol, 2011).

This paper explores the relationship between film and tourism and, in particular,how film can induce positive and negative images of tourism and destinations. Thestructure is as follows:

(1) Methodology.

(2) Limitations.

(3) Definitions.

(4) Literature review.

(5) Research findings and analysis.

(6) Summary of results.

(7) Conclusions.

(8) Recommendations.

(9) Discussion.

(10) Further research.

1. MethodologyThe study used sequential mixed methods approach (Morse and Niehaus, 2009) to

provide an increasing depth of understanding to this under-researched phenomenon.Initially, a focus group provided an exploratory insight into attitudes and behaviourstowards decision making, image perception and images created by films and promotionaltools used to induce tourism. The outcome of this focus group was a perceptual mapaimed at increasing understanding of the phenomenon. Subsequently, a face-to-facesurvey questionnaire addressed the connection between film spectator and destinationshown on film, the different motivations for film tourism and the relation between thetourism cinema, image, motivation, decision-making and marketing communication tools.

In this way, the methodology used causal research (Wilson, 2006) to provideinferential evidence and descriptive research (Veal, 2011) to develop furtherexplanatory description of comparisons that the causal cannot answer.

2. Limitations

Because this area of study is still in its infancy, there is not enough appropriatematerial to cast definitive light on the subject. However, this study collectedinformation from many sources different in order to create an original, exploratorystudy of this phenomenon, but at the same time being careful not to postulateunrealistic theory.

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3. DefinitionsAccording to Beeton (2005, p. 11) film-induced tourism can be defined as the visitation

to sites where movies and TV programmes have been filmed as well as to tours toproduction studios, including film-related theme parks. There is a considerableamount of dedicated study confirming that films generate demand for tourism (Beeton,2005; Jones and Smith, 2005; Boland and Williams, 2008; Tzanelli, 2007; Roesch, 2009;OConnor and Macionis, 2011; and Hudson et al., 2011) mostly mentioning the Lord ofthe Rings film trilogy (2001-2003), filmed in New Zealand, and that still manages toattract visitors to the country. However no studies have focused on the psychologicalrelationship between film and its spectators and their motivations to travel, thusimpacting on their decision-making. This work also aims at answering some of theseunanswered questions.

4. Literature reviewThe literature review is structured in the following way:

.

film and cinema: provides the background to the medium;. film and tourism: looks at the relationship between the two; and. tourism promotion through film: considers how tourism might be marketed

through film.

4.1 Film and cinemaFilm technology was developed by Antoine Lumiere and Clement-Maurice in the lastdecade of the nineteenth century. Gastal (1999) suggests that the Lumiere brothers areconsidered the actual inventors of the cinema, since some of the other contenderinventions did not have enough impact or influence, or failed to excel. The audience fora movie can be analysed in many different ways, whether economic, statistical orsociological (Aumont et al., 1992). This study focuses on the relationship between thecinema-spectator as an individual and the film as a psychological experience. Benjamin

(in Jennings et al., 2008, p. 38) recognises that film has a therapeutic power to militateagainst sadistic fantasies or masochistic delusions. Thanks to a wide range of genres(horror, adventure, romance) the spectator, through the protagonist, opens up to feel, toexperience fear of death and destruction or love and admiration.

Munsterberg (1970) formulates the conception of cinema as a mental process, as theart of the spirit, developing it in four steps of depth and movement, attention,memory and imagination and emotions. Although not real, these can powerfully affectemotions, perception and image. Films act as a mirror in which the viewer can identifywith the actor(s) and this can stir the emotions and leave a lasting impression. Thisrelates to tourism, in which there is also a withdrawal from the real world, and this ispleasurable and desirable to people.

In summary, like tourism, film offers occupies a space between dreams in reality inwhich the viewer (tourist) can experience in a state of momentary joy, which can affect

perceptions and future behaviour.

4.2 Film and tourismAccording to Eisenstein (in Andrew, 2002) film is not a product but a creative processorganically unveiled and this can be compared to the spectator/tourist who participates

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in the film/trip emotionally as well as intellectually. Therefore tourism may not beabout selling a destination, but about the experience obtained from visiting it. It may

be suggested that, both film and tourism have several different interpretations. This isdue to the complexity of life, where nothing is absolute and all is related to objects(Betton, 1987), where the spectator and the tourist draw their interpretations andfeelings in whichever way they want from their cinematic experience.

Theobald (2001, p. 15) suggests that the human being is essentially a nomad,travelling for purposes of trade, religious conviction, economic gain, war. As shownin Table I, the technological development of film is linked to the wider participation intourism through steam travel and the emergence of the package holiday.

De La Torre Padilla (1994) defines tourism as a social phenomenon consisting of thevoluntary and temporary displacement of individuals or group of people that,fundamentally, for the means of recreation, rest, health, or culture, leave their place ofhabitual residence to another, where they do not engage in any remunerated activity,thus generating important social, economic and cultural inter-relations. Thisdisplacement proposed by de la Torre Padilla can be either in the territory of the realas in the territory of the imaginary, as Urry (2002, p. 3) suggests, that tourism involvesthe collection of signs. When tourists see two people kissing in Paris what they capture inthe gaze is timeless romantic Paris and this also happens in the movies. The sameexample can be applied to cinema, with the film view replacing the tourist.

Urry (2002, p. 14) argues that tourism necessarily involves daydreaming andanticipation of new or different experiences, and films are a great source for newadventures to be experienced, not just in the visual world, but also on the real world.Further, Campbell (in Urry, 2002, p. 13) mentions that tourists do not seek satisfactionfrom products, from their actual selection, purchase and actual use. Rather thesatisfaction stems from the anticipation, from imaginative pleasure seeking.Therefore, the spectator may like to experience these customs and symbols shownin films and in real life, and this may involve travelling to these places.

In summary, it can be concluded that, throughout history cinema and tourism are

inter-related, each affecting the others development.

4.3 Tourism promotion through filmCooper et al. (2008) propose that the psychological factors (attitudes, perceptions,motivation and image) that affect decision making are connected to consumerbehaviour. Goffman (in Cooper et al., 2008) suggests that this happens because everyperson is different from the other, as well as actors on and off screen, stage, theirperformances vary according to the nature and context of the activity.

Krippendorf (1987) argues that people live in a contradictory world where there is aneed for balance to avoid stress, deprivation or illness. People seek to escape and to betaken out of themselves. Escapism can provide a sort of freedom from the humdrumand people need to flee to recompose, so that they can get back to their daily routine(Suvantola, 2002). Leisure activities, such as film and tourism can have a therapeutic

effect and are a source of potential pleasure.Krippendorf (1987, p. 25) regards tourism as a safety valve for letting off steam, a

drug (as socially acceptable as aspirin) which temporarily kills the pain, but doesnothing to cure the disease itself. Thus, tourism, like film, is a sought-after-activity inmodern society.

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Demandfor

hospitality

Innsand

taverns

Lengthyeducational

tripsFirsttravelguides

Firstfamilyhotelin

LondonGrandTour

Steam

transport

origins

ThomasCook1stexcursion

Developmentofroads

Inventionofautomobiles

Invention

of

planes

6thcentury

R

oman

E

mpire

Renaissance

Circa

1650

1700s

Early1800

Late1800s

Ea

rly

19

00

Magic

lantern

Cameraobscura

Magiclanternspartof

museumsprogr

ams

Inventionofcinema

Tr

avel

films

Table I.History of tourism and

cinema

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Roecklein (2004, pp. 2-3) places image in the discipline of psychology and defines it asmental idea that is taken as being observed by the eye of the mind. This study

defines film tourism image as the mental and visual idea that is originated from thecollection of symbols, signs, beliefs, ideas and impressions that films projects fromplaces.

Aumont (1997, p. 54) proposes three elements of image:

(1) symbolic image: images as symbols, representing religious idols, brand logos orpublic images of attractions;

(2) epistemic image: road maps, postcards, travel films, portraits of landscape; theyare all images providing different interpretations to the perceiver; and

(3) aesthetic image: which produce sensations on the reader; for example thearchitecture of buildings, monuments, parks and piazzas.

Castrogiovanni and Gastal (1999) contend that the creation of an image is the result ofan interactive process between the observer and the observed. Although personally

perceived, they suggest that there is a public image a trademark an image that isseen by everyone in the same way. These images are often packaged as consumerproducts or brands. This means that important tourist destinations, such as the statueof Christ the Redeemer in Rio de Janeiro, Big Ben in London or the Coliseum in Romeare depicted in t-shirts, postcards at souvenir shops or background scenes in films.

This non-verbal reading is a photographic reading, generated by the mass mediaand especially through the electronic media where speed dictates the pace of reading.Local images reproduced and transmitted in films promote a blurring of bordersbetween art and everyday life (Featherstone, 2007, p. 22), thus creating a pseudoreality. This pseudo reality created by the films is exploited by various media throughmarketing and its promotional artifices used in persuasion in order to influence theconsumption of products, for example, a holiday.

Often, satisfaction arises from expectation of seeking a pleasure, which lies in

imagination. People seek to experience real life pleasant dramas that have once alreadyexperienced in their imagination.Cinema has the power to store and transmit a large amount of information

(McLuhan, 1964). This information, the stories, is lodged in human conscious,constructing an imagined repository of perceptions, which the English fiction writer

Julian Barnes calls a myth kitty.Avellar and Imagem (1982) argues that this information is retained in the mind for

some unknown reason, a feeling that awakens in people, sometimes without beingaware of it. Thus, influencing peoples lives and the choices they make for themselves.Thus, the pseudo reality of film can evoke powerful and lasting images.

Ruschmann (2001) suggests that motion pictures are very important for theexposure of tourism products, because the image may lead to an interest in knowingpersonally what was seen on the screen.

In summary, the literature concludes that there are similarities between film andtourism, as both are:

. developed and proliferated at the middle and end of the nineteenth century;

. social phenomena, shared with others;

. experiential;

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. powerful and long-lasting;

. desirable and sought-after;

. dream-like, taking the participant outside of themselves;

. opportunities for adventures and freedom from the quotidian humdrum; and

. able to create non-verbal images.

The appropriate use of image and imagery is important in tourism promotion.According to Featherstone (2007) todays culture uses images, signs and symbolicgoods to evoke dreams, wishes and fantasies that suggest authentic romance andemotional fulfilment of the self, in a narcissistic and egotistical way. People want toindulge their needs generated by the stress caused by the world, and that almostobliges the individual to be always happy and for this to happen, he or she has toconsume.

5. Research findings and analysisThis chapter presents the findings from two sources:

(1) a focus group of four attendees for which the aim was to develop a perceptualmap of image, motivation and decision-making; and

(2) a questionnaire of 200 respondents which provided quantitative data about thenature of cinema tourism and propensity to visit filmed destinations.

5.1 Focus groupAlthough limited in participants, the in-depth discussions of the focus group wereuseful in exploring perceptions. The group felt that film tourism is not the main reasonpeople might go on holidays and visit places seen on films. Nevertheless, film canindeed create an initial desire of travelling to a destination; however, because people

tend to watch films quite often, they are overdosed with images of different places frommany different parts of the world, thus making the choice more difficult.

Cinephiles, or film fanatics, are the most likely people to visit a place seen in a film,without the need for further film-induced promotional campaigns. Alternatively,people who only watch films to escape boredom, recover from a stressful day, orsimply for entertainment, might go on specific film tours, such as Harry Potteror Sexin the City walks, while they are already at their holiday destinations. When askedabout motivations to travel in general, the respondents of the focus group, agreed thatto relax, rest, or break from work, and to explore other cultures are the main reasons fortravelling.

In summary, film can induce tourism interest, but is this something that happens inthe individuals subconscious, rather than causing the main reason to travel? Largecities commonly seen in films are already major tourist destinations, however when

people recognise film locations in these places, they can get excited.The responses of the focus group helped to build on the literature and develop a

perceptual map shown in Figure 1. Image is affected by motivation and decision-makingby promotional tools. Image-motivation and decision-making-promotional tools aremapped in quadrants A, B, C and D.

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. Quadrant A: the nature of image and how decision-making can be influenced byscenery, culture and the destination.

. Quadrant B: how decision-making might be triggered by differentleisure-orientated motivations.

. Quadrant C: types of promotional tools, which can evoke image.

. Quadrant D: ways in which promotional tools might engage with the viewer.

The perceptual map created can help DMOs to understand and identify some of thefactors relevant to a successful development of film tourism promotion strategies.

5.2 Questionnaire analysisThe questionnaires explored the following issues:

. frequency of film watching;

. importance of film to tourism;

. consumer behaviour intentions;

. motivation to visit;

. describing destinations; and

. promotional tools.

5.2.1 Frequency of film watching. Of the 200 people interviewed, only 7 (3.5 per cent)

responded that they do not watch films. As shown in Figure 2, the majority (36 percent) of them watch films more than once a week, while 20 per cent who watch filmsonce a month and 18 per cent watch five times or more a month.

5.2.2 Importance of films to tourism. Respondents were asked to respond to threestatements:

Figure 1.Perceptual map

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(1) films are very important to the development of tourism;

(2) towns, cities and rural places depicted in movies can be developed into touristdestinations more easily than those that are not; and

(3) film induces tourism through images that they depict of places.

The majority of the respondents (over 100 people) simply agreed with the statements,as shown in Figure 3. The third statement is the one that raised mostly disagreementsin comparison to the other statements; perhaps because the adverb very in thesentence seemed too strong, however, they agreed that films indeed are important forthe development of tourism.

Figure 2.Frequency of watching

films

Figure 3.Statement agreements

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5.2.3 Consumer behaviour intentions. As seen in Figure 4, 59 per cent of therespondents had not travelled to a place where it served as location for a film. The data

suggest that women would be more likely to visit a filmed location than men. However,on a research that was undertaken by Visit Britain (2007) (online), shows that 40 percent of potential visitors would be very likely to visit places from films. This researchunderpins other studies by VisitBritain by showing that 41 per cent of the respondentshave already visited a location that served as film location. Respondents were alsoasked which particular film location they would most like to visit, and the mostpopular choices were New York and the USA.

5.2.4 Motivation to visit. Respondents were asked which of seven categories, mostmotivated them to visit a filmed destination. The results of this research on motivationunderpins what has been highlighted by McLuhan (1964) that motion pictures are agreat source of information, teaching people new customs, traditions and symbols. Asshown in Figure 5, respondents want to experience the culture of those locations seenon films, with culture being the main motivation factor chosen by respondents. This

Figure 4.Main film locations to visit

Figure 5.Motivation forfilm-induced travel

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was followed by fun and entertainment, change of activity and geographical locationand psychological and physical factors which complements each other; people seek

evasion in order to recharge their batteries and give reason to their lives.5.2.5 Describing destinations. Participants were asked to use adjectives to describe adestination for the most recent film they had watched. The responses underpin thecontention that the scenery is vital to the connection between the film spectator and thedecision to choose a destination to travel. When the respondents were asked to provideadjectives to describe the perceived image that they hold of a place seen in a film, mostadjectives provided are related to the natural beauty of the scenery, such as scenic,beautiful, nice, interesting, peaceful and relaxed. Historic and culturaladjectives can therefore be linked to cultural motivators.

5.2.6 Promotional tools. When asked about the importance of brochures, leaflets andadvertising in deciding on a holiday, 66 per cent of the respondents believed that theyare important or very important.

Figure 6 shows that a large majority of the respondents (80 per cent) did notremember seeing a film-induced tourism promotional tool. The reasons for that couldbe that there are not many such promotional tools being made. Perhaps DMOs are notfully aware of the importance of films in attracting tourists or maybe because therespondents were not looking for those sort of brochures or leaflets.

6. Summary of resultsThe data reinforce the view that watching films is still a popular leisure activity, withhigh participation rates. Most respondents agree that films are important to tourismand destination development. However, this image perception does not necessarily leadto visiting a filmed destination, with women more likely to do this than men. If they aremotivated to visit a filmed destination, the most popular reason was because of theculture, and this suggests that is because of difference from their own environment.Respondents also liked scenery and it may be concluded that the beauty of landscapepromotes positive image. A large majority of the sample believed that promotionaltools are important, but did not remember seeing a film-induced tourism promotionaltool, perhaps because they were not actively looking for them.

Figure 6.Promotional tools level

of importance

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(4) Travel to destination: a time of excitement when the imagined dream becomes areality.

(5) Participation: enjoying the destination and the image is confirmed ordisconfirmed by the reality.

(6) Return travel: the evaluation of the participation will be reflected in level ofsatisfaction with the visit. Reviewing photos or watching the film again willstrengthen satisfaction and may lead to return visitation.

(7) New accumulation: watching new films will contribute to the viewers imagestore, thus triggering new possibilities for future visitation.

Table II demonstrates how different promotional activities can be used at differentstages of the film-induced tourism image development framework.

Promotional activity DescriptionFilm-induced tourismimage process

Brand communicationprocess

Advertisement Television, radiomagazines,newspapers, outdoors,cinema

Modification AwarenessDecision ComprehensionTravel to attraction AttitudeParticipation SatisfactionReturn ActionNew accumulation Migration

Exhibitions Film festivals, tourismexhibitions

Modification AwarenessDecision Comprehension

Sales literature Brochures, leaflets Modification AwarenessDecision ComprehensionTravel to attraction AttitudeParticipation SatisfactionReturn ActionNew accumulation Migration

Public relations Propaganda, productplacement

Accumulation UnawarenessModification AwarenessNew accumulation Migration

Sales promotion Incentives to usedestination as filmlocation, familiarisationtrips

Accumulation UnawarenessModification AwarenessDecision ComprehensionNew accumulation Migration

Point-of-sale displaysand merchandising

Places used as filmlocation, airports,hotels, parks

Participation SatisfactionReturn ActionNew accumulation Migration

E-marketing Social network, e-mail,

website, mobileapplications, onlineadvertisement

Modification Awareness

Decision ComprehensionTravel to attraction AttitudeParticipation SatisfactionReturn ActionNew accumulation Migration

Table II.Promoting film-induced

tourism

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Each promotional tool can carry more than one type of message and the use ofintegrated marketing communications will allow building stronger brand equity

(Keller et al., 2008). However, at any point the film spectator can move from theaccumulation stage to any other stage without the need of further promotionalmessage, this is because, psychologically, individuals are different from each other.

9. DiscussionIt may be suggested that not all DMOs are fully aware of the importance of films inincreasing the traffic of visitors. As the study shows, scenery is the most importantreason to visit a destination seen in a film, and destinations should work inmaintaining the natural beauty of those places by making important investment inplanning and design, in order to maintain an attractive image, which is vital for theenticement of visitors. As suggested by Kotler et al. (1993, p. 37) a places image mustbe valid and communicated in many ways through several channels if it is to succeedand take root. Therefore it is of vital importance to understand how images and the

imagined of places created by films are perceived by the film spectator (potentialtourist) so DMOs can create appropriate promotion campaigns in order to attractvisitors, as the imagery tends to impact on tourist decision-making (Aziz and Zainol,2011). Promotional tools such as advertisements, leaflets and brochures are importantfor the tourist, they are therefore, also vital for promoting film tourism, in order topromote destinations as film sets. If DMOs knew how to work with the resourcesgenerated by films, they could create better strategies for attracting visitors to theircities. However, this strategy should also consider social and economic sustainability,in order to provide better conditions for the tourist, as well as for the local population.

Advertisements of all types may be said to be like films, in that they convey aphotographic image and are aimed at generating desire for consumption. Perhapsfilm-induced adverts should try and capture images of scenery, film plot, actors, andaddress escapism and culture, in which the potential tourist is a valued and welcomevisitor.

It is a difficult, but important task to try and capture images and the imagined infilm, but the study shows that film is and enduringly popular activity. Film can createstrong mental images and has the power to turn powerful pseudo-realities into actualrealities: to make dreams come true.

10. Further researchAs there is little previous research in this field, this study has been an exploratory one.Future research might categorise and further investigate film-induced tourism in thefollowing way:

. animation;

. documentaries;

. original fictional motion-pictures; and

. films based on a novel, person or historical events.

Methodologies might include in-depth interviews, increased numbers of questionnairerespondents, more focus groups and visual analysis. These could improve theunderstanding of the film-induced tourism phenomenon explored in this paper.

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Wilson, A. (2006), Marketing Research, an Integrated Approach, Pearson, Harlow.

Further reading

Creswell, J.W. (2009), Research Design, Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed MethodsApproaches, 3rd ed., Sage, London.

Corresponding authorRafael Pires Basanez can be contacted at: [email protected]

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