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    JOURNAL O F P O L Y M E R S C I E N C E : P A R T A-2 VOL. 8,5739-745 (1970)

    Nature of DC Conductivity

    in

    Polyamides

    NI. E. BAIRD, Institute

    of

    Science and Technology, The U niversity

    of

    Wales,

    Cardiff, Wales,

    U . K .

    Synopsis

    The dc conductivity

    of

    poly (sebacyl piperazine),

    a

    polyamide prepared from the

    secondary diamine piperazine, in which no N-H groups are present and no hydrogen

    bonding can occur, has been examined and compared with that of a normal 610 poly-

    amide. The results obtained point clearly to th e conduction in the 610 polyamide being

    electronic below about 100C but probably involving protons as well as electrons above

    this temperature. This is largely consistent with the findings of earlier work and clarifies

    the nature of conduction below about 80C as being almost certainly electronic where

    previously it was in doubt. A definite and sometimes marked hysteresis in the con-

    ductivity was observed with regard to raising and lowering the temperature of the poly-

    amides. This is explained in terms of the space-charge polarization developed in the

    materials a t higher temperatures and which becomes clearly evident in their dielectric

    behavior. This shows the importance

    of

    discharging specimens at a sufficiently high

    temperature before making conductivity measurements. Th e polarization is

    a

    bulk

    and not an electrode effect, and it will probably depend to

    a

    marked extent

    on

    the

    morphology of the polyamides.

    Introduction

    Polyamides (nylons) show a relatively high dc conductivity u, and pre-

    vious studies have suggested that two mechanisms might operate. Until

    recently, the generally accepted view was that conduction was

    with both conduction and a low frequency relaxation arising from the move-

    ment

    of

    protons originating in the hydrogen bonds traditionally thought to

    occur between polyamide molecules (Fig. l), but that under certain cir-

    cumstances it might be electr~nic.~-~

    n

    a detailed study of the mech-

    anisms and anisotropy of electrical conductivity in nylon

    66,

    SeanorlOSll

    concludes that at temperatures above 120C the conduction involves the

    transport

    of

    both protons and electrons while below this temperature to

    8O C,

    it

    is electronic. At still lower temperatures the nature of conduction

    was still in doubt. These studies included the measurements

    of

    the volume

    of gas evolved from the 66 polyamide. Above 120C the gas evolved cor-

    responded to about one half of the volume calculated

    if

    the conduction

    process involved only protons. Below 120C the gas evolved corresponded

    to a diminishing fraction of the tota l current until below

    90C

    no evolution

    of gas was observed.

    The low-frequency relaxation occurring above the glass transition tem-

    perature T in polyamides is almost certainly due to a space-charge polar-

    739

    0

    1970 by John Wiley &

    Sons,

    Inc.

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    740

    BAIRD

    Fig. 1. Schematic diagram showing hydrogen bonding in polyamides.

    ization since

    it

    appears to have no counterpart in the dynamic mechanical

    spectrum.12J3 Furthermore, the dielectric constant increases continu-

    ~ u s l y ' - ~ ~ *s the temperature is raised a t constant frequency and shows no

    signs of reaching a maximum and then falling off as proportional to the

    reciprocal of the absolute temperature as would be expected for orienta-

    tion (dipolar) polarization.

    In a previous publication14it was pointed out tha t some data were not

    consistent with the postulate of proton migration accounting for the low

    frequency dielectric relaxation and dc conductivity in polyamides.

    A

    summary was also given of the work of Cannon,l6-l9 who discussed the im-

    portance of secondary forces between molecules in controlling the packing

    and configuration of the molecules in the solid state. These facts cast

    doubt on the importance of amide protons in the conduction and relaxation

    processes. In this publication14 t was also shown that this low-frequency

    dielectric behavior occurred to a similar extent in poly(sebacy1 piperazine)

    in which no N-H groups were present and no hydrogen bonding could oc-

    cur. It was therefore concluded that amide protons could not be the main

    cause of this low frequency relaxation in polyamides.

    A

    detailed comparison of the dc conductivities of

    610

    polyamide and

    poly (sebacyl piperazine) (hereafter called Pip-10 polyamide)

    0

    ,CHz-CH*,

    \cH--

    CH

    -N N- C- (CHJa-C-

    II

    0

    over the temperature range 35-150C has now been made and the results

    are given here.

    Experimental

    Disk specimens approximately 2 in. in diameter with thicknesses in the

    range 0.020-0.040 in. were molded from the dry polymers in a laboratory

    press under a flow of dry nitrogen to prevent degradation.

    These were

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    DC CONDUCTIVITY IN

    POLYAMIDES

    741

    - 5

    r

    0

    -

    - Q U D - - ~ - -

    0

    0

    I0

    0 1 2 3 4 5

    LOGlo

    TIME

    N

    MINUTES

    Fig.

    2.

    Plots

    of

    log current (on charge) against log time

    for

    dry polyamide Pip-10 at

    various temperatures: 0)

    3 C,

    (+)

    95 C,

    A)

    129 C,

    0)

    48OC,

    temperatures sel-

    ected in ascending order;

    (V) 128 C,

    ( x )

    96 C,

    m)

    64 C,

    temperatures selected in

    descending order after previous measurements; (- - - 0 )

    64 C,

    (- -

    X ) 95 C,

    in as-

    cending order after dischargingfor

    46

    hr at about

    150C.

    dried and coated, and the conduction currents were measured exactly as

    described in previous papers.14,m The potential difference across the stan-

    dard resistance in the electrometer was less than 0.01

    v

    and the applied

    emf was 125

    v.

    The 610 polymer had impurities not exceeding 0.003% with

    a

    melting

    point of 220C and a (dry) glass temperature T, t about 50C (information

    supplied by I.C.I. Ltd, Plastics Division, from dilatometry experiments).

    It

    had an average molecular weight of about 20,000 as determined from solu-

    tion viscosity experiments. The Pip10 polyamide was prepared by inter-

    facial polymerization of piperazine and sebacyl chloride, purified by re-

    precipitation from benzyl alcohol, and washed free of solvent with acetone.

    Its melting point was about 160C and

    it

    had an ill-defined (dry) glass

    transition in the region 80C or higher, (obtained from dilatometry experi-

    ments).

    It

    had an average molecular weight

    of

    about

    33,000,

    as determined

    from solution viscosity measurements, and a number-average molecular

    weight of the order of 16,000.

    The density of 610 polymer indicated that

    it

    was about

    40

    crystalline*l

    while infrared measurements and x-ray powder photographs suggested that

    the Pip-10 polyamide was about 60% crystalline. Unfortunately this

    latter figure cannot be

    EM

    reliable

    as

    that for

    a

    normal polyamide, because

    of a lack of background experience for the Pip-lOpolyamide.

    At higher temperatures (63-150C) the behavior of the currents ob

    served on charge against time after reaching constant temperature is shown

    in Figure 2 for a single specimen of Pip-lO polyamide, and in Figure 3 for

    a

    single specimen

    of

    610 polyamide. The specimens were kept on charge a t

    each temperature for at least 16 hr (and often longer) to obtain current

    levels as reliable as possible, after first being given a thorough discharge a t

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    74

    BAIRD

    - 4

    -I I 1

    0 1 2 3 4

    LOG

    TIM

    IN

    MINUTES

    10

    Fig.

    3.

    Plots of log current (on charge) against log time

    for

    dry polyamide 610 at

    various temperatures: 0 )63 C,

    +)

    95OC,

    A)

    129OC,

    0)

    48 C, temperatures sel-

    ected in ascending order;

    (V)

    1280CJ(x ) 95 CJ

    m )

    65OC, temperatures selected in

    descending order after previous measurements;

    (-

    -

    -0)

    4 CJ

    (-

    - -x) 95 C, in as-

    cending order after discharging for 46 hours at about 150C.

    about 150C. The temperatures were selected in ascending order up to

    about 150C and then again in descending order. The currents decreased

    continuously with time, although usually quite slowly except

    at

    the higher

    temperatures. An important feature of the results is: tha t the currents ob-

    served

    as

    the temperatures are selected in ascending order are always more

    than those observed a t the same (or nearly the same) temperature, when

    descending.

    It

    is not due to a process of slowly driving off residual moisture or to some ir-

    reversible process in the material because, after dischargingat about 150C

    for periods in the range 2448 hr, the currents largely recovered to their

    original values,

    as

    shown by the dotted curves in Figures

    2

    and 3. The

    whole procedure was repeated with a further specimen of Pip-10 polyamide

    (batch C, cast from solvent) and the effects were found to be reproducible.

    In Figure

    4

    he conductivities of the two types of polyamide are com-

    pared over

    a

    wide range of temperature (35-150C). The da ta just dis-

    cussed for the specimens of 610 and Pip-10 (batches

    B

    and c ) polyamides

    are included for the appropriate larger currents. Data for the lower-

    temperature region, 35-7OoC, are also given. Here the conduction currents

    were generally obtained as the differences between the currents on charge

    and dischargem at corresponding times, these usually showing reasonable

    agreement with the currents observed on charge after at least 3 hr. All the

    specimens were discharged for about

    2

    hr at 110C before making measure-

    ments. For the 610 and Pip-10 batch

    A

    materials

    a

    fresh specimen was

    used for each temperature, but for the Pip-10 batch

    B

    material, the same

    specimen was used throughout ensuring a thorough discharge at each

    temperature before proceeding to the next one. Some data for nylon 66

    This effect occurs with both 610 and Pip-10 polyamides.

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    DC CONDUCTIVITY IN POLYAMIDES

    743

    - 6

    -

    1

    L

    -9

    c

    -I0

    1 1

    3

    -I4

    >.

    k

    -I2

    -I3

    0

    U

    I

    -I

    I I

    I

    2.3

    2.4

    2.5

    26 27 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2

    3 3

    34 3.5

    1000

    T

    OK

    Fig. 4. Plots of log dc conductivity against 1000/T for dry polyamides: 0 )610;

    0)6 from ref. 11 (Fig.

    3,

    15 minutes);

    + )

    Pip-10, batch A;

    A) Pip-10, batch

    B;

    X

    )

    Pip-lO, bat,ch

    C.

    from Seanor (Fig.

    3)

    are

    also

    included to show the reasonable agreement

    between the conductivities for 66 and 610 polyamides.

    At the lowest temperatures the conductivity of the Pip-10 polyamide is

    clearly higher than that of the 610 polyamide, bu t a t the highest tempera-

    tures, the reverse is true. However the differences in conductivity are not

    very large. In the region

    75 90C

    the curves for the two types of poly-

    amide cross over. Differences between the various batches of Pip-10

    polyamide are probably due to differences in morphology. In the lower

    temperature region, the plots are reasonably linear and the observed acti-

    vation energies obtained from the slopes 2.303 Rd(1og a) /d(l /T) were 2.3

    eV for 610 polyamide and 2.1 eV for both batches A and

    B

    of Pip-10 poly-

    amide. As the temperature is raised, the slopes of the curves change more

    or less continuously, although a t about 80C there is

    a

    suggestion of a break

    in the curves which is probably related to the glass transition of the poly-

    mers.

    Discussion

    The conduction in the pure Pip-10 polyamide must almost certainly be

    electronic since there are no

    N-H

    groups in the repeat units, and any con-

    tribution to the conduction current from protons a t the ends of molecules is

    likely to be negligible. Assuming even a low dissociation energy of the

    order of 1.2 eV (ca. 28 kcal/mole), and Frenkel defects for the proton gives a

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    744 BAIRD

    maximum concentration of terminal protons able to participate in conduc-

    tion at 150C of the order of

    5 X

    1013protons/cc. Taking a figure of

    lo-

    cm2/V-sec as a realistic mobility for the proton and the electronic charge as

    1.60 X

    10-19

    coulombs gives a likely maximum conductivity from protons

    at the ends of molecules as about

    10-13

    (ohm-cm)-' a t 150C. The con-

    ductivity observed at this temperature is about 3 orders greater than this

    value. Since there

    is

    no reason to expect

    a

    much larger electronic conduc-

    tivity in the Pip-10 polyamide than in the normal polyamides, the behavior

    of

    the 610 and Pip-10 polyamides in Figure

    4

    shows that the conduction in

    normal 610 polyamide is electronic below about lOO C, with no significant

    contribution from protons, but above this temperature probably both elec-

    trons and (amide) protons contribute to its conductivity, which now be-

    comes greater than that of the Pip-10 polyamide. This is largely consistent

    with Seanor'sloJ1 indings and clarifies the nature of conduction below

    80C

    as

    being almost certainly electronic, where he considered that the nature of

    the conduction was still in doubt. The da ta presented do not allow any

    further understanding of the detailed mechanism of conductivity. As

    Seanorlovll uggests, this probably involves the electrons of the carbonyl

    groups,

    as

    EleyZ2 uggested for proteins. Conduction will occur along the

    system of amide groups rather than along the polymer chain, leading to

    anisotropy of conductivity u across molecular chains > u along chains).

    A similar anisotropy of charge diffusion in polyamides involving a greater

    mobility across the molecular chains than along them has also been re-

    portedz3 rom static electrification studies.

    The hysteresis observed in the conductivity on ascending and descending

    the series of temperatures used is certainly interesting and the most plau-

    sible explanation is in terms of the space-charge polarization produced.

    At higher temperatures a large space-charge polarization is developed,

    and as the temperature is reduced (with the electric field still applied) the

    relaxation time for the decay of this polarization becomes very long so that

    it persists and decays very slowly. (Electrets can be readily made from

    p~lyamides.~)The space charge will produce a marked variation of

    electric field and potential in those regions where it accumulates,

    so

    tha t with a given voltage applied across the specimen the effective field in

    the other regions of the material will be lower than i t otherwise would have

    been. In certain regions the effective field may be quite low, and the

    conductivity as measured could then be much lower than that for the

    material without the space-charge polarization or with only the much

    smaller polarization built up at the lower temperatures. Unfortunately

    virtually nothing is known about the detailed nature of the space charge

    accumulation other than that it probably occurs at the boundaries between

    crystalline and amorphous regions and depends upon the morphology

    of

    the

    polymer. Capacitance measurements by the author on specimens

    of

    610

    polyamide with a wide range of thicknesses have shown that the polariza-

    tion is largely a bulk and not an electrode effect.

    In

    view of the effects described here, some of the published information on

    dc conductivity of polyamides obtained by cycling over a temperature range

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    DC CONDUCTIVITY IN POLYAMIDES

    745

    with

    a

    fixed applied voltage would appear to be suspect. Specimens should

    be thoroughly discharged at

    a

    sufficiently high temperature before making

    measurements

    at

    any given temperature.

    This polarization will also cause transientsz0 o flow after the application

    or removal of a step voltage and could give the appearance of time-depen-

    dent conductivity. The space charge could also lead to non-ohmic be-

    havior of the polyamide. Dipolar orientation may also contribute to the

    polarization above the glass transition of the polymers. However, in view

    of

    the relatively small increase in dielectric constant associated with the

    orientation polarization of a normal polyamide,' as compared with the

    magnitude

    of

    the low-frequency relaxation, and because this polarization

    will fall off as temperature is raised, dipolar orientation will probably not

    make a significant contribution to the polarization at temperatures well

    above

    T , .

    Depolarization

    of

    the polymers could be speeded up by irradi-

    ation with light of an appropriate wavelength which would detrap the space

    charge without affecting the orientation polarization, and thus permit

    separahg the two contributions to the polarization.

    A

    discussion of possible mechanisms of the space-charge polarization to-

    gether wit,h full details

    of

    the dielectric data will be given in a later paper.

    References

    1.

    W. A. Yager and W.

    0.

    Baker,

    J.

    Amer. Chem.SOC.

    4,2171 (1942).

    2.

    D.

    W. McCall and

    E.

    W. Anderson,

    J . Chem. Phys .,

    32,237 (1960).

    3.

    D. D. Eley and D. I. Spivey,

    Trans. Faraday SO C.,

    7,2280 (196>.

    4.

    A.

    J.

    Curtis,

    J.

    Res. Nat. Bur . Stand.,

    65,3 , 185 (1961).

    5. L. T. Yu, J.

    Phys. ,

    24,677 (1963).

    6. T.

    Nakajima and Y. Matsumoto, Repts. Progr. Polym. Phys. Japan,

    6, 241

    7. H. Kasica, M. Kryszewski, A. Szymaniski, and M. Wiodarczyk,

    J.

    Polym.

    Sci.

    8. Y. Miyoshi and N. Saito,

    J. Phys. SO C. apan,

    24,1007 (1968).

    9. R.

    Goffaux, Rev.

    Gen.

    Elect.,

    75,

    No.

    11, 1250 (1966).

    (1963).

    A-l ,6,1615 (1968).

    10.

    D. A. Seanor, in Electrical Conduction Properties of Polymers, J . Polym.

    Sci.

    C ,

    11.

    D.

    A.

    Seanor,

    J.

    Polym.

    Sci .

    A-.2,6,463 (1968).

    12. S.

    Hirota,

    S.

    Saito and T. Nakajima, Kolloid-Z.,

    2

    olym.,

    213,109 (1966).

    13.

    M. Takayanagi,

    Mem . Fac. Eng. Kyushu Univ.,

    23,41 (1963).

    14.

    M.

    E.

    Baird, G. T. Goldsworthy, and C. J. Creasey, J. Polym. Sci. B ,

    6, 737

    15.

    C. G. Cannon,

    J.

    Chem. Ph ys.,

    24,491 (1956).

    16.

    C. G. Cannon,Disc Faraday SO C.

    5.59 (1958).

    17.

    C. G. Cannon

    Spectrochim. Acta,

    10,341 (1958).

    18.

    C. G. Cannon, Speetrochim. Ac ta,

    16,302 (1960).

    19. R. G. C. Arridge and C. G. Cannon,

    Proc. Roy.

    Soc. (London), A278,91 (1964).

    20.

    M. E. Baird, Revs. Mo d. Phy s.,

    40,219 (1968).

    21.

    Maranyl Nylons, Technical Service Note

    N101,

    I.C.I. Ltd., Plastics Division.

    22.

    D. D. Eley and

    D.

    I.

    Spivey,

    Tra ns. Faraduy Soc.,

    56,1439 (1960).

    23.

    R. G. C. Arridge, Bri t .J .A pp1 . Phys . ,

    18,1311 (1967).

    17),

    A.

    Rembaum and R. F. Landel, Eds., Interscience, New York, 1967,p. 195.

    (1968).

    Received May 27 1969

    Revised September

    11

    1969