-
Anti-immigrant attitudesOccupational skillsRelational skills
ings conrm our argument that workers with a higher possession of
interpersonal skill
havese ricrs shcientring i
erce compadvance tactor endo
models: skilled workers will move from rich, skill-abundant
countries to poor, labor-abundant countries, while unworkers will
move from poor to rich countries, thereby driving unskilled workers
in rich countries in vulnerable po(Scheve and Slaughter, 2001;
Mayda, 2006; ORourke and Sinnott, 2006; Hainmueller and Hiscox,
2010). Based on this logic,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.02.0040049-089X/
2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Corresponding author at: 1126 E. 59th Street, Chicago, IL 60637,
United States.E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N. Lee),
[email protected] (Cheol-Sung Lee).
Social Science Research 52 (2015) 270289
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Social Science Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate /ssresearch(Borjas et
al., 1997). In their perspective, the basis of anti-immigrant
sentiment originates primarily from between low-skilled natives and
immigrant workers. The recent theoretical developments and
applicationsof labor-market competition theory by incorporating
trade theories such as the Heckscher-Ohlin family of fetitionhis
linewmentskilledsitionsSemyonov et al., 2002), perceived threats on
group interests (Blumer, 1958; Bobo and Hutchings, 1996) or
cross-nationalvariations in structural conditions such as
population composition and unemployment (Quillian, 1995; Semyonov
et al.,2006).
Meanwhile, on the other hand, scholars of labor market have
applied their utilitarian ways of thinking to interpreting
thegrowing anti-immigrant sentiments in Western societies, by
emphasizing the role of skill-based labor-market competition1.
Introduction
Growing numbers of immigrantscountries. Native populations in
thecountries. While some native workeunderstand these responses,
social sto immigrants, mostly by underscoassets relative to
instrumental skill assets are exposed to less intense competitions
withimmigrants, and are therefore less likely to express
anti-immigrant sentiments. Our nd-ings suggest that
occupational-level relational skill assets based on sociocultural
differ-ences play an important role in shaping native workers
attitudes toward immigrants.
2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
transformed socio-economic and demographic structures in
advanced industrialh countries have developed varied responses to
the newcomers from developingow favorable attitudes toward
migrants, others exhibit hostility. In an attempt toists, on one
hand, have sought to identify the determinants of natives
responsesndividuals social and demographic aspects (Espenshade and
Hempstead, 1996;Relational skill assets and anti-immigrant
sentiments
Naeyun Lee, Cheol-Sung Lee Department of Sociology, University
of Chicago, United States
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:Received 24 January 2013Revised 11 January
2015Accepted 1 February 2015Available online 16 February 2015
Keywords:Anti-immigrant sentiment
a b s t r a c t
This study introduces the role of relational skill assets in
accounting for attitudes towardimmigrants: relational skill assets.
Drawing upon stratication researchers notion ofnon-cognitive
skills, we build a theoretical framework highlighting the role of
occupa-tional skill requirements in explaining anti-immigrant
sentiment. Then, utilizing twooccupation-specic measures,
interpersonal skill requirement and instrumental skillrequirement,
we construct an explanatory factor, relational skill specicity. We
test itseffect on anti-immigrant attitudes as well as on the
concentration of foreign-born workersin occupations, using the 2004
national identity module of General Social Survey. The nd-
-
unskilled native workers in rich countries will be more
discontented with the inux of unskilled immigrants, as it
increasescompetition in the labor market already exacerbated by the
rise of the service economy.
such measures as nurturant skill (Kilbourne et al., 1994). In
recent years, scholars have started to use the Occupational
N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015) 270289
271Information Network (O NET) data (see Liu and Grusky, 2013;
Kunovich, 2013a, 2013b). The previous studies on immigrantslabor
market experience have also paid little attention to the role of
relational skills. The conventional approaches havemostly
attributed migrants earnings decit to the lack of human capital and
the concentration of social capital within ethniccommunities
(Reitz, 2001; Aguilera and Massey, 2003; Waldinger and Lichter,
2003; Li, 2004, 2008; Cranford, 2005; Ness,2005; Nakhaie,
2007).
Departing from these preexisting views, our study argues that
relational skills play an important role in shapinganti-immigrant
sentiments through two mechanisms. First, relational skills will
limit the supply of not only domesticlabor-market competitors, but
also immigrants or foreign workers who aspire to enter into or move
up in the labor market.Subsequently, exposure to immigrants in a
respective occupational labor market will affect the job qualities,
wage levels, andthe risk of unemployment for native workers (at
least their perceptions of them), eventually shaping their
attitudes towardimmigrants. Second, relational skills required for
occupational tasks tend to be correlated with personality traits
(Heckmanand Kautz, 2012) that bring in openness to (new)
experiences, tendency to act in a cooperative unselsh manner,
and(sympathetic) tender-mindedness all of which may foster more
favorable understanding of immigrants situations andtheir
contributions to a host society. The following sections identify
causal mechanisms between occupational skill assetsand native
workers attitudes toward immigrants.
1 The following sections on interpersonal and instrumental
skills further elaborate on the denition and the concept of
occupational skills regarding peopleand tools dimensions.We nd that
there are unexplored dimensions for explanatory variables in these
studies of attitudes toward immigration,and introduce a new
independent variable: the role of occupation-specic relational
skills. Conventional approaches in thisarea mostly treat skills as
a general construct of human capital (Becker, 1964). Students of
attitudes toward immigrants paytheir primary attention to labor
market competitions based on skill levels, structural conditions
such as the size of out-grouppopulations and unemployment at
regional level (Quillian, 1995; Kunovich, 2004; Semyonov et al.,
2006). Scholars of immi-grant labor, on the other hand, have
concentrated on the effect of human and social capital on immigrant
earnings.
This study argues that two components of relational skills,
interpersonal and instrumental skills, play a critical role
inshaping anti-immigrant sentiments. We will propose two causal
mechanisms: (1) rst, the notion of relational skill speci-city will
capture the degree of transferability of skill assets across
different cultures and societies, which will eventuallydetermine
workers occupational-specic exposure to competitions with
immigrants; (2) second, it will also represent per-sonality traits
and facets (Heckman and Kautz, 2012) that involve intellectual and
emotional openness, trust, and unselsh-ness, arising from pre- and
post-labor market training. We assume that these personality
traits, correlated withoccupational skill requirements, will also
determine workers sentiments toward immigrants. In the subsequent
sections,we propose three sets of hypotheses and causal
explanations that link occupation-specic relational skills
withanti-immigrant sentiments, and then test them with a General
Social Survey module (National Identity, 2004).
2. Theoretical discussions
This study highlights the signicance of occupational-level
relational skill standards in accounting for attitudes
towardimmigrants. We dene relational skill standards as average
skill requirements of an occupation needed for workers to per-form
appropriate levels of job-specic tasks in their interactions with
people and tools.1 Specically, they refer to occupation-al skill
requirements of a workers functional tasks in relation to people
such as co-workers, transaction partners, andcustomers, as well as
things or objects such as products, devices, and tools.
Regarding people dimension, we note that any occupational tasks
cannot be performed without simple or complex inter-actions among
people. Workers of an occupation may have to help others or serve
the requests by others. They may have toexchange information with
others or closely communicate with others in order to produce
products or provide services. Forsome occupations, the
interpersonal skills constitute the core essence of their job
functions. For lawyers, persuasion andnegotiation skills are the
key components of different stages of legal procedures, not only
for lawsuits in courts, but alsofor informal settlements outside
courts (Heinz and Laumann, 1982). For sales representatives,
explaining the functions ofproducts to their customers, and
instructing subordinates and reporting to their supervisors are
essential parts of their jobs.
With respect to things dimension, workers often deal with simple
to complex tools and machines. For a carpenter, beingable to handle
necessary tools comprises a core essence of his or her job
performance. A scientist in a biology lab shouldknow how to operate
and manage lab equipment, and how to raise and maintain living
organisms on a regular basis.Note that, although manual laborers
need to communicate with their colleagues for simple instructions
or procedural pro-tocols, communication skills are less essential
than their skill with tools or machines. However, a scientist
working in alaboratory may be required to communicate with
co-workers at very diverse, sophisticated, and complex levels while
simul-taneously holding high levels of skills to handle laboratory
facilities.
These aspects of skill assets have been largely neglected in
stratication research since Cain and Treiman (1981)spioneering
exploration of DOT (Dictionary of Occupational Titles) measures and
a couple of subsequent investigations using
-
2.1. Interpersonal skills and anti-immigrant sentiments
We dene interpersonal skills as a type of mental and physical
practices that involve different levels and repertoires
ofinteractions and communications among human beings, needed to
develop temporary or prolonged relationships in diverse
family background (Lareau, 2002) or neighborhood and friendship
networks (Coleman, 1988). As an important part of
worlds eventually develop into the skills needed for adequate
performance in higher education and the workplace.
272 N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015)
270289This study assumes that there exist two primary venues by
which native workers develop sentiments toward immigrantsthrough
interpersonal skills: (1) labor market competition and labor
supply; and (2) personality traits or soft skills.
First,interpersonal skills may function as skill barriers,
discouraging immigrants from entering certain occupations or
industriesthat formally or informally require highly sophisticated,
culturally shaped skills, thereby shielding native workers
fromintense job competition. Interpersonal skills are generally
less transferrable across different societies. Thus, immigrants
lackof understanding of appropriate local norms, habits,
conventions, routines, and practices may inhibit their adequate
perfor-mance in particular job tasks that require highly nuanced
skills for interpersonal interactions, and limit their chances
ofmoving up to higher positions. With the presence of language
barriers in certain occupations, language skills will also
direct-ly determine immigrants aspirations in local job markets
(Portes et al., 1978).2
The second mechanism operates through personality traits and
soft skills formed by pre-labor market experiences andon-the-job
training. Those with higher levels of interpersonal skills are more
likely to possess certain personality traits thatfacilitate a
better understanding of other peoples situations, and therefore
give a sympathetic support for immigrants evenbefore their entries
into occupational worlds primarily through earlier formal and
informal educational experiences. Afterentering the workplace,
workers with jobs requiring higher levels of interpersonal skills
are more likely to be in situationsdealing with other peoples
interests and concerns or cooperating with others, both of which
require a certain level of trustof others and relatively unknown
outsiders. Therefore, those who chose occupations requiring high
levels of interpersonalskills will be more likely to develop more
favorable views of immigrants.3
To summarize, interpersonal skills may not only serve as
signicant skill barriers against the immigrant labor force, butalso
capture certain personality traits or soft skills developed before
or after entering the occupation. As a result, nativeworkers in
jobs that require high levels of interpersonal skills will be
insulated from direct competitions againstout-group members
including immigrants, and also better able to understand the plight
of immigrants. These theoreticalexpectations lead to the following
hypotheses.
Hypothesis 1-1. Occupations requiring high levels of
interpersonal skills will have fewer immigrant workers.
Hypothesis 1-2. Workers with high levels of occupation-specic
interpersonal skills (pj) will show less
anti-immigrantsentiments.
2.2. Instrumental skills and anti-immigrant sentiments
Instrumental skill standards capture skill requirements of each
occupation in relation to tools, devices, machines, equip-ment,
vehicles, and substance or raw materials. In contrast to
interpersonal skill standards, instrumental skill standards donot
carry social skill components. As it refers to workers ability to
prepare, adjust, and control the operation of machines,tools, and
materials on their job routines, it is impersonal,
performance-oriented, and manual labor-related.
The two venues through which interpersonal skills affect
anti-immigrant sentiments may be also applicable to instru-mental
skills. First, the impersonal aspect of instrumental skill
standards is likely to attract immigrant workers with or with-out
high levels of instrumental skills, resulting in increased
competition with native-born workers for jobs. Instrumental
skill
2 Although it is unclear how much language skills and
interpersonal skills shape each other, it is obvious that two
skills are highly correlated with each other.We control for the
effect of language skills through the variable, cognitive skill
complexity in our analyses in Tables 2 and 3.
3 A reviewer pointed out that workers with higher interpersonal
skills may be able to better relate to the situation of others and
therefore those workersare less likely to develop anti-immigrant
sentiments. We nd our rst mechanism (through personality traits)
embraces this view.non-cognitive skills (Bowles and Gintis, 1976,
2002; Bowles et al., 2001), interpersonal skills also include work
habits,self-condence, self-esteem, and calmness (Farkas, 2003).
Interpersonal and communicative skills obtained in informal
life-institutionalized work settings. Interpersonal skills range
from mere helping or serving to more sophisticated skills, suchas
mentoring (highest), negotiating, instructing, and supervising (US
Department of Labor, 1991). Therefore, interpersonalskills carry
social skill components within them and some scholars call this
soft skills as opposed to formal or technicalknowledge (Moss and
Tilly, 1996, 253).
Each occupation requires workers to demonstrate the ability to
motivate cooperation in other actors (Fligstein, 1997,398)
regarding its functional tasks. Employees in an occupation (or
occupational eld) should be able to relate to the situa-tion of the
other, where others include co-workers, transaction partners
(suppliers and buyers), clients, and customers.They should be able
to comprehend, and perform their roles and tasks based on their
interpersonal relations or on theirorientations to each other or to
shared goals (Martin, 2003, 29). A large share of these skills
partly originates from or is rein-forced through formal educational
training and on-the-job training (Becker, 1964), but also tends to
be obtained through
-
standards can be directly convertible across cultures and
societies without any discounts. Therefore, even immigrant work-ers
who initially lack these instrumental skills may be willing to
invest in them, whereas it is difcult to obtain interpersonalskills
over a comparably short time span. In this sense, we expect that
native skilled manual workers with higher invest-ments in
instrumental skill assets, and concomitantly with higher incomes,
will develop the strongest hostility toward immi-grants as they are
likely to lose more in the event that they are replaced by
immigrants.
Second, those with jobs requiring high levels of instrumental
skills may be less likely to possess soft skills or
personalitytraits (Heckman and Kautz, 2012; John and Srivastava,
1999) that enable a deeper understanding of others situations.
Theirinitial entrance into jobs that require higher levels of
instrumental rather than interpersonal skills may imply a lack of
per-sonality traits that lead to sympathetic support for others.
Furthermore, after entering the occupation, their isolated
nature
ers capacity to understand outgroup members but also the degree
of exposure to competition with immigrant workers,
from competitions with immigrants by skill barrier mechanisms
based on the low convertibility of interpersonal skills. The
N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015) 270289
273rst characteristic leads them to support and favor the presence
of more immigrants, but the second characteristic showsthat they
are already economically sheltered from intense competitions.
However, workers in occupations requiring a lower possession of
interpersonal skills relative to instrumental skillsmay face an
opposite situation. They are less likely to possess personality
traits that develop empathy for outgroup mem-bers, while the lower
level of interpersonal skills requirement will facilitate the
movements of workers across borders dueto the lack of social skill
barriers. Therefore, incumbent native workers in this type of jobs
will have to tolerate the highperceived risk of downward wage
pressure and unemployment. We argue that two mechanisms, lack of
soft skills orrelated personality traits, and intensied
competition, may reinforce each other and end up producingstronger
anti-immigrant sentiments among native workers with a higher
possession of instrumental skills over interper-sonal skills.
4 We have a measure of the proportion of foreign-born
workers/immigrants in each occupation imported from the Current
Population Survey March 2000data, which allows us to test the labor
market competition/labor supply causal venue, but do not have a
direct measure of the pre- and post-labor markettraining mechanisms
through personality traits or soft skills. In actual analyses,
therefore, we will introduce our relational skill measures along
with theproportion of immigrants in each occupation variable, and
then surmise that the remaining signicant effects of relation skill
measures will reect thepersonality traits aspects.
5 We develop this relational skill specicity as a summary
measure of two dimensions of relational skills, and aim to
introduce it in a regression equation asa single measure (as
introducing both interpersonal and instrumental skills causes a
collinearity problem due to a relatively high correlation between
them).
6 The formula was directly borrowed from Iversen and Soskice
(2001) skill asset specicity, s/(g + s), in which s denotes
rm-specic skills, while grepresents general skills that are
transferable across rms. For discussion on occupation or
industry-specic skills (beyond rm-specic skills), see Mares(2003),
Neal (1995, 2000), and Acemoglu and Pischke (1999)s works.which
depends on the transferability of skill assets across different
cultures and societies. Therefore, native workers in occu-pations
requiring a higher possession of interpersonal skills in their
total skill sets may be in dualistic situations. On onehand, they
may be inclined to embrace immigrants based on their soft,
communicative skills, while they are also protectedof work life may
deprive their chance of developing these personality traits. Thus,
we expect that these high-instrumentalskill-workers will be more
likely to develop negative feelings toward members of
outgroups.
In summary, native workers holding a high level of instrumental
skill may not only have difculty understanding of theplight of
immigrants and others, but also confront ercer competitions from
immigrant workers with a similar level of skillsbut lower wage
demands. Their lack of soft skills or personality traits as well as
perceived or experienced vulnerability tocompetition with skilled
immigrants in terms of high instrumental skills, ensuing downward
pressures on their wages, andeventually higher risk of
unemployment, lead them to develop stronger anti-immigrant
sentiments.4 Based on the precedingdiscussion, we predict as
follows:
Hypothesis 2-1. Occupations requiring high levels of
instrumental skills will have more immigrant workers.
Hypothesis 2-2. Workers with high levels of occupation-specic
instrumental skills (tj) will show more
anti-immigrantsentiments.
2.3. Relational skill specicity and anti-immigrant sentiment:
two dilemmas
Two types of aforementioned skill sets, interpersonal skills
necessary for human interaction on job tasks and instrumentalskills
required for dealing with things and objects on job routines and
practices, constitute a notion of occupation-specicrelational skill
specicity.5 The relative composition of the two types of skills
captures the degree to which a worker possessesinterpersonal skill
assets relative to the total skill assets (the sum of interpersonal
and instrumental skill assets). In our frame-work, the relational
skill specicity, pj/(tj + pj),6 reects two aspects. First, the
higher the proportion of pj is, the less culturallyconvertible the
entire skill set of a particular occupation will be. Therefore,
native workers in occupations with higher interper-sonal skill
requirements will be more insulated from competition with
immigrants. Second, the higher the proportion of pj is,the greater
the chance that a member of a particular occupation will have
personality traits and soft skills that enable a
betterunderstanding others situation and their contribution to the
society.
In other words, this study assumes that this notion of
relational skill specicity is likely to capture not only native
work-
-
Hypothesis 3-1. Occupations with a higher possession of
interpersonal skills over the entire skill assets have a lower
level ofinux of immigrants.
Hypothesis 3-2. Workers employed in jobs requiring a greater
possession of interpersonal skills over the entire skill assetswill
show lower levels of anti-immigrant sentiments.
Fig. 1 summarizes the causal ows between relational skill
specicity and anti-immigrant sentiment. Relational skillspecicity
affects natives attitudes toward immigrants directly (A), but also
indirectly through the percentage offoreign-born in an occupation
(A-1 and A-2). The goal of this paper is to test these two
channels: direct and indirect path-ways of relational skills on
anti-immigrant attitudes. In the direct causal path (A), we assume
that a high level of relationalskill specicity in ones occupation
will lead to a lower level of anti-immigrant sentiments. For
instance, those with highlevels of interpersonal skills may be
better able to understand other peoples situation or those who
succeed in building
274 N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015)
270289Y4)/4. In addition, we also tested the simple sum of four raw
scores, which achieves a fairly high level of reliability
(Cronbachs a reliability coefcient = 0.78)and produces the same
results.10 Detailed denitions and explanations of each stage are in
Appendix B.interpersonal skills may intrinsically have higher
levels of sympathy or empathy of others. In the indirect causal
ows,low or high relational skill specicity for an occupation will
affect the percentage of foreign-born workers in that
occupation(A-1). The extent of exposure to foreign-born workers in
ones occupation will induce incumbent native workers to develophigh
or low anti-immigrant sentiment (A-2).
3. Data and measures
3.1. Anti-immigrant sentiment
This study tests the proposed hypotheses, using a module of the
General Social Survey (2004) on national identity andcitizenship.7
Using four questions on respondents attitudes toward immigrations,
this study constructs a composite, weightedaverage index of
anti-immigrant sentiments based on the factor loadings identied by
conrmatory factor analysis (CFA). Thequestion used to construct the
composite index is: there are different opinions about immigrants
from other countries living inAmerica (By immigrants we mean people
who come to settle in America). How much do you agree or disagree
with each ofthe following statements? The question subsequently
display the following four statements: (Y1) Immigrants are
generallygood for the economy; (Y2) Immigrants take jobs away from
people who were born in America; (Y3) Immigrants improveAmerican
society by bringing in new ideas and cultures; and (Y4) Immigrants
increase crime rates.8 The response categoriesfollow the Likert
scale: (1) strongly agree; (2) agree; (3) neither agree nor
disagree; (4) disagree; (5) strongly disagree. The fourquestions
deal with respondents sentiments of immigrants regarding the
general economy, employment/unemployment, cog-nitive/cultural
diversity, and everyday security, respectively.9 In constructing
the composite index, response categories arerescaled to assign
higher scores to stronger sentiments against immigrants.
3.2. Interpersonal and instrumental skill standards
In order to measure relational aspects of skill requirements for
each occupation, we matched the occupation variable inthe GSS 2004
module with the DOT (Dictionary of Occupational Titles) (U.S.
Department of Labor, Employment, and TrainingAdministration, 1991)
classication system of occupational categories. The former based on
the ISCO 88 (the InternationalStandard Classication of Occupations)
contains about 400 occupational categories. We link these 400
occupations with theDOTs more detailed occupational groups. Through
this matching process, we were able to import seven DOT measures
ofoccupational skill requirements. Among them, two DOT measures, a
jobs relationships to people and things, are used to cap-ture
relational skill assets. First, a jobs functional requirement in
relation to people (pj), interpersonal skill requirement, isbased
on the following hierarchical ordering of interactive,
communicative relationships among people:
takinginstructions-helping (1), serving (2), speaking-signaling
(3), persuading (4), diverting (5), supervising (6), instructing
(7),negotiating (8), and mentoring (9). Second, a jobs skill
requirements for dealing with things (tj) are based on the
followingordering: handling (1), feeding-offbearing (2), tending
(3), manipulating (4), driving-operating (5), operating-controlling
(6),precision working (7), and setting up (8).10 Both measures are
reverse-ordered from the original scale to denote higher skill
7 Currently, the GSS 2004 data is the most recent dataset in the
U.S. with detailed information on native workers attitudes toward
immigrants and theiroccupations.
8 Most studies using GSS (or ISSP, International Social Survey
Programme) use another question, Do you think the number of
immigrants to [country]nowadays should be. . . 1. Increased a lot;
2. Increased a little; 3. Remain the same; 4. Reduced a little; 5.
Reduced a lot. I nd this question does not necessarilymeasure how
respondents feel about immigrants in different areas of
socio-economic matters. The question captures the degree to which
respondents considerthe current and future numerical immigration
level appropriate for the society. It is completely possible to
answer remain the same for this question, whilebeing strongly
positive or negative about the presence of immigrants.
9 The four questions load on one factor in exploratory factor
analysis. Conrmatory factor analysis using STATA 12 gives the
following factor loadingestimates: 1.000 for general economy (Y1);
1.034 for employment/unemployment (Y2); 1.048 for ideas/cultures
(Y3); 1.073 for crime (Y4). Overall model tmeasures are
satisfactory, when judged based on Bollen (1989)s recommendations,
with the exception of RMSEA (p-value < 0.000; IFI = .976; NFI =
.975;TLI = .929; RMSEA = 0.113). The nal composite score was
calculated as: Anti-immigrant Sentiment Composite Score = (1.000Y1
+ 1.002Y2 + .914Y3 + .842-
-
Relaonal Skill Specicity in Occupaon
An-Immigrant Senment
Causal Flow A
Beer able to relate to others situaons(due to so skills or
personality traits)
N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015) 270289
275percentage of foreign-born in ones occupational category as a
dependent variable and a control. First, we test whether highor low
levels of relational skill specicity in occupations have an effect
on the actual percentage of foreign-born workers inthese
occupations. Secondly, we use the percentage of foreign-born
workers in each occupational category to assess the indi-The
measurement scheme of this relational skill specicity is inspired
by Iversen and Soskices work and their Varieties ofCapitalism
school (VoC hereafter) approach (Estevez-Abe et al., 2001; Hall and
Soskice, 2001; Iversen and Soskice, 2001).They have recently
highlighted the role of workers skill asset portability/specicity
across rms in explaining demandsfor social protection. The VoC
literature claims that workers who have invested in rm-specic
skills relative to general skillsare more likely to support the
public provision of social welfare, because they are exposed to
greater risk of unemploymentand income loss due to their low
transportability of skill assets across rms (Iversen and Soskice,
2001). Based on this logic,we expand the notion of skill specicity
across rms to skill specicity across national borders and cultures.
Relational skillspecicity is measured as the ratio, pj/(tj + pj),
in which a respondents jobs interpersonal skill requirement divided
by herjobs total relational skill requirements (the sum of
instrumental skill requirement and interpersonal skill
requirement). Itmeasures the necessary amount of interpersonal
skills per one unit of total relational skills to demonstrate an
adequateexecution of tasks specic to an occupation.
3.4. Percentage of foreign-born in respondents occupational
category13
In order to ascertain the relationship between relational skill
specicity and anti-immigrant sentiments, we introduce
therequirements for higher values.11 These 1 to 9 and 1 to 8
ordered categories are directly used as scores for interpersonal
skillasset and instrumental skill asset.12
3.3. Relational skill specicity
Then we constructed a measure of relational skill specicity with
these two skill requirements at the occupational level.
A-1
Percentage of Foreign-Born in Occupaon
A-2
Fig. 1. Causal mechanism: the effect of relational skill
specicity on anti-immigrant sentiment.rect effect of relational
skill specicity on attitudes toward immigrants.Previous research by
Kunovich (2013a, 2013b) also employs the percent of Mexicans and
immigrants in occupations to
investigate the impact of labor market competition on attitudes
toward immigrants and immigration policies by usingONET and GSS
2004 data. His ndings show that the effect of percent of Mexican in
occupation on anti-immigrant atti-tudes is largely spurious, and is
mostly due to the fact that occupations with high percentage of
Mexicans tend to have work-ers with less education who are also
more likely to perceive threat.
Our analysis differs from these previous studies in two
important ways. First, our main focus is on examining both
directand indirect effects of occupational skills (e.g. relational
skill specicity) on anti-immigrant sentiments. Thus, we use
thevariable percentage of foreign-born in ones occupation to test
the indirect effect of relational skill specicity, i.e. exposureto
competition with foreign-born workers within occupations. Second,
we use regression (OLS) models with HuberWhite
11 Another dimension of relational skill requirements contained
in the DOT is skill requirement in relation to data. This measure,
based on factor analysis,turns out to be more related to cognitive
skill dimension (Kilbourne et al., 1994). Therefore, it is included
as a component of cognitive skill complexity.12 Obviously, we
assume that ordinal scales may be treated as interval. Previous
studies report that this treatment does not involve too much
distortion(Labovitz, 1970; Kim, 1975).13 A reviewer has suggested
that the effect of interpersonal skill requirements on
anti-immigrant attitudes [may be] purely a function of their lack
ofexposure to immigrant worker threat and that it is imperative to
control for the percentage of foreign-born workers in respondents
occupational category inorder to assess the true effect of ones
level of relational skills on anti-immigrant sentiments. Therefore,
we calculated the percentage of foreign-born in eachoccupational
category (ISCO 88) from the Current Population Survey March 2000
data and included it in our analysis.
-
robust standard errors instead of HLM models. As Kunovich
(2013a) has found that individual-level variables explain muchof
the variance in attitudes toward immigrants, we focus on estimating
the effects of individual-level variables.
In this paper, we assess the detailed skill requirements on
occupations through the DOT measures. We calculate the per-centage
of foreign-born in each occupational category (ISCO 88) from the
Current Population Survey (CPS) March 2000 dataand merge with the
General Social Survey (2004) data.14 Thus, for each job category
(ISCO 88) in the General Social Survey
276 N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015)
2702892004 module, we provide the percentage of foreign-born
workers in that specic occupation.
3.5. Other control variables
3.5.1. Formal educationFormal education captures the
individual-level human capital component (Becker, 1964), and has
been the most sig-
nicant factor in explaining attitudes toward out-groups in
previous studies (Quillian, 1995; Mayda, 2006; Hainmuellerand
Hiscox, 2010). Highly educated individuals are more tolerant of the
presence of ethnic or racial minorities, includingimmigrants, in
the neighborhood and national economies. Formal education is
measured as the highest year of school com-pleted for each
respondent.
3.5.2. Cognitive skill complexityIn line with previous
stratication research, this study includes occupation-specic
cognitive skill complexity (Kilbourne
et al., 1994; Weeden, 2002) as one of the control variables.
Following the previous studies (Kilbourne et al., 1994; Farkaset
al., 1997), we use ve DOT measures as components of this cognitive
skill complexity: three components of general educa-tional
development in reasoning, math, and language (R, M, and L,
respectively in Appendix A.2); specic vocational
trainingrequirements (S); and skill requirement in relation to data
(D).15 With the inclusion of the language-skill requirement in
thecomposite measure, interpersonal skill standards are expected to
capture only the effects of non-cognitive social skill elementson
anti-immigrant sentiments.
3.5.3. Religious afliationsIn our attempt to control for the
effects of religion on anti-immigrant sentiments, we consider not
only denomination but
also cultural conicts between orthodox/conservative Protestants
and mainline/liberal Protestants. We assume that
culturaldifferences originating from respondents religious faiths
(Hunter, 1994; Wuthnow, 1996) may shape their attitudes
towardimmigrants in different ways.
On one hand, conservative Protestants, who tend to have a strong
belief in the literal inerrancy of the Bible and an uncom-promising
moral view based on it, may consider the greater presence of
immigrants with different cultural and religiousbackgrounds as
serious threats to their (uncompromising) religious doctrines and
communities. They are more likely to pre-sume that immigrants might
disrupt their traditional fabrics of religious and cultural
communities, not only by increasingcrime and job loss, but also by
bringing different cultural and religious ideas and practices along
with them. Therefore, con-servative Protestants low tolerance for
different religious and cultural practices is more likely to lead
to greateranti-immigrant sentiment. On the other hand, liberal
Protestants may think that moral views and religious doctrines
canbe compromised and updated along with changing community norms
(Hunter, 1991), which may lead to higher level ofopenness to
immigrants presence and their values. Overall, we assume that, as
both liberal Protestants and Catholics arecomposed of very
heterogeneous groups, their overall differences in opinions toward
immigrants from non-religious popula-tions may not be noticeable.
Three indicator (0 or 1) variables for religious afliation,
conservative Protestants, mainlineProtestants, and Catholics, are
introduced with the reference category being no or other
religions.
3.5.4. RaceWe expect that racial differences may exist in
attitudes towards immigrants due to the racialization of
immigration since
the 1960s. Three categories of individual racial identication,
non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, and others areintroduced.
We use three indicator (0 or 1) variables to compare group
differences in attitudes toward immigrants withLatinos, the
reference category.
3.5.5. Political afliationMany social scientists have recently
highlighted the effect of political afliation on anti-immigrant
sentiments especially
in advanced industrial countries (Semyonov et al., 2006), as
(extremist) right-wing parties often resort to stirring up
xeno-phobic fear of foreigners to consolidate their electoral base.
In this study, we control for political party identity by
introduc-ing an indicator variable (0 or 1) for Republican Party
membership. Although some segments of Republicans may show
14 We deleted one occupational category (e.g. postmasters) in
the General Social Survey (2004) data as this did not exist in the
Current Population SurveyMarch 2000 data. Thus, the total number of
occupational categories (ISCO 88) in the General Social Survey
(2004) data changed from 161 to 160.15 We also conducted conrmatory
factor analyses of ve measures and identied appropriate factor
loadings for these sub-indicators; 1.000 for reasoning,1.063 for
math, 1.112 for language, 1.438 for relation to data, 1.670 for
specic vocational training (SVP). Fit statistics are as follows:
p-value < 0.000; IFI = .987;NFI = .986; TLI = .973; RMSEA =
0.133).
-
stronger feelings against immigrants, others may not. Especially
controlling for fundamentalist Protestants, we do not expectthat
republican membership will have statistically meaningful positive
effects on anti-immigrant sentiments.
3.5.6. Other individual-level demographic variablesSex is
introduced as a component of the baseline model with an indicator
(0 for men and 1 for women) variable, with the
expectation that men will show greater hostility toward
out-group populations. With the expectation that older people
areexpected to show more prejudice about out-group populations, age
variable is also added as one of the controls. A group ofdummy
variables are also introduced to control for individuals
labor-market status: part-time employed, unemployed,
N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015) 270289
277retired and non-employed (students, housewives, and disabled)
are controlled for, with full-time employed being the refer-ence
category. Weaker status in the labor market is expected to be
associated with stronger anti-immigrant sentiments. Wecontrol for
union membership to see if workers memberships with unions lead
them to show stronger anti-immigrant sen-timents, by using an
indicator (0 or 1) variable for being a member of a union.
Finally, we control for respondents citizenship status.
Respondents with citizenship are expected to show
strongeranti-immigrant sentiments, compared to those without
citizenship, mostly, immigrants.16 Obviously, there will be
anunknown number of citizens who have recent immigration histories
but also obtained citizenships after decades of
residentialhistories. We assume that this segment of the population
is likely to have similar attitudes toward the recent immigrants
similarto those of native-born citizens, after having experienced a
signicant process of assimilation.17
4. Method
We employ a linear regression (OLS) model using HuberWhite
heteroskedasticity-consistent standard errors (or robuststandard
errors) for 160 occupational-level clusters, adjusting for
within-cluster correlations. In this model, we assume
thatrespondents may be clustered into occupations and that
observations may be correlated within each occupation, but wouldbe
independent between occupational categories (Huber, 1967; White,
1980). In other words, the model allows off-diagonalelements (in
the error term) from the same cluster to be non-zero, while still
maintaining the assumption that there is nocorrelation among
observations across clusters (Primo et al., 2007; 451). One may
employ hierarchical linear modeling(HLM; Bryk and Raudenbush, 1992;
Raudenbush and Bryk, 2002) to take into account this kind of error
structure, but wechoose to employ the HuberWhite estimator for the
following two reasons: rst, we are not interested in decomposing
(-explained) variances into each level to know how much each level
(of covariates) explains, which is the main concern of theHLM
models. What we want to know in this study is simply the point
estimation of our main covariates and their statisticalsignicance,
with an appropriately specied error structure; second, the
HuberWhite estimator is computationally lessintensive, as it does
not require distributional assumptions for every level (Primo et
al., 2007), which may impose heavydemands on theory and data
(Steenbergen and Jones, 2002, 234).18
5. Results
5.1. Descriptive results
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics of the main
variables including measures of relational and cognitive skill
assetsfor eight major occupational categories. The mean value of
anti-immigrant sentiments is the highest for skilled
machineoperators (2.99) and skilled craftsmen (2.93), while the
lowest for professionals (2.35) and managers (2.53). Note that
theelementary unskilled, those who are at the lowest (cognitive)
skill level, do not show the highest level of
anti-immigrantsentiment (2.80). The skilled craftsmen and machine
operators, representative of manual working class occupations,
haveone of the lowest interpersonal skill standards (1.76 and
2.01), and the highest instrumental skill standard (6.56 and6.23),
thereby showing the lowest relational skill specicity (.21 and
.25). These descriptive statistics aggregated by largeoccupational
categories suggest that there may be a meaningfully strong negative
association between relational skill speci-city and anti-immigrant
sentiment, which may also coincide with variations along
occupational lines.
5.2. Multivariate results
Table 2 displays the unstandardized coefcients from linear
regression models testing the effects of relational skill
speci-city, interpersonal skills, and instrumental skills on the
percentage of foreign-born in occupations. Our ndings show that
16 As citizens with one or two immigrant parents (the second
generation immigrants who hold citizenships) are more likely to
support immigrants presence,we alternatively tested both parents
citizenship status instead of respondents citizenship status,
expecting that individuals whose parents are both citizens,will
show stronger anti-immigrant sentiments, when compared to those
with at least one parent without citizenship status. The results
were largely similar tothe ones using simple citizenship. The
results are available upon request.17 We tested whether the
exclusion of this group with recent immigration histories from the
sample affects the estimates of the relational skill measures.
Theresults for this smaller sample (N = 929) are largely identical
with the ones reported in the text. The results are available upon
request.18 Actually, some of the models using cross-levels and
interactions did not converge under the MLE (maximum likelihood
estimation). Nevertheless, we alsotested some basic multi-level
models treating the occupation-level as a higher level (but not
specifying varying slopes across units), which is equivalent to
ourcurrent models. The results were almost identical. Please see
Appendix C.2 for the results using HLM models with 47 occupational
groups.
-
Table 1Descriptive statistics of key variables, by major
occupational categories (ISCO 88): General Social Survey, 2004.
Occupational Categories N Anti-immigrant Cognitive skill
Interpersonal Instrumental Relational skill
278 N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015)
270289sentiments complexity skill standard skill standard
specicity
Mean Std dev. Mean Std dev. Mean Std dev. Mean Std dev. Mean Std
dev.
Ofcials/Managers 176 2.51 0.64 7.05 0.32 8.00 0.00 1.00 0.00
0.89 0.00Professionals 223 2.35 0.72 7.47 0.61 5.35 2.46 3.17 2.71
0.65 0.25Technicians 126 2.63 0.81 6.43 0.58 3.51 1.51 2.96 2.67
0.60 0.24Clerks 146 2.76 0.64 4.29 0.82 2.16 0.99 5.62 1.32 0.28
0.11Service/Sales Workers 129 2.78 0.78 3.60 1.20 2.47 0.91 2.55
2.06 0.54 0.19Skilled Craftsmen & Agricultural and Fishery 100
2.94 0.75 5.48 0.85 1.78 0.98 6.58 1.20 0.21 0.09Machine Operators
81 2.98 0.84 4.18 1.16 2.01 1.01 6.25 1.44 0.25 0.12Elementary
Unskilled 69 2.81 0.78 1.75 0.32 1.46 0.83 1.00 0.00 0.56 0.10
Table 2Regression results of the percentage of foreign-born in
occupation against relational skill specicity, interpersonal
skills, and instrumental skills in occupation.
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7
Relational skill specicity in occupation 6.719**(0.927)
7.264**(0.899)
6.656**(0.923)
** **Hypothesis 1-1, 2-1, and 3-1 hold across different model
specications. Occupations with higher levels of relational
skillspecicity and interpersonal skill requirements are more likely
to have a lower percentage of foreign-born workers in
theoccupation, controlling for cognitive skill complexity, average
years of schooling, average log income, average percentageof union
membership, and average level of unemployment in each occupation.19
In contrast, occupations with higher instru-mental skill standards
are more likely to have a higher concentration of foreign-born
workers in the occupation, ceteris paribus.Thus, interpersonal
skill standards may function as skill barriers limiting the entry
of immigrant workers to certainoccupations.
Table 3 presents unstandardized coefcients from linear
regression models with HuberWhite standard errors testing
theeffects of measures of relational skills on anti-immigrant
sentiments. Model 1 reveals that interpersonal skill asset has
anexpected, negative effect on anti-immigrant sentiment, in the
presence of other individual-level covariates (Hypothesis1-2).
Interpersonal skills may facilitate a greater understanding of
others through personality traits and also operate as askill
barrier, insulating native workers from competition with
immigrants. Model 2 shows that instrumental skill assetshas a
strong positive effect on anti-immigrant sentiment (Hypothesis
2-2).We predicted that workers with higher levelsof instrumental
skill may not only lack soft skills or relevant personality traits,
but also feel more vulnerable to the riskof unemployment and income
loss, leading to strong anti-immigrant sentiments.
In Model 3, we test the effect of our main variable, relational
skill specicity, on anti-immigrant sentiment, adjusting forall
individual-level baseline controls. As we predicted, the coefcient
is negative and highly signicant. The result also lends
Interpersonal skill in occupation 0.779(0.111)
0.700(0.115)
Instrumental skill in occupation 0.707**
(0.089)0.653**
(0.090)Cognitive skill complexity in occupation 1.198**
(0.179)1.404**(0.157)
1.161**(0.171)
1.082**(0.173)
0.875**(0.181)
1.719**(0.156)
1.416**
Avg. years of education in occupation 0.455*(0.194)
0.411*(0.184)
0.468*(0.185)
0.493**(0.180)
Avg. log income in occupation 0.351(0.505)
0.036(0.478)
0.233(0.479)
0.156(0.476)
Avg. union membership in occupation 1.790(1.693)
2.197(1.688)
1.644(1.680)
2.578(1.706)
2.005(1.699)
1.561(1.686)
1.015(1.675)
Avg.% of unemployed in occupation 2.526(2.495)
2.877(2.496)
2.489(2.494)
3.198(2.513)
2.776(2.510)
1.946(2.505)
1.560(2.499)
Constant 25.54** 24.53** 28.21** 23.87** 26.59** 21.11**
24.92**
(4.321) (4.308) (1.971) (4.367) (2.056) (4.392) (2.087)N 1076
1076 1076 1076 1076 1076 1076R2 0.212 0.208 0.212 0.197 0.201 0.207
0.212
Robust standard errors in parentheses.+ Signicant at 10%.
* Signicant at 5%.** Signicant at 1%.
19 Average years of schooling in occupation and average log
income in occupation are highly correlated (r = .64), and,
therefore are not included in the samemodel except for Model 1.
-
Table 3Regression results of anti-immigrant sentiments against
relational skill specicity (using HuberWhite robust standard
errors).
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
Sex (Female = 1) 0.048 0.048 0.046 0.041(0.043) (0.043) (0.043)
(0.042)
Age 0.004* 0.004* 0.004* 0.004*(0.002) (0.002) (0.002)
(0.002)
Education 0.083** 0.089** 0.083** 0.080**(0.008) (0.008) (0.008)
(0.008)
Part-time Employed 0.009 0.013 0.003 0.004
N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015) 270289
279(0.066) (0.065) (0.066) (0.067)Unemployed 0.065 0.065 0.066
0.064
(0.095) (0.094) (0.093) (0.093)Retired 0.020 0.006 0.013
0.013
(0.075) (0.076) (0.076) (0.078)Non-employed 0.057 0.074 0.069
0.065
(0.071) (0.071) (0.071) (0.071)credibility to the central
argument (Hypothesis 3-2) of this study that a greater possession
of interpersonal skills relative toinstrumental skills will lead to
lower anti-immigrant sentiments. Model 4 tests whether the
signicant effect of relationalskill specicity remains robust
against the percentage of foreign-born in respondents occupation
and cognitive skill com-plexity.20 Relational skill specicity is
again highly signicant at the 1% level (b = .288). With the
introduction of additionalvariables, the effect of relational skill
specicity has decreased moderately from Model 3 (b = .316), which
implies that a part
Fundamental Protestant 0.158** 0.150* 0.152** 0.154**
(0.058) (0.059) (0.058) (0.058)Mainline Protestant 0.137* 0.131*
0.135* 0.135*
(0.065) (0.064) (0.064) (0.064)Catholic 0.084 0.084 0.083
0.082
(0.067) (0.068) (0.068) (0.067)Non-Hispanic White 0.512**
0.517** 0.512** 0.512**
(0.085) (0.085) (0.084) (0.084)Non-Hispanic Black 0.501**
0.509** 0.500** 0.494**
(0.093) (0.094) (0.092) (0.093)Other (Non-Hispanic) 0.004 0.013
0.007 0.003
(0.112) (0.107) (0.109) (0.109)Citizenship 0.463** 0.486**
0.484** 0.487**
(0.122) (0.117) (0.119) (0.118)Republican 0.022 0.034 0.033
0.035
(0.048) (0.047) (0.047) (0.046)Union Membership 0.054 0.070
0.059 0.059
(0.083) (0.082) (0.082) (0.082)Interpersonal Skill 0.024**
(0.007)Instrumental Skill 0.029**
(0.008)Relational Skill Specicity 0.316** 0.288**
(0.077) (0.088)Cognitive Skill Complexity 0.006
(0.014)% Foreign-born in Rs Occupation 0.228
(0.298)
Constant 3.104** 2.975** 3.159** 3.100**
(0.141) (0.153) (0.138) (0.146)R2 0.182 0.187 0.189 0.190
N = 1055; Robust standard errors in parentheses.+ Signicant at
10%.
* Signicant at 5%.** Signicant at 1%.
20 In Appendix C.1, we separately test the effect of exposure to
foreign-born workers in 160 occupations on anti-immigrant
sentiments. In Model 1, withoutrelational skill specicity, the
percentage of foreign-born in ones occupation has a signicant
positive effect on anti-immigrant attitudes at the 10% level.
Thispositive effect disappears once relational skill specicity is
introduced in Model 2. In Models 34, we combined adjacent
occupations into ISCO 88s 28 largeroccupational categories. In
Model 3, the percentage of foreign-born in ones broader
occupational category has a signicant, positive effect on
anti-immigrantfeelings at the 5% level, but this effect becomes
non-signicant in Model 4 after adding relational skill specicity.
Appendix C.2 shows the result from HLMmodels using 47 occupational
groups. To collapse 160 occupations into 47 larger categories, we
split the 28 larger occupational categories (especially thosewith
more than 50 incumbents) and combined occupations in the similar
category (according to ISCO88 categorization). In Model 1, the
percentage offoreign-born workers in occupations has a signicant
positive effect on anti-immigrant sentiment at the 5% level.
However, this signicant effect disappearsonce relational skill
specicity is introduced.
-
of relational skill specicity effects may have been mediated
through exposure to foreign-born workers and cognitive skill
com-plexity in ones occupation (but the effect is non-signicant).21
The nding shows that the effect of relational skill
specicityoutweighs that of cognitive skill assets and the
percentage of foreign-born in ones occupation, both of which do not
have sig-nicant effects on anti-immigrant feelings. Based on these
results, we conclude that personality traits mechanism prevails
overlabor market competition mechanism.22
Model 3 and 4 show the effects of the baseline control variables
on anti-immigrant sentiment. Respondents sex and
280 N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015)
270289labor-market status variables are not associated with
anti-immigrant sentiment. Conservative Protestants are more
likelyto have negative feelings towards immigrants, compared to
other religious adherents, which supports the argument thatthey
will be less tolerant of out-groups different cultural and
religious identities. Surprisingly, contrary to ourprediction,
mainline Protestants are also more likely to exhibit stronger
sentiments against immigrants, compared tothose with no or other
religious afliations. The strong anti-immigrant sentiments held by
mainline Protestants mayimply the division between the laity and
the progressive clergy (Wuthnow, 1996). While the leadership of
mainlineProtestants may be progressive and pro-immigrant, the
followers may not exactly share the same views
towardsimmigrants.
Non-Hispanic white respondents hold more negative views towards
immigrants, compared to Latino respondents.Interestingly,
non-Hispanic black respondents also show anti-immigrant sentiments
as strong as white respondents. Thisresult suggests that black
respondents consider themselves as incumbent majority-native
insiders threatened by immi-grants, rather than a part of minority
groups, especially regarding the immigration issue.
African-Americans strongeranti-immigrant sentiment may be also
attributable to their higher (perceived) group-level threats that
originate from theirintense competition with immigrants in low-wage
job markets. In addition, African-Americans may have a lower
proportionof (recent) immigrants than Latinos, the omitted
category, which also means that their friends and relatives are
less likely tobe immigrants. Therefore, non-Hispanic blacks lower
chances of contact (Pettigrew, 1998) with immigrants inside
theirown group are likely to lead to stronger anti-immigrant
sentiments.
As expected, the effect of education has a highly signicant,
negative effect on anti-immigrant sentiment. This variable isthe
single most dominant predictor of attitudes toward immigrants. The
result simply signies that the more educated anindividual is, the
less threatened or less prejudiced one is likely to be. The more
educated are supportive of the presence ofimmigrants, because they
have had the chance to absorb more valuable sources of information
regarding immigrants posi-tive roles in industry and society.
Respondents who are legal citizens are likely to have stronger
anti-immigrant sentiments,compared to those without citizenship, as
they may perceive themselves more as insiders against immigrants.
Contrary toour expectations, older people are less likely to
exhibit negative attitudes toward immigrants, net of economic
self-interest.Being a Republican or a union member does not have a
statistically signicant effect on anti-immigrant sentiment.
Thenon-signicant effect of Republican Party membership is not
surprising as mixed attitudes toward immigrants often coexistwithin
the same political party. Unions stances on immigration also vary
by industries, and thus it may be difcult to nd aconsistent
relationship between union membership and sentiments toward
immigrants.
The result overall offers sufcient support to our argument.
Workers possessing greater interpersonal skills relative
toinstrumental skills are more likely to possess soft skills or
personality traits that enhance their capacity to relate to
thesituation of others, and also less likely to suffer from erce
competitions with immigrants (thanks to relatively high
inter-personal skill barriers). Therefore, workers with higher
relational skill specicity are less likely to express
stronganti-immigrant sentiments. However, the fact that relational
skill specicity is still highly signicant, after controlling forthe
percentage of foreign-born in ones occupation (which has a
non-signicant effect), implies that the direct effect of
rela-tional skill specicity outweighs the indirect effect. In
short, we conclude that the direct pathway through personality
traitsprevails over the indirect pathway through the exposure to
competition with immigrants in occupations.
Table 4 shows the results from ordered logit models for four
separate dependent variables. In order to nd out whetherresults
differ by each question, we analyzed the four outcome variables
separately using random intercept proportional oddsmodels. There
are no signicant differences in results between using the
composite-index and using the individual out-comes. Relational
skill specicity has a signicant, negative effect on anti-immigrant
sentiments across three models(a = .01 level), except for the
question, immigrants are good for economy, where it is only
marginally signicant at the10% level. We also nd that, contrary to
our prediction, fundamentalist Protestants focus more on the
economic aspect ofimmigration while mainline Protestants express
concern on the cultural aspect of immigration. Conservative
Protestantsare more likely to think that immigrants are not good
for the economy (a = .01 level), and that immigrants take jobs
awayfrom natives (a = .05 level), compared to those with other
religious beliefs. On the other hand, they are only marginally
morelikely to view that immigrants improve society by bringing new
ideas (a = .10 level). Mainline Protestants, in contrast, areless
likely to think that immigrants improve society by bringing in new
ideas (a = .01 level), and marginally more likelyto think that
immigrants increase crime (a = .10 level).
21 Following Reviewers suggestion, we ran structural equation
models (SEM) and Sobel tests. Both results show that the indirect
effect of relational skillspecicity through the percentage of
foreign-born in occupations is not signicant.22 As we do not have
concrete measures of personality traits other than interpersonal
and instrumental skills, we do not know exactly how much
variationsare attributable to one or the other mechanism between
personality traits and labor market competition. Personality traits
effects may have absorbed labormarket competition effects, or there
may, indeed, be no labor market competition effect. At this point,
the SEM result lends credence to the latter scenario.
-
N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015) 270289
281Table 4Regression results from multi-level ordered logit models
of four separate areas of anti-immigrant sentiments against
relational skill assets (using HuberWhiterobust standard
errors).
ImmigrantsIncrease Crimea
Immigrants Goodfor Economy
Immigrants TakeJobs Awaya
Immigrants ImproveSociety/New Ideas
Sex (Female = 1) 0.294* 0.136 0.131 0.037(0.125) (0.112) (0.119)
(0.108)
Age 0.002 0.020** 0.008* 0.006(0.005) (0.005) (0.0042)
(0.005)
Education 0.141** 0.156** 0.182** 0.198**(0.024) (0.024) (0.025)
(0.023)
Part-time Employed 0.033 0.065 0.203 0.108(0.151) (0.173)
(0.168) (0.155)
Unemployed 0.084 0.340 0.326 0.044(0.229) (0.225) (0.246)
(0.234)
Retired 0.234 0.103 0.017 0.301(0.214) (0.197) (0.226)
(0.206)Education has a negative effect on all four outcome
variable, so that those who are more educated are less likely to
holdnegative views on immigrants. Compared to Latino respondents,
non-Hispanic Whites have higher degrees of negative atti-tudes
toward immigrants in all four aspects, while non-Hispanic Blacks
are more negative in all areas except for increasingcrime. Citizens
are more likely to have unfavorable views towards immigrants
regarding all three aspects (immigrants aregood for economy,
immigrants take jobs away, and immigrants improve society), but not
for increasing crime.Republicans are more likely to disagree that
immigrants improve society culturally (a = .05 level). Females are
less likelyto believe that immigrants increase crime rates (a = .05
level), while older people, contrary to our prediction, are less
likelyto think that immigrants take away jobs and are not good for
the economy.
6. Conclusion
This study attempted to highlight the role of relational
dimensions of occupational skills in explaining
anti-immigrantsentiment. We initially constructed two dimensions of
relational skill assets: interpersonal and instrumental skill
assetsat occupational level. We conceptualized the former as less
culturally convertible and the latter as more portable across
soci-eties. I inspired by the recent VoC schools emphasis on the
role of skill asset portability/specicity (Hall and Soskice,
2001;
Non-employed 0.098 0.063 0.270 0.121(0.162) (0.172) (0.210)
(0.178)
Fundamentalist Protestant 0.150 0.397** 0.341* 0.290+(0.141)
(0.154) (0.147) (0.165)
Mainline Protestant 0.332+ 0.179 0.202 0.466**
(0.176) (0.176) (0.169) (0.178)Catholic 0.231 0.235 0.007
0.279
(0.164) (0.184) (0.171) (0.185)Non-Hispanic White 0.514* 1.209**
1.245** 0.989**
(0.236) (0.237) (0.229) (0.258)Non-Hispanic Black 0.303 1.213**
1.362** 1.151**
(0.273) (0.268) (0.262) (0.311)Other (non-Hispanic) 0.326 0.019
0.352 0.10
(0.344) (0.354) (0.381) (0.435)Citizenship 0.105 1.571** 1.424**
1.028*
(0.359) (0.387) (0.322) (0.478)Republican 0.136 0.029 0.085
0.299*
(0.127) (0.143) (0.122) (0.126)Union Membership 0.180 0.145
0.066 0.059
(0.240) (0.189) (0.228) (0.205)Relational Skill 0.703** 0.404+
0.642** 0.746**Specicity (0.223) (0.212) (0.184) (0.229)
Cut1 Constant 4.488** 3.322** 3.686** 3.611**(0.613) (0.547)
(0.435) (0.606)
Cut2 Constant 2.107** 0.606 1.400** 0.917(0.591) (0.481) (0.421)
(0.579)
Cut3 Constant 0.763 0.869+ 0.346 0.446(0.587) (0.486) (0.431)
(0.584)
Cut4 Constant 0.843 2.855** 1.496** 2.441**
(0.574) (0.514) (0.435) (0.602)
Log pseudo likelihood 1461.76 1365.44 1476.91 1324.66
N = 1055; Robust standard errors in parentheses.+ Signicant at
10%.
* Signicant at 5%.** Signicant at 1%.a Response categories are
rescaled to assign higher scores to stronger sentiments against
immigrants.
-
Iversen and Soskice, 2001), we developed a new variable,
relational skill specicity, utilizing the above two measures.
Ourcentral claim is that higher relational skill specicity (e.g.
higher the ratio of interpersonal skills relative to the sum of
instru-
282 N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015)
270289mental and interpersonal skill assets) will be associated
with less job market competition with immigrants and greater
capa-city to relate to the situation of others, and, thus, produce
less negative feelings toward immigrants.
In building the causal explanation between relational skill
specicity and anti-immigrant sentiment, we primarily focusedon the
long-termdevelopmental processes of non-cognitive skills (Bowles
and Gintis, 1976) and their inconvertibility acrossdifferent
societies. This paper has proposed two causal paths: (1) labor
market competition and labor supply; and (2) person-ality traits or
soft skills formulated before and through occupational training.
First, relational skill specicity may indirectlyshapenativeworkers
attitudes toward immigrants bydetermining the exposure to
labormarket competitionwith immigrants(e.g. the percentage of
foreign-born workers in occupations). Our hypothesis is that
relational skill specicity will capture thedegree of convertibility
of skills across different cultures and societies,whichwill
eventually affect the intensity of competitionin the
occupation-specic labor markets, leading to positive or negative
feelings toward immigrants. Second, relational
skillspecicitymayalsodirectly affect anti-immigrant sentiments.
Relational skills for occupational tasks tend
tobecorrelatedwithpersonality traits or soft skills
(HeckmanandKautz, 2012; Johnand Srivastava, 1999), such as
openness, cooperativeness, andtender-mindedness, that enable a
favorable understanding of immigrants situations and their
contribution to the hostsociety.
Overall, the ndings of this study impressively support our
argument that relational skills play an important role inaccounting
for citizens attitudes toward immigrants as well as the composition
of foreign-born workers in occupations.Coefcients of relational
skill specicity remained highly signicant and robust against
different specications, whilecontrolling for predominantly strong
factors such as individual-level education, citizenship status,
cognitive skill variablesas well as demographic, religious and
political variables. Relational skills specicity has a direct,
negative effect onanti-immigrant sentiments, which persists after
controlling for the extent of exposure to foreign-born workers in
onesoccupations. In summary, we conclude that the direct causal
pathway of relational skill specicity (throughpersonality traits)
overweighs the indirect pathway (through labor market competition
and labor supply).
These ndings advance our understanding of occupation-based
social stratication processes, ethnic competition in thelabor
market, and attitudinal studies of race and minorities. Although
previous scholarship has underscored the impor-tance of cognitive
skill assets in migration processes and attitudes toward
immigration and out-group populations, theimportance of relational
skills has not received much attention. We nd that the ndings of
this study may provide a nov-el pathway of causal explanation of
how native individual workers develop their anti-immigrant
sentiments, along theline of group threat theory (Blalock, 1967;
Blumer, 1958; Bobo, 1983; Quillian, 1995).
Group threat theory posits that each native individual worker
should have a priorimembership with a dominant group (amajority
ethnic/racial group) and be exposed to direct competitions with
immigrants in their local residential settings orlabor markets. Our
study has shown how perceived threats are formulated from a
combinational process of individualsnon-cognitive skills (Bowles
and Gintis, 1976) and economic vulnerability (Bonacich, 1972;
Borjas and Tienda, 1987), oper-ating through occupational skill
closures, as well as the capacity to understand others situation.
Therefore, our theory andndings extend the applicability of the
logic of group-threat theory to occupational boundaries beyond
conventionalracial/ethnic boundaries. The notion of relational
skill specicity enriches group-threat theory by illuminating how
theorigin of prejudice toward out-group populations is not only
based on racial/ethnic groupings, but also individuals skillassets
formed along occupational lines.
This study has some limitations that need to be addressed.
First, the heterogeneity of immigrants and their labor
marketexperiences is not fully taken into consideration. Depending
on the year of entry, country of origin, and destination,
eachimmigrant may not only have a different composition of skill
assets, but also face widely varying labor market situationsin the
host society. Second, this paper does not fully explicate why the
indirect effect of relational skill specicity throughthe proportion
of immigrants in occupations is non-signicant. However, it is
important to note that having a higher per-centage of foreign-born
workers in ones occupation can lead to both positive and negative
feelings toward immigrants.While native workers may feel threat due
to increased competition, they may also develop solidarity with
immigrantco-workers. Other factors, such as the geographic
concentration of immigrants, the gap between actual and perceived
groupsize, and the absence of measures of direct contact with
immigrants (Kunovich, 2013a), further complicate the issue.
Futureresearch may employ rich datasets on immigrant populations to
investigate the relationship between occupational skills andlabor
market outcomes.
Anti-immigrant sentimentmay be partly a combinational product of
inadvertently evolved, macro-level occupational seg-mentation,
global movements and reconguration of labor forces, and individuals
strategic responses to changinglabor-market situations. In the
recent debates of immigration reforms, the Obama administration has
expressed an interestto open thedoors formore high-skilled
immigrants, especially in the tech sectors.Whatwould this entail
for thenative citizensattitudes toward immigrants? On one hand, the
general public may view immigrants more favorably with the increase
in thenumber of high-skilled professionals. On the other hand,
professionals with high levels of relational skill specicity may
feelthreatened by the inux of high-skilled foreign-born workers,
but, at the same time, may exhibit positive attitudes
towardimmigrants because they are better able to understand others
situations.23
23 Thus, we may predict constant/stable anti-immigrant
sentiments among professionals despite an increase in the number of
high-skilled immigrants.
-
An increasing number of immigrants in a society shake the
structure of nativity that has been formulated over a longcourse of
time. Immigrants will try to nd cracks and rooms to carve out their
own occupational niches in receiving soci-eties, despite being
constrained by their cognitive and non-cognitive skill assets,
while natives also build their own defen-sive mechanisms to
maintain the inherited institutions. Those may include educational
credentials, occupational skillcomplexity, and more importantly,
interpersonal or social skills specic to the cultural sensitivities
of the host country.This study suggests that occupation-specic
compositions of relational skill assets may be one of those
criteria which bothnative and immigrant workers utilize in order to
maintain or secure their spaces in the labor market and
socialhierarchies.
Acknowledgments
ea
Ap
A.
Latino .09 .28 0 1
Instrumental skill 3.45 2.68 1 8Relational skill asset specicity
.54 .28 .11 .90
N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015) 270289
283% Foreign-born in Rs occupation .12 .09 0 .61Citizenship .96 .19
0 1Republican .40 .49 0 1Union membership .10 .31 0 1Cognitive
skill complexity 5.53 1.90 1.26 8.50Interpersonal skill 3.92 2.65 1
9Non-Hispanic Others .03 .18 0 1Non-Hispanic WhiteNon-Hispanic
Black.75
.13
.43.330011Catholics .24 .43 0 1
Mainline Protestants .14 .35 0 1
Conservative Protestants .26 .44 0 1
Non-employed .13 .34 0 1
Retired .14 .35 0 1
Unemployed .08 .26 0 1
Part time .11 .32 0 1
Education 13.97 2.75 0 20
Age 45.17 15.90 18 89
Sex (Female = 1) .56 .50 0 1
Anti-immigrant Sentiment Composite Index 2.65 .76 0.94
4.70Variables Mean SD Minimum Maximum1. Summary statisticspendix
Arlier versions of this paper.Many thanks to Edward Laumann, Kazuo
Yamaguchi and John Levi Martin for their insightful comments and
critiques.We would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers of
Social Science Research who have provided helpful comments on
-
A.2. Correlation coefcients among key independent and dependent
variables
pin
for Cog. Complexity)Math Development (M) (Component for
Cog. Complexity)0.18 0.87 1.00
Languago
(Component for Cog. Complexity)Relation to Data (D) (Component
for
Cog. C0.17 0.85 0.80
Cognitiv(Comp
rt
Instrumto Thi
da Z-scores m ),
was used to
Ap s
1 Taking instructions-helping: Attending to the work Handling:
Using body members, handtools, and/or
appropriate tool, object, or materialso s o
v
e g i u gl a i h m hr i u c dp b s
sf ni
e S , g bc n p n s
d m l th g a ga a a ai w i n l m
d k s tf u t i , e
e j r. s la f m
e p n e ac l e
ll go d
r p : g ih e a
284 N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015)
2702895 Diverting: Amusing others, usuamedium of stage, screen,
televisi n, or ra io the action of mac ines or equipm nt for whichy
throu h the
mD
anifestiving-o erating Startin , stopp ng, and
controllingrto
gard tool, objerecisiot, or maattaineterial, ad and
sthoughlectingthis is rppropadilyriate4 Persuading: Inuencing
others inservice, or point of view d
m
vices toaterialswork, mInvolveove, gusomeide, or ptitudelace
obor judgects oent withfavor o a prod
is
ct, M
involveanipulain maing: Using theng bodye adjusmembementsrs,
tools or sp cialassistants
g
uges, tupping srning vitcheslves ton respollow ose to ligw of
mhts. Littterialse judg, andentpeople to convey or exchange
ingiving assignments and/or direct ons to helpers or a
c
justingangingateriauides,s or condjustinrols of ttimershe
machand temine, superatuch asre3 Speaking-signaling: Talking with
and/orormatioignaling. Includes
Tfu
nding:nctionintartingg of mastoppinhines a, and od
equiservingment. Ithevolveor animals or the expressed or impeople.
Immediate response is in olved o
o
equipmeratedent why otherch are aworkertomati or ten ed
ornon-learning helpers2 Serving: Attending to the needs r reque
plicit w
ts of peishes ofple Fp
eding-oacing mffbearinterials: Insertn or remng, throoving
twing, dem frompinmac, orinesassignment instructions or orders of
supervisor. (Noimmediate response required unless clarication
ofinstructions or orders is needed.) Helping applies to
special devices to work, move, or carry objects ormaterials.
Involves little or no latitude for judgmentwith regard to
attainment of standards or in selectingScores Interpersonal skill
standards (relation to peopleb) Instrumental skill standards
(relation to thingsc)pendix B. Detailed denitions of worker
functions: interper onal and instrumental skill
standards.aardized)
of P and T were constructed separately, and then 2.58 were added
togenerate the specicity score (RSII).ake both scales bigger than
0. Then, the specicity formula, pj/(tj + pjRelation(Stanental Skill
Standard (T) (Relationngs)
0.12 0.09 0.02
al Skill Specicity II (RSII)a 0.19 0.38 0.230.15 0.03 0.02 0.02
0.50 1.00
0.43 0.26 0.32 0.33 0.80 0.89 1.00Interpe(Relaomplexity)e Skill
Complexity (Comp)osite Index)
0.19 0.95 0.91
sonal Skill Standard (P)ion to People)
0.20 0.62 0.450.85 1.00
0.83 0.83 1.00
0.93 0.96 0.93 1.00
0.60 0.53 0.58 0.59 1.00for CSpecice Development (L)
(Componentg. Complexity)
0.22 0.93 0.86
Vocational Preparation (S) 0.16 0.89 0.841.00(ComReasonigrant
Sentiments (AS)osite Index)
1.00
g Development (R) (Component 0.20 1.00AS R M L S D Comp P T
RSII
Anti-Imm
-
Detailed denitions of worker functions: interpersonal and
instrumental skill standards.a (continued)
Scores Interpersonal skill standards (relation to peopleb)
Instrumental skill standards (relation to thingsc)
course must be steered or which must be guided tocontrol the
movement of things or people for a varietyof purposes. Involves
such activities as observinggauges and dials, estimating distances
anddetermining speed and direction of other objects,turning cranks
and wheels, and pushing or pulling
such as electric wheelbarrows and handtrucks6
responsibilities is involved in this function
Precision working: Using body members and/or toolsor work aids
to work, move, guide, or place objects ormaterials in situations
where ultimate responsibility
7 Instructing: Teaching subject matter to others, or
8
9
other professional principlesa The entire table was excerpted
from Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1991), pb People: Human
beings; also animals dealt with on an individual basis as if thec
Things: Inanimate objects as distinguished from human beings,
substances or A
thing is tangible and has shape, form, and other physical
characteristics.
N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015) 270289
285p. 10051014.y were human.materials; and machines, tools,
equipment, work aids, and products.Mentoring: Dealing with
individuals in terms of theirtotal personality in order to advise,
counsel, and/orguide them with regard to problems that may
beresolved by legal, scientic, clinical, spiritual, and/orturning
valves and other devices to regulate factorssuch as temperature,
pressure, ow of liquids, speed ofpumps, and reactions of
materialsNegotiating: Exchanging ideas, information, andopinions
with others to formulate policies andprograms and/or arrive jointly
at decisions,conclusions, or solutionsaccuracy of machine
capabilities, properties ofmaterials, and shop practices. Uses
tools, equipment,and work aids, such as precision gauges
andmeasuring instruments. Workers who setup one or anumber of
machines for other workers or who setupand personally operate a
variety of machines areincluded hereOperating-Controlling:
Starting, stopping, controlling,and adjusting the progress of
machines or equipment.Operating machines involves setting up and
adjustingthe machine or material(s) as the work
progresses.Controlling involves observing gauges, dials, etc.
andtraining others (including animals) throughexplanation,
demonstration, and supervised practice;or making recommendations on
the basis of technicaldisciplinesappropriate tools, objects, or
materials, and theadjustment of the tool to the task require
exercise ofconsiderable judgmentSetting up: Preparing machines (or
equipment) foroperation by planning order of successive
machineoperations, installing and adjusting tools and othermachine
components, adjusting the position ofworkpiece or material, setting
controls, and verifyingSupervising: Determining or interpreting
workprocedures for a group of workers, assigning specicduties to
them, maintaining harmonious relationsamong them, and promoting
efciency. A variety of for the attainment of standards occurs and
selection ofgear lifts or levers. Includes such machines as
cranes,conveyor systems, tractors, furnace-chargingmachines, paving
machines, and hoisting machines.Excludes manually powered machines,
such ashandtrucks and dollies, and power-assisted machines,
-
Appendix C
C.1. Anti-immigrant sentiments against percentage of
foreign-born and relational skill specicity (using HuberWhite
robuststandard errors)
Age
Constant
N
Ro+ p < 0.1.*
**
286 N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015)
270289p < 0.05.p < 0.01.bust standard errors in
parentheses.R-squared 0.180 0.190 0.181
0.190(0.151)1055(0.148)1055(0.193)1055(0.189)10553.009** 3.087**
2.958** 3.065**(0.318) (0.323)
0.751* 0.358% Foreign-born in Rs 28 Larger Occ.
Categories(0.280) (0.298)
0.528+ 0.259% Foreign-born in Rs Occupations(0.084) (0.067)
0.293** 0.287**Relational Skill Specicity(0.084) (0.082) (0.088)
(0.084)
0.072 0.061 0.062 0.057Union Membership
(0.047) (0.046) (0.062) (0.060)
0.030 0.035 0.025 0.033Republican
(0.119) (0.118) (0.138) (0.137)
0.472** 0.489** 0.463** 0.484**Citizenship
(0.110) (0.109) (0.103) (0.101)
0.008 0.004 0.005 0.006Other (Non-Hispanic)
(0.095) (0.092) (0.088) (0.084)
0.500** 0.496** 0.498** 0.495**Non-Hispanic Black
(0.087) (0.084) (0.089) (0.085)
0.520** 0.513** 0.513** 0.510**Non-Hispanic White
(0.068) (0.067) (0.083) (0.084)
0.085 0.082 0.086 0.083Catholic
(0.065) (0.064) (0.068) (0.065)
0.132* 0.134* 0.136+ 0.136*Mainline Protestant
(0.058) (0.058) (0.082) (0.084)
0.158** 0.153** 0.161+ 0.154+Fundamental Protestant
(0.070) (0.072) (0.047) (0.049)
0.065 0.068 0.064 0.067Non-employed
(0.074) (0.077) (0.053) (0.053)
0.004 0.010 0.008 0.012Retired
(0.095) (0.093) (0.087) (0.086)
0.068 0.064 0.071 0.066Unemployed
(0.065) (0.066) (0.096) (0.093)
0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001Part-time Employed
(0.008) (0.008) (0.010) (0.011)
0.088** 0.082** 0.086** 0.081**
(0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002)
Education0.004* 0.004* 0.004* 0.004*
(0.043) (0.042) (0.041) (0.042)Sex 0.045 0.040 0.043
0.040Clustered in 160occupations
Clustered in 28 largeoccupation categories
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
-
C.2. Anti-immigrant sentiments against percentage of
foreign-born and relational skill specicity in 47 large
occupational groups(using HLM models)
Part-time Employed
Unemployed
Retired
Relational Skill Specicity
% Foreign-born in 47 Occ groups
Constant
Level 1 variance
Intraclass correlation
N
Ro+
*
**
N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015) 270289
287p < 0.05.p < 0.01.bust standard errors in parentheses.p
< 0.1.1055 1055
Chi-square 2204 21960.00658 2.38e07
Level 2 variance 0.00312 1.12e070.470 0.469
(0.196) (0.196)
2.961** 3.077**
(0.338) (0.334)
0.695* 0.342(0.0899)
0.267**Occupation group-level(0.0713) (0.0708)
0.0593 0.0577Union Membership
(0.0467) (0.0466)
0.0283 0.0292Republican
(0.118) (0.117)
0.468 0.476Citizenship Status
(0.139)
**(0.138)**0.00862 0.00138Other (Non-hispanic)
(0.0987) (0.0983)
0.504 0.500Black (Non-hispanic)
(0.0819)
**(0.0816)**0.516 0.511White (Non-hispanic)
(0.0593)
**(0.0591)**0.0861 0.0847Catholic
(0.0696) (0.0694)
0.136 0.135Mainline Protestant
(0.0576)
+
(0.0575)
+0.162 0.156Non-employed 0.0617 0.0593(0.0678) (0.0675)
Fundamental Protestant ** **(0.0792) (0.0786)
0.0103 0.0123
(0.0834) (0.0832)
0.0692 0.0634
(0.0697) (0.0693)
0.00504 0.00704
(0.0086) (0.0086)Education 0.086** 0.082**
(0.0017) (0.0017)Age 0.0039* 0.0038*
(0.0457) (0.0446)HLM models in 47 large occupational groups
Model 1 Model 2
Individual levelSex 0.0500 0.0393
-
288 N. Lee, C.-S. Lee / Social Science Research 52 (2015)
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