1

208

5- Cautious and Slow lntroduction: The management should not introduce any,suddenly and abruptly. It must be an objective for the management to build in the orgaaisati,tr

awareness of change and an ability to forecasi it, and also to construct an attifude of weicgrhing cl

The management should impart proper haining to its employees in techniques and

knowledge etc. The leadership styles should also be supportive and oriented. Thispolicybring down the resistance to change.

nical, social or economic wifi7. Sharing the Benefits of Change: Any change wheleast resisted by the employees if the management permits the to share benefits whichout of the change. So,.the management must see that egiven due advantage of it as well.

are not only assured of it, they;

8. Training and Development: Management plan for change. Based on theplan, the job should be redesigned. Management hain the employees before-hand andthe employees to invite change. Normally, trai developed employees will not resist cthey cannot keep quiet with enriched skill and

9. Career Planning and Organisation on the basis of change plans 3,redesigned jobs should plan for careers of s, possibilities to move the employees to thelevels and develop them. Theimplement change.

employees for fuhrre careers demand the managemt'tli

10. Organisation Deve t: Organisation development aims at moulding andment of employees in the and behavioural areas with a view to achieve organisaliiri

behaviours welcome the change.effectiveness. Employees wi

Principles of Change+ + 4 :

lvlanaQemenl sno ?td ioiiow S? unddrmentio nildprin cipies o i eh ai-r$e i

(1) Understa the change itself, its purpose, its benefits and then making them u

to the

Esti the reasons for the possible resistance to change and preparing to allay their

of channels of authoritv.

ness for all the questions and criiicism

to the suggestions and criticism of employees and incorporating them in the sclreri

as far as possible.

(6) Creating inierest in them, convincing them and preparing them.

(7) Keeping in touch with the process of change.

\ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT

History of Organisation Development

Douglas McGregor served as resource person to hdlp Union Carbide Corporation to create arr ( 'i

capabilip where OD department was set up in 1962.French and Bell who have done most of the u',,,

on OD feel that laboratory training and suwey feedback are the main stems of OD. Sensitivity trairrli,

programmes were conducted to managers urrder the OD movemeni. OD is still developinQ '"

evolvinq.

chat

(2\(3)(41(t)

t

Humqn Resaurces and Personnel tvI

of Change, Deaelopment and Culture

' l)ifferent managers view differently and various authors have given a variety of definitions about

;i;,,[;Xl,f;.":::,:j",T:: ??:,^^:,:fldex educationar stratJgy intnnana to chanse the beriefs,3i'i!Lirl':s, values and skuchrre of organisations so that they ."" b;;;'"ffi;

"jil'll.T,i.Tliji;+,i,li,,ls and challenges and the dizzying rate of change itseif.,,I lale s' Beach defined oD as "a complex educational strategy designed to increase organisational

;::: ffi::,:*::jli::::gh planned intervention by a consuttant using theory una t"-.i,ni1,", or

wendell L' French and cecil H. Bell Jr. defined oD as "a rong-rang e effortto improve anH:Tj.*T_t]::j_:,:,:t

and renewal.n.oc"r.er, particutarly through a more effective andtorative management of organisation culture - with special elphasis on the culhrre of formal

f:f:;:l1,ti"^n:::j:::,:l: .luls: asenll or a cataryst ind the use or the theory and

is OD?

u.ti*;';#.;

(3) OD is based upon theory and research.(4) oD is concerned with peopre for increasing organisationar effectiveness.(5) oD is also concerned with improving organisational crimate and curture.

teristics of OD

I ' ll is clear from these definitions that oD has emerged in response to needs -_ primarily becausei tii'' inadequacy of training and executive development progru-*es and secondly due to fast pace:;lr,rrlge itself. It is further clear from these definitions that:(l ) oD is a broader concept and includes management development and training as its sub-systems as the primary objective of oD is to change the nature of total organisation.(2) oD is not a separaie discipline but it heavily draws from other disciplines like psychology,sociology, anthropology etc.

An indepth study of the definitions of oD indicates the following characteristics of oD. They are:(1) oD focusses on the whole organisation to assure that all parts of the organisation are well co-ordinated.

(2) oD is concerned with the interaction and interrelation among its various sub-systems as itutilises systems model.

;,', (3)i . .

oD used one or more change agents who stimulate and co-ordinate the change within agroup' Some organisations employ the change agents while some others have their ownchange agents within their organisation.(4) oD is concerned with problem solving approach as it seeks to solve the problems rather thanmerely discussing them.(5) OD emphasises learning by experience. As such, participants are

experience. expected to leam by

(6) oD utilises group processes like group discusiions, inter-group conflicts, collaboration andcooperation.

(7) OO provides feedback data and information to the participants.(B) On is a long-term approach to improve the overall organisational effectiveness.{9) oD is research based as most of its interventions are based on research findings.

l_,-l

2to Humsn Besources ond Persannet

Values of OD MovementoD movement is composed of various professionals like the behavioural researchers'

business executives etc. There are a number of values of this profession' The important

are:

( l )PeopteareBasica| lyGood:oDmovementbel ievestheassrrmpt ionsof* und relative opportunities for growth' Self-conl

McGregor. As such, it emphasises on supportl nisation rather than using (

p"rronll ,nrponsibility are to be provided to the employees in an orgat

and punishments.

(2) Need {or Confirmation and Support: Erdry new employee needs con

,"oo#;;;;';";;;i,i"^"Jt'u"ri"*uqno'newsi'sooil":,:'^T-Ti?:-",:tJ:i1negative aspects of supp"J u.a ,"curity. Hence, when the new employee is appointed, he is to

into confidence, invited to the work place and into the association for discussion on his pers

work related issues in private meetings'

(3) Accepting Differences among People: People hzue differentbacUg::llt::#"i

opinionsandideas,viewpointsandpersonal i ty 'organisat ionisbenef i tedbythebackgrounds, personality and viewpoints of employees'

(4)ExpressingFeelingsandEmotions:Allowingthepeopletoberational,toexprfeelings, sentiments,

-emotion, anger or tnnJe"'n" is important t:l^:T:jt-:,::::::::J

rcertrrg)' )s'ruirrerr'' "'-":_;;--+ ^..1

"r, le may be allowed to exhlbt

result in high motivation, commitment and creative ability' The peop .

anger' emotion and exhilaration' people exhibit duplicity,

(5) Authenticity, Openness and Directneis: Most of the -^..*L ^r +r-,a inrtirrirl

h"thr';;;;;;;; *; motives. Such behaviour inhibits the growth of the individua$

productivity as the resour;;; *irurnd- in this process,Honesg and directness enable peopla

thei, "nergi"s

inio the real problems and improve effectiveness' .

(6)Fosteringcooperation:someexecutivesadopttheruleofdivideandmanage'Thrrrt$believe in win-lose competiiion for various

",.proon" benefits. This style *:."tol::::Y:f t-:T

rlnt rEiii

:::ffi:: H;.!,lffi;];;;,r",,i""iJ .r".re and develop cooperation amons emplovet€jF

"n"1T;;;ing Attention: Giving anention to process activities not onrv at rhe time or *rffi

activities and bringing relations u*ong employees but also at the later stages. i:(8) Confronting Conflict: Some executives Suppress the conflict. But it has its long-rtttt

on employee morale. H"r.", ia"ttifying the root causes of the problem and working out a satisl

t.i"ri"" rlther than suppressing the conflict are needed' "*

4h4OD Obiectivesorganisation development efforts broadly aim at improving the organisational effective

job satisfaction of the ;;il;;' rhesg aims-can ?" *tT1 ::,:Y,TT':'X^tX^:j1?::iffiilfiil"";;;i;ro*tt, oi individual employees. specifical$, the oD objectives are:

(1) To increase openness of communication among people'

(2) -l-o increase commitment, self-direction and self-control' :, , , - -:,

l;; ;; ;;;;* * p"optn'*ho are at the helm of "ff:n'?::1":,:-"^tl;:*"'t

6f 6gtu31'{ri!

to make the decisions regarding iheir issues through collaborative effort'

(a) To involve the members in the process of analysis and implementation'

(5)Toencouragetheconfrontat ionregardingorganisat ionalproblemswithaviewtoeffeclive decisions. '-tvi

";ry ttU

onI

. . . , t l i

of Chonge, Deuelopment and Culture 271

ia ,ll) .To enhance personalenthusiasm and satisfaction levels.

I 1.11 It increase the level of trust and supnorr among employees.

:..:. j:,1 l: develop

:,o"t:n'.. solutions to problems with hisher frequency.

t i :i:'-:::"i::11" rever or individuarJ;;];;ffffioil"",^n and execution

#", ,,'ill;::,t#;.:"n" the change process though organization development techniques in order to

sational Culture

Altentior\to detail- . \ \t)utcome-&ientation

,

,i

[)r:ople ori"fution \,.leam orienta\ \

Aggressiveness \ \\ \ ,Srability

llapid change

ng: "organisation cultureisasvslqn of st ared meaning held by members thatdistinguishestion from the other organisations. \. o.npr" HRM policies and practices of procter andaligned to employee needs and n"i1o tt

"ir?u"r.\OrSanisational

cultural factors incfude:

"\n and Risk taking \

{lustomer-orientation'.r.rse are different culfural\oncepts viz.Dominant culture \

Sub culfureseore valuesSlrong culfures

lWeak cultures.Mechanistic and organic culfures

thoritarian and participative culfures.ion of Culture: Companies during

:arlyand concentrate on cutfure at the laterltag;le process of culture creation is presented in

Culture

o t

\

\\

days concentrate on man,lfacturing andI -view to develop business alongwitf, new. \ 4 ,1 .

+Business Goals

Formulation Strategyv

Formulation of Strategic Valuesv

Create New CultLrral Valuesv

Implement New Cultural Values

Achieve New Strateg,lVau". and Shateqies

?ODasa

10 onclxrzerrouDrrrlopnrnrvr

Next, we describe each these basic conceptusl areas that wefeel represent and characterize the field as a whole . Although thesepoints have been made elsewhere in the context of using multi-source feedback for organization development (Church,'Wac-lawski, & Burke, 2001), because they apply to the entire field, it isimportant to describe them in this broader context as well.

Data-Driven Process Using Action Research\

One of the most basic notions behind OD is that change and im-provement are conducted through a data-based process known asaction research. Kurt Lewin, who first conceptualized action re-search (1946) and has often been credited as saying that "therecan be no action without- research and no research without action,"was truly one of the first scientist-practitioners in the social sciencesand a major contributor to much of the thinking underlying ODtheory and practice (Burke, 1982; French & Bell, 1990).

In OD work, action research entails systematically gatheringdata of whatever form, quantitative or qualitative, on the nature ofa particular problem or situation, analyzing the data to find cen-tral themes and patterns, feeding back a summary and analysis ofthe data in some participative form, and then taking action basedon what the analysis of the data and resulting diagnosis of the sit-uation suggest (Church, Waclawski, & Burke, 2001). Given thisframework, it is easy to see how both the classic and more con-temporary OD tools and techrriques described in this book meetthe criterion of being data-driven OD, because they collect andapply information for various problem-solving and improvementpurposes. Organization surveys, multisource feedback, focusgroups and interviews, personality assessments, process observa-tions and consultation, action learning, appreciative inquiry andlarge-scale interventions all fall squarely within this framework.They follow the progression of steps outlined in the basic actionresearch approach from data collection, through diagnosis, to tak-ing action for improvement.

The process by which data are used to drive change is a rela-tively simple one. Lewin, a social psychologist who specialized instudying group dynamics, asserted that individual and organiza-tional transformation is best described as a three-stage process (see

Figure 1.1).

8

INrRoDUcrIoN AND OvER\qEW 1',

Figure 1.1. Classic Change lftdel.

In the,first stage, unfreezing, the goal is to create motivation or areadiness for change (Church, Waclawski, & Burke, 2001). In mostcases in OD practice, this translates to surfacing dissatisfaction withthe current state and identiSing a better or more desirable alter-native, which is commonly referred to in OD terms as the id.eal ordcsiredfuture state (see Beckhard & Harris, 1987). An analogy fromeveryday life is dieting. Most people go on a diet because they areunhappy with their weight. It is this dissatisfaction with the'currentsituation, coupled with a vision of a better future state of weighingless and therefore being healthier and looking better, that moti-vates them to change their eating behavior.

The second stage in Lewin's model, monemtnt, consists of mak-ing changes and engaging in new behaviors to help make the de-sired future state a reality. In short, once the need for change hasbeen realized, steps toward achieving a new and better state mustbe taken. In the dieting example, this would represent the pointat which the dieter makes a ghange in behavior-a reduction incaloric intake and an increase in exercise levels. In OD, the move-ment stage typically translates into focusing one's change efforts atthree different levels: individual, group, and organizational.

The third stage, refreezing, requires establishing a system orprocess that will solidi$ (or refreeze) the new desired state. In thedieting example,'this would mean making what people call a per-manent lifestyle change, such that the new eating and exercise reg-imen becomes a permanent and normal part of everyday life. InOD, an example of the refreezing stage would be instilling a newreward and recognition program as a result of an organizationalculture survey to reinforce a new and desired set of leadership be-haviors. In realiry howeveq given the rapid pace of change expe-rienced by most organizations today, refreezing occurs all tooinfrequently (Church, 2000b) if at all, and even when it does, it isnot likely to last for very long before some other chaotic event af-fects the organization.

7

. For interventions to be successful, it is criticalthat :1' Varid and usefur information about organization and its members2. Free choice for choosing from variety of action points

. 3' lnternal commitment and feeling of ownership and responsibility for actions drawn.Factors considered in planning and implementing OD :1. An overallgame plan

2' Effective structuring of activities to promote rearning & change3' Choosing & sequencing activities {Diagnostic data/Effectiveness/Efficiency/speed/

Relevance/Reduce Organizational Strain)4' Dynamics of various interventions fr-heory/structure/curture etc.)Ctassifying OD Interventions {Tech *..r"q

There are many different types of oo intervJntions. These are crassified, or grouped accordingto:

i) The objectives of the interventions

ii) The targets of the interventions

There are 14 major ..families,,) O

1' ' Diagnistic 'a'cti"'ilies are tact-finding activities designed to ascertain the state of thesystem or the status of a problem

2' Team Building Activities are designed to enhance the effective operation of system teams.These can focus on task-rerated issdes such as;;;;;ilgs are done, necessaryskills and resources, relationship quarity between team members and between teamand leader' and effectiveness. tn addition, structural. issues must be addressed (the'nature of the team). "outdoorAdventure,, teambuirding programs are cu'en1y very popurar.. lntergroup Activities.are designed to improve the effectiveness of interdependent groups,i'e' those that must co-operate to produce a cornmon ortput rhese focus on jointactivities and the output of the groups as a singte system ,"ih", than 2 subsystems.

suivey Feedback Activities are activities that focus on the use of qrustionnaires togenerate information, which is then used to ioentffv prJi"r. ""0

opportunities.Education and Training Activities are designeClqlnplAy-eskijls, abilities and knowledge.several activities and approaches are possibre, depending on the nature of the need.

Organizational Developrnent

6' Techno-structuralor structuralActivities are designed to improve organizationalstructures. and job designs. Activities could include either:

a) Experimenting with new organizationalstructures and evaluating theireffectivenesswith respect to specific goals.

b) Devising new ways to bring technicar resoirces to bear on probrems.7 ' Process consultation Activities are activities that help the client ,,perceive, understandand act upon process events, which occur in the client's environment,,. Theclient n;;;;;insight into the human processes in organizations and tearns .nu,r t" ot"n""r'nn

"romanaging'them' Emphasis on communication, leader and member roles in groups, problemsolving and decision making, group norms, leadership and authority and intergroup co-operation and competition.

8' Grid organization Development Activities are based on six- phase modeldesigned byBlake and Mouton involving the whole organization. The modelstarts with upgradingindividual manager's skills aiid leadership "oititi""

moue to improvement activities, thento intergroup relations'activities. Laterphases inctude corporateit;";ilfo,.fro.J]',"nr,developing implementation tabtics and finally evaluation of the change in organizationcu | t u re .A |ong te rmprocess |as t i ngup to5yea rS . -

9' Third -Party Peacemaking Activitids are ihterventions by arskilled third,party aimed athefping the organizational members manage theirinterpersonalconflicl. These ire,basedon confrontation and an understanding of conflict andconftict *961,;'"; ;;;;; l1 0' coaching and counseling Activities arii interventioris ih which thd,'corisultantwoikb withorganization members to .

a) Define leaming goals;

b) Learn how others see their behaviour; andc) Learn new behaviours to better achieve their goals.

Key features ?f€ ftoo:€V?luative feedback and joint exploration of alternative behaviours.11' Life and career Planning Activities are activities focused on life and career objectives' 'and how to go about attaining.them..lncludes goal setting, assessmed;and training.12. Planning and Goar sehing Activities are based on theory and experien"" h o,unn;;"agoal setting, probrem sorvihg moders,'pranning p"r"oig*lnd io* ua. rear" discrepancymodels.

13' strategic Management Activities are interyentions which help key policy-makers reflecton the organization's basic mission and goals, environmentat demands, threats and

Introduction to Interventions

opportunities.'lt,considers long.range planning oJ'both a reactive and,a,proactive nature.Attention is focused oulside of,the'organization and'to the future:

14. OrgahizatiohglrrFransfofmation,Activities are activities focusing'on largerscale systemchangeslh4twill"fundamentally,lranSform the nature of the olganization,iVirtually evp'{aspect of the olganr.z+ill is qfranged: stgucture, management plrifgsoplTy,.rqwardsystenis, Work'debign; miSsiOn; vdlues and culture.

1 . F-ebdbaek : jtt'Ht*-.beauaurcto'drieor'EkiniZ"tion irto itsmerribors about the,stdt€ of affairsin the orgariization: lt also Sets the fcrcus for improvement activities for the future.

2. Awarenessof changing socioculturalnorms ordysfunctional,pregentnorms: Intqryentionsafso make the organization aware of the existing socio-cuhural isiues and relationshipsin:theoroarlizathn :

' ; | . '3. :lnQg,eag$,..111!grggtion gld commqnicatiBn; Any int.eruelliol,p"r.9mo1es increased

*c-cimmu;r[c4ti,.g4pnd interaction amongstthe,parlicipantsof the interyention. This increasesun$erSlapQingapd.co-operation amongst the members. This is further explained in detailin the subSequent chapters.

4. Co=qrfrontaligni-,lnterventions are all about confronting the issues and resolve themp4rticipqtively. . ,

5. Educationl Rndwledge, Skills, Outmoded beliefs and attitudes: lnterventions help ine4,ucait.ih,gm"?n9g{$ aFou,t,letter ways of working together. ln the proceqs, it also aftemptsto change some of the beliefs and assumptions, which retard progr,ess and culturalchange in the organization.

6. Participation: Interventions are participatory efforts to culturalchange. OD is, by definition,a team effort, with consultation from the OD consultan!,

:7, Increased aecountability: Interventions are result-oriented activities and hold members

accountable for outcomes. lt also makes the top management commit to the OD effods,thereby making them also responsible for the outcomes.

, , , 1 ' '

B, ,ri.{F6rEasod energy and optimism: Overall, interventions bring in energy and enthusiasm

. .,... ".9_Fgl$,ghanges to be bought about in the diganization. Participation from the members'

.tffj4iputulng problems or realizing opportunities also a<i'ds to creating enthusiasm in the

6igPhlratton,

Organizational Development