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Igo r S . Makarov

A THEORY OF

E T H E R ,P A R T I C L E S

A N DA T O M S

Introductionto

T ! R!"or# o" Mod!rn P $%ic%

S!cond Edition

O&!n 'niv!r%it$ Pr!%%Manc !%t!r

'(

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Copyright 2008

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, or transmitted inany form without the permission of the publisher or the author

Ma arov, !gor "., #$%&'

A (heory of )ther, *articles and Atoms + !gor ". Ma arov + "econd )dition(his boo is an edited version of the same boo privately printed in 200

(his boo has been composed in (imes New -oman with the use of the pen ffice.org 2.0 programs for te/t and ob ects

(he boo was printed from the camera1ready copy provided by the author

!" N #133#13 83#18

All orders and remar s should be sent to the following address4

*. . o/ 35#, 6aifa %#00%, !srael

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CONTENTS

Pr!"ac! to t ! Fir%t Edition vii

Pr!"ac!% to t ! S!cond Edition i/

Introduction #

C a&t!r )Introduction to a Non*"or#a+ T !or$ o"

acuu# $#.# (he 7irtual *ositronium #0#.2 (he Comple/ *ositronium ###.% 7acuum #2#.3 (he Coherent Multitude of Composiums #3#.& (he ound Multitude of Composiums #.5 (he Correlation omain #5Conclusion #8-eferences #$

C a&t!r -S&ontan!ou% !n!ration o" N!utron% in

acuu# 2#2.# (he "elf1consistent Cloud 222.2 (he alanced Cloud 232.% (he "elf1controlled Cloud 252.3 (he "elf1con ugate Cloud 282.& (he Consistent Cloud %#2.5 iscussion of the -esults %%Conclusion %&

-eferences %&

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iv A Theory of Ether, Particles and Atoms

C a&t!r /T ! N!utron 0!co#ing t ! Ato# %%.# (he Consistent Cloud %8%.2 (he rgani9ed Cloud %$%.% (he "ubsystems 32Conclusion 3%-eferences 3%

C a&t!r 1Eva+uation o" t ! Para#!t!r% and

C aract!ri%tic% o" Et !r 3&3.# (he Normali9ed )nergy "pectrum of )ther 35 3.#.# )/perimental ata on Cosmic -ays 35 3.#.2 (he "pectrum of Cosmic -ays *hotons 383.2 (he Correlation :unction of )ther &0 3.2.# :ormulas for Computation &0 3.2.2 Computation 3.2.% Analysis of the -esults &83.% imensions of the )lectron and the Muon 50Conclusion 52-eferences 52

C a&t!r 2Introduction to t ! Evo+utionar$T !or$ o" t ! Ato# 5%&.# (he 61atom 5&

&.#.# !nteraction with vacuum 5& &.#.2 (he rough model 55 &.#.% (he e/act model 58 &.#.3 Magnetic deficiency 5$&.2 (he Neutron 0 &.2.# !nteraction with vacuum 0 &.2.2 (he rough model 0 &.2.% (he e/act model 2 &.2.3 )lectric deficiency %

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Contents v

&.% (he 1atom 3&.%.# Nuclear interaction 3&.%.2 (he rough model 3&.%.% Characteristics &&.%.3 (he e/act model &.%.& !nteraction with vacuum 8

&.3 (he 6e1atom 8&.3.# :rom the 1atom to the 6e1atom 8&.3.2 (he rough model $&.3.% (he pulse response 8#&.3.3 (he spectral transparency 82&.3.& (he e/act model 82

&.& )valuation of the )lectric *arameters 8%&.5 iscussion of the -esults 85&.5.# )ther and the Atoms 85&.5.2 (he 61atom 8

&.5.% (he 1atom 88 &.5.3 (he 6e1atom 88 &.5.& A More ;eneral 7iew of Nuclear !nteraction 8$Conclusion 8$-eferences 8$

C a&t!r 3Evo+ution o" t ! Nuc+!ar Structur! $#5.# (he Center $25.2 (he (etrahedral "hell $25.% (he ctahedral "hell $35.3 (he !cosahedral "hell $&5.& (he ouble1icosahedral "hell $55.5 (he !nverse "hells $5. !nter1shell !nteraction $&5.8 )ther, the "tar and the Atom $8 5.8.# (he star $8 5.8.2 (he 1atom $$

5.8.% (he m1atom $$ 5.8.3 (he

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vi A Theory of Ether, Particles and Atoms

A&&!ndi4 A. A5%tract o" t ! R!%!arc #0&

A&&!ndi4 0. A 0ri!" R!vi!6 o" t ! T !or$ #08

A&&!ndi4 C. T ! Progra# o" Co#&utation

o" t ! Corr!+ation Function o" Et !r ##%

Ind!4 ##

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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

(his wor is the result of the research which ! started independentlylate in the 50s in -ussia and since August #$$2 have proceeded withabroad. (he sub ect of the research was initially chosen to be "ystems

(heory, because it seemed rather close to the theory of communications,the then field of my occupation, on the one hand, and because itsounded intriguing enough and worth attempting at, on the other. utthere was no idea of how and where to start the research, and it wasdecided to begin with the simplest type of system = a linear system. (he first step proved rather successful4 there was found >uite anelegant solution of the problem, imagined by myself, of determining thefunctional comple/ity of linear systems by their characteristics. (hatwor was published in the #$5$, No.2, issue of the Transactions of the Research Institute of Radio?Moscow@ where ! wor ed then. Although itwas unclear how to proceed with that result, there was a vagueindication in it to some connection between the abstract theory of linearsystems and statistical physics, which seemed promising.

(o ma e that pu99le out, ! set off to supplement my nowledge oftheoretical physics, and soon the above indication became morearticulate4 there is indeed some deep connection between the problem ofthe synthesis of linear systems and >uantum mechanics. !ntrigued bythat clue, ! attempted for several years to apply the solutions of"chroedinger s1li e e>uations, with the potential determined bycharacteristics of the system, to its synthesis. 6owever, the results wereunsatisfactory4 something essential was missing in comprehending boththe ob ects of theoretical physic and linear systems.

(he solution came suddenly from where nobody could have e/pectedit 1 from philosophy. Boo ing once through 6egel s wor s, ! was struc

by a strangely close analogy between the conceptions of duality indialectical logic and particle physics. (hat revelation triggered another

stage of self1education, this time in dialectical philosophy. As a result,there arose conviction that 6egel s dialectical logic is actually the

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viii A Theory of Ether, Particles and Atoms

general theory of systems sought for, but the philosopher s peculiar wayof thin ing and the e/tremely abstract language of that his wor madeits interpretation in scientific terms almost impossible, with the

e/ception of some most simple cases. "o ! had no choice but toendeavor my own interpretation of the dialectical logic, on the one hand,and, simultaneously, a revision of some theories and principles oftheoretical physics in accordance with that logic, on the other hand,which eventually resulted in the theory e/pounded in this boo . (hefirst rough results, such as the e/istence of ether, its composition and the

phenomenon of spontaneous generation of neutrons in it, were achievedearly in the 80s, but it too me about fifteen years more to complete thisresearch in a sufficiently ade>uate and convincing form.

Chapter # was written first in #$8$ in -ussia, but later wassub ected to several corrections. Chapter 2 was written in April1May#$$& in !srael, where ! immigrated in Duly #$$2, and later was sub ectedto numerous corrections. !n #$$$, living in Canada, ! wrote Chapter %and !ntroduction. ! also started there calculations aimed at evaluating thecharacteristics of etherE that part of the research, stated in Chapter 3, wascontinued in ulgaria, where ! arrived in Dune 2000, and was completedmainly in "eptember 200#, e/cept for some little corrections made in!srael where ! returned in Duly 2002.

Boo ing for a way to publish the research, Duly 2005, ! arrived inritain and, after several unsuccessful attempts to find a boo publisher

for this unusual and perhaps challenging wor , decided to try thedes top publishing procedure, to begin with, given appropriateconditions for that. "o, in March 200 , the first version of the boo ,titled A Theory of Ether Generating Matter,emerged in a very littleedition. ! sent the boo to the ritish Bibrary, the Bibrary of Congressand

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Prefaces i/

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

6aving donated the first privately printed edition of the boo toacademies of some )uropean countries and registered it at the ritishBibrary and the Copyright ffice of the Bibrary of Congress, ! decidedto edit it anew and publish professionally the second edition of the

boo . (he more so that, as an analysis shows, the timely and proper

development of this research, which seems to bla9e a trail to the reformof modern science in general, may prove vital for the destiny ofcivili9ation. "o, to begin with, in March 200$ ! printed professionally ahundred copies of the boo and that November, visiting Amsterdam,mailed most of them to universities, libraries and scientific centers theworld over. Now ! intend to publish the boo on a large scale.

Although this boo is designed primarily for physicists, students andscientists of all other fields may find it useful, as well, because of theinherently holistic and systematic nature of science.

:inally, having providentially completed this research, unimaginableat its early stages, ! than all those who, at different times andcircumstances, made critical remar s which, in one way or other,directly or indirectly, promoted its completion and improved its >uality.

November 20#0, 6aifa, !srael

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/ A Theory of Ether, Particles and Atoms

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INTROD'CTION

(he crisis of modern science, caused mainly by the overestimation ofthe formal and e/perimental methods of research, manifests itself most

blatantly perhaps in theoretical physics because of the fundamentalcharacter of its problems. Among these problems, the most urgentseem to be the following4 H the e/istence and the physical nature of ether, H the origin of matter in the universe ?see, for e/ample, I#J, I2J, I%J@, H the theory of subatomic particles ?see, for e/ample, I3J, I&J@,

H the theory of the atom ?see, for e/ample, I5J = I# J@. As we have ventured to start revising modern theories dealing withe/actly these problems, let us consider briefly the reasons which

necessitated such an enterprise.

7.) T ! &ro5+!# o" !t !r

(he e/istence of ether, a thin omnipresent substance, the physicalmedium supporting the propagation of light, was hypothesi9ed as far as

by Aristotle and had been ta en for granted by all physicists until thefirst decade of the 20 th century. !t is indeed difficult to imagine how it

could have been otherwise, because 6uygens principles of waveconstruction and superposition, for e/ample, the principles underlyingthe classic optics, would have made no sense without the conception ofether implied in them. !t is nown that Ma/well s theory of electromagnetic waves and hishypothesis to the effect that the velocity of light might depend on thevelocity of ether, which he considered a ind of fluid filling all space,

prompted physicists to underta e decisive e/periments to verify thathypothesis. 6owever, the famous e/periment conducted by theAmerican physicists Albert Michelson and )dward Morly ?#88 @ failed

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2 A Theory of Ether, Particles and Atoms

to detect an ether and confirm the hypothesis. (rying to e/plain the negative result of that e/periment, the !rish

physicist ;eorge :it9gerald proposed ?#8$%@ the idea of a relative

contraction of dimensions of solid bodies moving through ether. (hatsuggestion was later developed into a full1scale theory by the utch physicist 6. A. Borent9 and the :rench mathematician 6enri *oincarK?#$03@. (he latter, in fact, formulated a new principle of physics, the principle of relativity, which asserted that no e/periment could detect anobserver s motion through the ether.

(hat development showed that the classical model of ether, as anabsolute stationary medium independent of time, was absolutelyuntenable and should be replaced by a more sophisticated model.

6owever, the theory of relativity, developed soon after that by Albert)instein ?#$0&@, though not refuting the conception of ether as such,managed to do without it, replacing it with the conception of field , afterwhich the whole idea of ether came to seem obsolete and was almostabandoned by modern physics. (hat was certainly a ind of self1deception, because any field is merely an e/citation of the underlying

physical medium and cannot e/ist without it. As to the theory of relativity, it is usually misinterpreted now as a

physical theory, but it is rather simply a method of mathematical physicsfor calculating relativistic effects. !ndeed, it is based on twomathematical abstractions, two a/ioms as these4 H the laws of natural phenomena are the same for all observersstaying in a uniform translatory motionE H the velocity of light is the same for all observers irrespective oftheir own velocity. :rom the philosophical point of view, these a/ioms are certainly nottrue ust because they are a/ioms, arbitrary statements. :rom the

physical point of view, their validity, for the subatomic world, at least, isalso doubtful, because, in particular, they ignore the finite parameters ofreal ob ects and their interaction with the frames of reference, on theone hand, and because the concept the velocity of light ma es no sensein the subatomic world, on the other. (hus, as regards its implication tothe theory of space, the theory of relativity ust replaced the Newtonianabstract concepts of independent space and time by a new abstractconcept space-time, showing no interest in its physical content. !t is therefore only natural that the further development of physics

discovered vacuum to be no empty space but, on the contrary, an arenaof intense physical processes. (here have been observed such effects as

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Introduction

vacuum polari9ation and vacuum fluctuations, the birth and vanish ofvirtual particles in it, and its interaction with particlesE there have beenintroduced such terms as Lthe physical vacuum and Lthe structure of

vacuum . All that proves vacuum to be indeed a physical medium, anether. (hus, the ether has clearly manifested its reality and cannot beignored any longer by theoretical physics. @

7.- T ! origin o" #att!r

Modern cosmology is divided on this issue. (he so1called superdensetheory asserts that the universe has evolved from one superdenseagglomeration of matter which suffered a cataclysmic e/plosion giving

birth to all planets, stars, and gala/ies. (his theory is based, evidently,on the assumption of the conservation of mass in the universe and, forthat reason, seems untenable. !ndeed, due to the possibility of mutualtransformation of mass and energy, the above assumption should have

been replaced by a more general one, that of the conservation of massand energy. Now, as energy may be of opposite signs, as is the case, fore/ample, with the energies of attraction and repulsion, one may evensuggest that the universe has evolved from nothing. And, indeed, thereare such hypotheses as well.

Another widely spread cosmological theory, the so1called steady statetheory, postulates that the universe has always e/isted in a steady state,and the observable e/pansion of the universe is compensated by thecontinuous creation of matter, which is considered a property of space.

(hus, whatever the origin of the universe, theoretical physics is facingnow a definite challenge4 to verify the hypothesis of the possibility ofmatter being generated in space.

7./ Su5ato#ic &artic+!%(he subatomic particles = the electron, the mesons, the neutron and

the proton = are the main constituents of the atom and should be studiedfirst of all, if we want to conceive its origin. (hese particles, along withmany other much less stable ones, are usually called elementary, but thathas long been called into >uestion, and this term has become largelyindefinite. "o we shall use the term su atomic particles, e/cluding fromthis category the photon, because it is not an ordinary particle but rathera >uantum of energy, an energy e/change agent.

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At present, there is no satisfactory theory of subatomic particles.Modern theory investigates them largely from the point of view of theirsymmetry and, although is able to predict some e/perimental results

and calculate some parameters, does not present a logically consistenttheory and cannot e/plain the nature and structure of these particles.:or that reason, perhaps, there is a curious tendency now to ma e up theshortages of the theory by ever new e/perimental data and anincreasingly esoteric terminology, but all that only emphasi9es thenecessity for the true theory.

7.1 T ! t !or$ o" t ! ato#

(he most fundamental problems of atomic physics are the nature ofnuclear interaction and the nuclear structure of the atom. espite a hugeamount of e/perimental data and volumes of theoretical wor s, thesecardinal >uestions of atomic physics are still actual.

Among the e/isting theories of nuclear interaction, the most respec1table one is perhaps the meson theory of nuclear forces advanced by6ide i u awa I$J. According to this theory, nuclear forces are

produced by a meson field which is similar in origin to theelectromagnetic field, but is of much shorter range. (he meson field isdescribed by a potential

! = g 2 e/p " r r ?0.#@

where O P 0. fm 1#, g 1 a constant, e>uivalent to some hypothesi9edcharge, the source of the meson field. (he origin of nuclear forces isthus e/plained as a meson e/change interaction between protons andneutrons. !n our view, this theory, although able to e/plain some e/perimentalresults, is too formal, because it involves arbitrarily such concepts asfield, force, potential, charge, etc. and does not e/plain the true nature ofnuclear interaction. (his theory needs, at least, a complementary one.

As to the nuclear structure of the atom, there have been proposeddifferent models of the nucleus. (hree models most fre>uently met are

the following. (he so1called li#uid-drop model is based on theassumption that nuclear motion is similar to that of molecules in a

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Introduction

li>uid. !t embodies the e/perimental fact of so1called nuclear saturation,which means that nuclear binding energies are largely proportional tothe number of particles. (he so1called shell model is based on the

assumption that each of the constituent particles of the nucleus, neutronsand protons, moves in its own closed orbital path without seriousdisturbance by collisions with other particles, similar to the motion ofelectrons about the nucleus. (he so1called unified model presents asynthesis of the li>uid1drop and shell models, and is based on theassumption that, while the internal motion of nucleons may be roughlyindependent, there may e/ist collective modes of the system as a whole. (he above models of nuclear structure are sometimes mi/ed withmodels of nuclear reactions. :or e/ample, the so1called cloudy crystal-

all model incorporates both the idea of independent particle motion andthat of comple/ correlated motion. !ts essential feature is a potential wellsimilar to that used for shell1model calculations. Fe do not need perhaps to consider these models in detail, because,in our view, they omit significant factors4 they ta e into account neitherthe e/istence of ether nor the true origin of the atom for whichinteraction with ether is an integral part of its nuclear processE besides,they model actually invalidated atoms arbitrary stripped of theirelectronic shells. :or this reason, although able to predict some effectsand calculate some e/perimental results, the above models have

proved inade>uate for the investigation of the true nature of nuclearinteraction and nuclear structure.

(hus, despite its impressive achievements, modern theory has failedto understand the true nature of nuclear interaction and the nuclearstructure of the atom, and the present state of the theory does not seemmuch promising in this respect.

7.2 T ! #!t od o" r!%!arc (he fragmentary character of modern theory of subatomic world, itsincreasing use of formal methods and half1empiric receipts, unable toachieve the logical integrity of the theory as a whole, show the necessityfor revising the basic principles of the theory as well as the very methodof scientific cognition used by theoretical physics. "o let us devote sometime to the analysis of the method.

(he overwhelming ma ority of wor s dealing with fundamental

problems are nown to consist of two main stages, e/perimental and

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analytical. Fhile the first furnishes the physicist with e/perimental datain a particular field of research, the second involves him in a thoughtful

process aimed at constructing a logically consistent theory able to

e/plain and describe those data in mathematical terms. Fhen severalsuch theories have become available, there arises necessity forcomprehending, comparing, correcting and unifying them, whichusually results in creating some canoni9ed theory for the particular fieldof research. (his third stage may be legitimately called theoretical. Asa result of such a tripartite development, there e/ist now somecanoni9ed theories describing phenomena in their particular fields but,as a rule, not matching well one another and, therefore, producing noconsistent system of scientific nowledge.

"o, evidently, the current method lac s something. 6owever, theabove reasoning seems to suggest the way out of this predicament.!ndeed, as we have noted, the analytical stage of research is essentiallythe process of thin ing. (hen the theoretical stage is the process ofthin ing the process of thin ing, thin$ing thin$ing%ut that is preciselythe ind of intellectual activity pursued since ancient time by

philosophy. (hus we should now apply for the answer to philosophy. *hilosophy is nown to have found the true method of attainingscientific nowledge to be dialectical logic% According to it, the truth isneither a formula nor a statement, but the process of self-affirmation,and to prove the truth means &to sho' ho' the su (ect y itself and fromitself ma$es itself 'hat it is) I#8, Q8%J. As regards physics, this meansthat a theory s evolution has to be a reflection of the matter s evolutionfrom its simple forms to the comple/ ones, the reflection of its self1affirmation process.

(he e/isting physical theories, however, are constructed, as a rule,mathematically4 one formulates a set of a/ioms and deduces from it allthe results possible. As a/ioms have no dialectical substantiation andare chosen according to Lcommon sense 1 not scientifically 1 such anapproach, although necessary at a certain stage of research, cannot

provide the true solution. "o we should try to revise, from thedialectical point of view, the main results of theoretical physicsconcerned with the above four problems. As to the dialectical logic proper, it being now far from thoroughly

comprehended and ready to use, its essence, in short, is nown to be thealternation of analysis and synthesis, the aim of the analysis being the

revelation of the contradictory sides of the ob ect, while that of thesynthesis being the revelation of the unity of those sides, which in turn

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Introduction

produces a new ob ect to be analy9ed at the ne/t stage. !n this wor , asthe reader will see, the mathematics is an inalienable part of this self-developing , as it were, logical investigation and is developing

ade>uately, in our udgment, along with it.

R!"!r!nc!% #. *es in M.). and "chroeder .7. An Introduction to *uantum +ield Theory% Festview *ress,

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# . ohr A. and Mottelson . 2uclear .tructure% en amin, #$ &.#8. 6egel ;. The 3ogic% Translation from the Encyclopedia of the

1hilosophical .ciences% Clarendon *ress, /ford, #8 3.

****************************************: ; !n this wor , the terms ether and vacuum are used as synonyms.

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CHAPTER I

INTROD'CTIONTO A NON*FORMALTHEORY OF AC''M

Introduction

According to the preceding reasoning, the theory of subatomic worldshould start with the theory of vacuum, not finish with it as is the case at

present, because vacuum is the primary physical medium from which allthe more comple/ forms of matter originate. At present, however, thereis no satisfactory theory of vacuum. Modern >uantum electrodynamics,

based largely on irac s e>uation, cannot be considered one, because, in particular, it starts with such notions as space, time, energy, mass,momentum, charge, wave function, etc. I#J, which themselves needsubstantiation and cannot be initial for the theory of vacuum. As aresult, physics has not been able so far to answer the cardinal >uestion4Fhat physical medium is responsible for the propagation ofelectromagnetic waves in spaceT (his chapter contains our study of the theory of vacuum with the useof the new method based on our interpretation of the dialectical logicand called &The self-developing logical analysis and the suggestedmathematical description)% (his part of the research was published firstin I2J and is stated here with some correction. !t is shown that thereare only two fundamental particles = the virtual electron ?electrino@ and

the virtual positron ?positrino@, which have no physical properties and

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#0 A Theory of Ether, Particles and Atoms

cannot be detectedE the interaction of these particles creates a virtual positronium characteri9ed by energy. (here e/ists ether, the primary physical medium, which is an arithmetical, time1li e continuum

consisting of comple/ positroniums, or composiums, for short, that isvirtual positroniums e/changing photons. (he state of a composium ischaracteri9ed by a comple/ energy, its real and imaginary parts beingdetermined by the pair interaction of the virtual electron and positron,and the e/change interaction with other composiums, respectively. (heinteraction of composiums produces coherent and correlative lin s

between them, ma ing vacuum a correlative space1time described by acorrelation function. (he physical sense is cleared up of such

fundamental notions as space and time.

).) T ! virtua+ &o%itroniu#

A. (he evolution of any system has an originE that origin is theelement of the system, its simplest constituent. !n the system ofsubatomic world, such an element is some elementary particle, anelectron%(he definition of such an original element cannot contain

a priory information concerning its physical properties, such, fore/ample, as its presupposed mass, charge, dimensions, etc. (hereforethe definition of such an electron can only be indefinite, which is acontradiction. rawing on the well1 nown e/perimental results, generalintuition and common sense, suggesting the 'ave-corpuscular dualismto be the principal, fundamental contradiction in the physical subatomicworld, we conclude that, as such a contradiction in itself, the aboveelectron is a carrier of the wave1corpuscular dualism4 it is both a pure

indefinite wave and a simple indefinite particle.

0. (he electron described above is a virtual one, an abstractionunable to become a reality on its own. ut the duality of the virtualelectron implies the e/istence of its dual particle, a virtual positron%(he latter is li e the electron and li ewise abstract. (hey differ in their

primary feature4 the electron being primarily wave and the positroncorpuscularE thus the virtual electron is a 'ave-particle , while thevirtual positron is a particle-'ave .

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Introduction to a Non-formal Theory ##

C. "ince the above electron and positron are the dual images of eachother and can mutually replace each other, they do replace each otherand produce a unity = a virtual positronium% (he latter is the primary

interaction in which the virtual electron and positron merge and turninto each other. As such an interaction, with its intrinsic intensity, thevirtual positronium is characteri9ed by energy E and therefore is real%

Comments: ?#@ (he above particles should have been given new terms, &electrino)and L positrino) , for e/ample, because the terms Lvirtual electron andLvirtual positron seem to be used now in a different senseE but asob ection to these terms has not been e/pressed so far, we will use themtentatively throughout this research.

?2@ !t is noteworthy that it is due to the interaction of the virtualelectron and positron that energy emerges hereE therefore these virtual

particles ta en separately have no energy of their own.

).- T ! co#&+!4 &o%itroniu#

A. (he virtual positronium first is a pair, corpuscularinteraction ofthe virtual electron and positron, the embodiment of their corpuscular propertiesE as such, this interaction is characteri9ed by energy E mwhich may be called corpuscularor mass energy%

0. (he pair interaction of the electron and positron is the overcomingof their singularity, that is corpuscularity, and therefore the corpuscularinteraction itself. As a result, the positronium spontaneously annihilatesemitting photons% (he photon is primarily the manifestation of theelectron s and positron s wave properties. 6owever, the photon inheritsits ancestors wave1corpuscular dualism and therefore has hiddencorpuscular properties as well. ue to this, photons tend to turn intotheir opposition and do turn into it, colliding with each other and giving

birth to electron1positron pairs. (he latter generate li ewise other pairsand the original pair, in particular. (hus the original pair is re1established as a result of the photon e/change, or the e4changeinteraction of virtual positroniums. (his interaction is the embodiment

of the electron s and positron s wave properties and is characteri9ed by

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Introduction to a Non-formal Theory #%

produce a unity which is vacuum % (he latter therefore is an unlimitednumber of composiums. 7acuum is the primary physical mediumcharacteri9ed by the constant

c= #

6o "o ?#.2@

the so1called velocity of light in a vacuum%

Comments: ?#@ !t is easy to notice the above definition of vacuum to be fairly

close to irac s concept of it as a bac ground of negative energyelectrons occupying all the states possible I#J. ?2@ Ma ing use of ?#.2@, let us introduce the >uantities

m= E mc2

?#.%@

and

p=

E pc

?#.3@

which, in accordance with modern terminology, should be called themass and the momentum of the composium, respectivelyE the negativesign in ?#.%@ being accounted for by the fact that, as shown in "ec.#.3,here E m 0. (a ing ?#.%@ and ?#.3@ into account, we present ?#.#@ as

E = mc2 ipc ?#.&@ and then arrive at the formula

E 2= m2 c3 p2 c2 ?#.5@ which coincides with the nown relativity theory formula for the energy E of a material particle of mass m and momentum p%

(he formulas ?#.%@ and ?#.3@ e/pose the physical meaning of such

notions as mass and momentum. !ndeed, as follows from ?#.%@, the mass

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of the composium emerges as a result of the pair interaction of thevirtual electron and positron and is proportional to that interactionenergy. "imilarly, as follows from ?#.3@, the momentum of the

composium emerges as a result of the photon e/change interaction andis proportional to the latter s energy. (herefore, neither electron nor positron, as virtual particles, have mass or momentum of their own.

).1 T ! co !r!nt #u+titud! o" co#&o%iu#%

A. 7acuum is a boundless and indefinite multitude of composiums.ue to the isolation and mutual repulsion of composiums, that multitude

is discreteE due to the identity and attraction of composiums, thatmultitude is continuous. As a se>uence of transitions from one state ofthe composium to another, this multitude is spacemeasured by distancer . As a se>uence of the cycles of resurrection of states, which as suchare identical to each other, this multitude is time t% 6owever, thetransition of the composium from one state to another is also theresurrection of its state, which means e>uivalency of time and space invacuum and is described by the well1 nown identity

r = c t ?#. @(hus space and time in vacuum are identical and inseparable.

0. Bi e the whole multitude, each composium is also both discreteand continuous. !t is discrete as one composium and continuous asidentical to other composiums. As a discrete element of the multitude,the composium is characteri9ed by the constant h, 1lanc$)s constant7 asa continuous element, the composium is the center of some circle ofcomposiums and is characteri9ed by the constant V, the ratio of thecircumference of the circle to its diameter. (herefore the composiumcombines the features of both continuousness and discreteness, and,with its energy E, is characteri9ed by the value

8 = 2 9 E hc ?#.8@

which we shall call a comple4 'ave num er%

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Introduction to a Non-formal Theory #&

C . ue to the above continuity, the definiteness and discreteness ofone state continuously transit to those of the contiguous states.(herefore each composium is the center of some coherent multitude of

composiums. (he coherent multitude contains an unlimited number ofcomposiums coherently connected with the given original composium.(hus the coherent multitude combines the features of both the wholemultitude, vacuum, and its element, the composium. "ince thecoherency is a relative connection of two composiums, moving awayfrom the center results in diminishing both the connection with thecenter and, to the same e/tent, the rate of this diminishing, too.(herefore, the coherent multitude is characteri9ed by some fadinge/ponential function of coherency,

: 8 s =e 8 s , 8 0 ?#.$@

where s is a space ? s W r @ or time ? s Wct; interval. :unction ?#.$@determines the degree of coherency of composiums separated in spaceor time. Comments:

?#@ (his section displays the stage where vacuum e/poses itself as aspace1time medium, which ma es it possible to specify the physicalsense of such notions as space and time. (hese notions prove to beidentical and inseparable in vacuum, because in the Lclear vacuum thereare neither independent Llandmar s for identifying direction, nor a

cloc for gauging time. (herefore in vacuum space is time1li e, that ishalf1dimensional, which is e/pressed by ?#. @. ?2@ As follows from ?#.$@, E m 0, which corresponds to theannihilating nature of the virtual positronium. ?%@ :ormula ?#.8@ is a natural generali9ation of real wave numbersused in modern physics, while function ?#.$@ is a generali9ation of thee/pression for the wave function of a particle in free space.

).2 T ! 5ound #u+titud! o" co#&o%iu#%

A. (he coherent multitude first is a cumulative coherent amount ofcomposiums, the amount coherently connected with the center = thecoherent multitude proper%As such, the coherent multitude is

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characteri9ed by its massiveness,or its internal measure A %

0. )ach element of a given coherent multitude belongs also to all the

other coherent multitudes, and each element of any other coherentmultitude belongs to the given multitude, too. (hus the given coherentmultitude correlates with the infinite number of other coherentmultitudes as with its own oundary and, in this correlation, returns toitself, i.e. contains its boundary within itself. (herefore the coherentmultitude may be characteri9ed by the elasticity of the oundary, or itse4ternal measure < .

C. Any coherent multitude proper and its boundary condition, transitto, and complement each other and, as a result, produce a unity = a

ound multitude of composiums characteri9ed by a comple4 measure

8 = A 8 i < 8 ?#.#0@

(he symmetry of con ugate states and that of con ugate coherentmultitudes result in the same symmetry of the latter s comple/ measure,that is

8 = 8 ?#.##@

).3 T ! corr!+ation do#ain

A. (he bound multitude is determined first by its center% (he center,li e the bound multitude itself, contains its boundary within itself, due towhich the wave number X of the multitude can change continuouslywithin a small interval =8 . ut this finite interval has its own, ideal,center with an infinitesimal interval d and an infinitesimal measure

d 8 % (he ratio of these >uantities,

. 8 =d 8 d8

, ?#.#2@

determines a comple4 measure density%(he function . 8 is the

comple4 energy spectrumof composiums in vacuum and determines theintensity of the respective bound multitudes, thereby setting up some

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Introduction to a Non-formal Theory #

correlation between them. As follows from ?#.##@ and ?#.#2@,

. 8 = . 8 ?#.#%@

0. (he correlation of bound multitudes suggests transition from onemultitude to another, a oundless motion of the center along someunlimited curve 3. !n this motion, one bound multitude continuouslytransits to another, the wave number X changing continuously in thehalf1plane 8 0 bound by the a/is 8 = 0. (hus the curvecomprising all the bound multitudes proves to be a new boundaryenveloping all of them, the oundary of correlation%

C . (his transition of the center, which is its own boundary, into a boundless motion, and the latter s transition to a new boundary implythe e/istence of their unity , a oundless motion of the center along the

oundary% (he bound multitude, loo ed upon as such a unity of theideal center with its respective measure . 8 d8 and the functionof coherency e 8 s , on the one hand, and its boundless motion alongthe boundary , on the other hand, is the correlation domainof vacuumcharacteri9ed by the function

g s = #2Vi L

. 8 e 8 sd8 ?#.#3@

which, due to the relation ?#.#%@, is real. (he curve 3 envelops the half1 plane 8 0 and may coincide with the a/is 8 = 0. (hecorrelation domain embodies the unity of coherency and correlation, thatis, the coherency of composiums in the bound multitude and thecorrelation of bound multitudes. (he function g ? s@ determines thecorrelation of processes separated by a space ?s W r@ or time ?s W c t@interval, and may be called the correlation function ofvacuum. !n the correlation domain, the definiteness inherent in boundmultitudes and their spectral relation vanish, and vacuum arrives at asimple relation towards itself, turning into a relative space-timeandthereby completing its development as the Lclear vacuum. (hiscompleteness manifests itself in the realness of the function g ? s@ whichis a comprehensive, essential characteristic of vacuum.

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Comments = ?#@ Fhen reviewing the evolution the above concept of vacuum hasundergone, we see that in the beginning vacuum, as an infinite number

of composiums, is still a simple immediateness having no support initselfE but after conditioning itself by the coherent and bound multitudes,vacuum turns into a self1supported immediateness, becomes identical toitself. (hus, vacuum has been shown here in the process of its self1affirmation, which, as mentioned in the !ntroduction, is a necessaryattribute of any theory claiming the truth.

?2@ 7acuum is, in fact, an arithmetical space and, therefore, differsdrastically from its so1called Lelectromagnetic models advanced by

modern theory and considered four1dimensional continua ?see, fore/ample, I#J, I%J, I3J@. ?%@ Note that the transform inverse to ?#.#3@,

. 8 =0

g s e 8 sds , ?#.#&@

is the Baplace transform of g ? s@, which is nown to be analytic in thehalf1plane 8 0. (herefore, the e/pression ?#.#3@ ma es senseonly if the curve 3 lies in the half1plane 8 > 0, the motion along it

being anti1cloc wise. !n case 8 = 0, e/pression ?#.#3@ still holdsturning into the :ourier integral.

Conc+u%ion

(he above part of the research provides at least a >ualitative solutionto the problem underlying theoretical physics, that of the e/istence, thecomposition, and the properties of ether, the medium to support the

propagation of electromagnetic radiation in space. As shown here, thismedium does e/ist and proves relativistic by its very nature. (hus thisresearch settles the controversy between the physics of the #$ th century,which stated the above problem and tried to solve it, and modern

physics, which has almost abandoned that problem on the ground of the

formal deductions of the theory of relativity.

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Introduction to a Non-formal Theory #$

R!"!r!nc!%

#. irac *.A.M. The 1rinciples of *uantum Mechanics%Clarendon

*ress, /ford, #$3 .2. Ma arov !.". !ntroduction to a Non1:ormal (heory of 7acuum. Indian ?ournal of Theoretical 1hysics,#$$5, vol.33, No.2.%. Achie9er A.!., erestets y 7.). *uantum Electrodynamics% Nau a, Moscow, #$5$.3. rown B.". *uantum +ield Theory%Cambridge,

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CHAPTER -

SPONTANEO'S ENERATIONOF NE'TRONS IN AC''M

Introduction

!n this part of the research, published first in 2003 I#J, a new theory

of the so1called elementary particles is stated, the one lying outside themainstream of modern theories based, as a rule, on the properties ofsymmetry of those particles ?see, for e/ample, I2J, I%J@. (his chapter isthe continuation of Chapter # and based on the same method. As shown in this chapter, in vacuum there ta es place spontaneousgeneration of mesons and neutrons, the first being the successive stages

preceding the second. (hese particles are not elementary but consist ofcomposiums. (he evolution and the mathematical description of these

particles show that the neutron is a system of organi9ed collectivereflection and is characteri9ed by a correlation function spatiallyconsistent with that of ether, which accounts for the high stability of theneutron. (he results obtained suggest a new e/planation of the origin ofmatter in the universe. esides they shed light on the origin and thestructure of the electron and some features of the mesons, and hint at thenature of the >uar s.

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-.) T ! %!+"*con%i%t!nt c+oud

A. (he correlation domain of vacuum ?see "ec.#.5@, is a stable, self1

consistent pattern of correlation, the indication of self-consistency ofvacuum itself, owing to which vacuum is a steady medium identical toitself. (he correlation function g ? s@ of vacuum determines connection

between the processes in composiums separated by a space ? s @ r @ ortime ? s @ ct; interval. (hat connection is formed through photone/change. !n that process, one composium emits a photon which isabsorbed and re1emitted by another composium. !f the re1emitted photonretains the parameters of the original photon, there ta es place free

propagation of photons indicating correlation of the states of therespective composiums. therwise, there ta es place scattering of photons indicating independence of the states of the composiums.

(he second composium, too, emits photons which are absorbed, in particular, by the first one. (herefore, the first composium is correlatedwith the second to the same e/tent as the second with the first. (husthere ta es place correlation of correlation, the s#uare of correlation,which is depicted by the function g 2 r . (he latter determines thedensity of correlated composiums, the density of correlation, in thevicinity of some center%

(he center suggests motion about it and, therefore, division of spaceand timeE that division has actually happened above when we had tointroduce opposite motions of photons, using, of necessity, the spacesymbol r instead of s%(he center suggests locali9ation of space aboutit and ma es it possible to introduce a spatial frame of reference with thecenter as its origin. "o let us introduce the Cartesian frame of referenceY S, in which spatial points we shall denote #, meaning the totality oftheir coordinates Z 4,y, ,[E then the length of the radius1vector is

r =#= 42 y2 2 ?2.#@and the element of space d# @ d4 dy d %

0. After the division of space and time, with space locali9ed about thecenter, the latter becomes the singular carrier of time, a time gauge,andas such is the singularity of vacuum. (he form of the center is

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Comments: (he logical conclusion about matter being generated by some ind ofconvolution of space and time was made first by 6egel who stated,

.pace and time t'ist themselves into matterI&J.

-.- T ! 5a+anc!d c+oud

A. (he function ' ?#@ defines the inner oundary of the self1consistent cloud dividing the domains of composiums correlated andnon1correlated with the center. (herefore, the self1consistent cloudrestricts the domain of free motion of photons, which results in that

motion, as well as the states of the respective composiums, ac>uiring thenature of reflection, a standing wave. !n that process, the oppositemotions unite leading to the unity of con ugate states and the creation of self-con(ugate composiums% (he reflection is characteri9ed by a 'ave function, B ?#,t @, determining the distribution of reflection in space andits change in time, on the one hand, and by a reflection energy, E ref ,determining the intensity of reflection, on the other hand. wing to theself1con ugateness of composium states in the reflection, E ref is real.(a ing into account that the linear transformation ?2.3@ is the mostgeneral description of processes in the self1consistent cloud, we shoulddetermine relation between ] and E ref , most generally, in the form of alinear functional

E ref = B ,C ref B ?2.&@

where C ref is a linear operator,

f # , f 2 = f # f 2 d# , ?2.5@the tilde sign over the character is the symbol of comple/ con ugateness.

0. *ropagating free in the domain of composiums correlated withthe center, photons penetrate into the domain of non1correlatedcomposiums and undergo scattering. (he latter leads to the degradation

of reflectionand the respective time change of the wave function. (hedegradation of reflection depends on the density of non1correlated

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Spontaneous eneration of Neutrons 2&

composiums and, therefore, should be proportional to the function

D # =' ma4 ' # ?2. @

determining the e/tent of non1correlationE it being evident that D ^ 0. As the time change of the reflection is characteri9ed by the function

B t , the intensity of reflection degradation is proportional

to the

>uantity

1 =#

cB t ,D

B t ?2.8@

(he scattering of photons provides e4change interactionof the self1consistent cloud with vacuum, the value 1 being proportional to the po'er of that interaction.

C. (he inner boundary of the self1consistent cloud divides thedomains of reflection and scattering, the latter providing the e/change

interaction with vacuum. (hat boundary is self1con ugate in a sense4 notonly does it scatter centrifugal photons, but, due to the e/changeinteraction with vacuum, produces, with the same probability,centripetal photons , thereby creating the effect of photon reflectionfrom the boundary. (herefore, the reflection in the self1consistent cloude/ists due to the e/change interaction with vacuum. !n its turn, thee/change interaction with vacuum e/ists due to the above reflectionwhich, degrading through the scattering of photons, gives rise to theabove interaction. (hus the reflection of composiums in the self1consistent cloud and its e/change interaction with vacuum depend on,and turn into, each other, due to which they fall into unity and produce a

balance of reflection and e/change interaction, creating a alancedcloud%!n the latter, the power of the e/change interaction with vacuumis brought into balance with the rate of the reflection degradationenergy, which, ta ing into account ?2.&@ and ?2.8@, corresponds to therelation

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B , C ref B

t = F #

cB t ,D B

t ?2.$@

-./ T ! %!+"*contro++!d c+oud

A. (he reflection of composiums in the balanced cloud first, assuggested by ?#.%@, is the reflection of pair interaction = the formation ofthe mass of the self1con ugate composiumsE it is a coordinate pairinteraction of virtual electrons and positrons in two bound con ugatestates of composiums, some closed in itself, cyclic, time1forming

process = time reflection%As it is the change of the wave function intime that is essential for the time reflection, the latter s energy, to withina constant factor, is

E t = #2c 2

B t , B

t ?2.#0@

where c is the velocity of light in a vacuum.

0. (he reflection of composiums is also the reflection of e/changeinteraction inside the balanced cloud = the formation of the pair ofmomenta of the self1con ugate composiumsE it is a co1ordinate e/changeinteraction in two bound con ugate states of composiums = spacereflection%As it is the change of the wave function in space that isessential for the space reflection, the latter s energy, ta ing into accountthe proportionality between time and space intervals in the free

propagation of photons, to within the same constant factor as in ?2.#0@,is

E s= F #2

B , B ?2.##@

where

= 2

42

2

y2

2

2 ?2.#2@

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Spontaneous eneration of Neutrons 2

C. (he pair interaction of virtual electrons and positrons results intheir spontaneous annihilation and radiation of photons, thuscontributing to the e/change interaction by means of photon e/change.

!n its turn, the e/change interaction, due to the spontaneous generationof virtual electrons and positrons in that process, turns into the pairinteraction. 6owever, that connection is not immediate but mediated bythe e/change interaction with vacuum. !n that process, a change of thetime reflection gives rise to the respective change of the space reflectionand the penetration of that change through the boundaryE but the latter

oundsthat change, that is, leads to such a change of the e/changeinteraction with vacuum, and that of the degradation of reflection,

which see to restore the original reflection intensity, unless its changewas too large. (hus there arises the effect of self-control% (he balanced cloud in which the time and space reflections form aunited self1controlled space1time reflection is a self-controlled cloud% !nthe latter, the process of self1control is described by the e>uality E ref = E s E t , which, ta ing into account ?2.8@, ?2.#0@ and ?2.##@,

ta es the form

{#c2

B t ,

B t F B , B }/ t = F

2c

B t ,D

B t ?2.#%@

!t is easy to show that

t B t ,

B t =2

B t ,

2 B t 2

?2.#% @

and t

B , B =2 B t , B ?2.#% @

in which case ?2.#%@ is e>uivalent to the e>uation

#c2

2 B t 2

F B D c

B t = 0 ?2.#3@

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(he latter seems to be nown as the e>uation of full internal reflection%

-.1 T ! %!+"*con>ugat! c+oud

A. (he effect of self1control in the self1controlled cloud gives rise to preferential forms of reflection and, therefore, leads to the discreti ationof the previously continuous spectrum of states. (o determine thesediscrete states, it is necessary to solve the e>uation ?2.#3@. (o this end,let us represent ?2.#3@ as

ut H u= 0 ?2.#&@

where u @ u #,t;is a two1component wave function,

u =E B E t B ?2.#5@

H is the matri/ operator,

H = cD c2

I 0 ?2.# @ I is the unit operator.

(he partial solution of ?2.#&@ is nown to be

u= 0 e J t , ?2.#8@

where 0 @ 0 ?#; is a two1component spatial wave function satisfyingthe e>uation

J0 H 0 = 0 ?2.#$@

(he solution of ?2.#$@ is a set of comple/1con ugate numbers

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Spontaneous eneration of Neutrons 2$

{ J$ } ,{ J$ } and the corre sponding wave funct ions{0 $ } ,{ 0 $ }. (hese wave functions determine ound states

satisfying the condition ? 0, 0 @ _ `. (he e>uation ?2.#$@ has a finitenumber of bound solutions. !ndeed, substituting ?2.#8@ into ?2.#&@ andassuming ` , we arrive at the e>uation

J2 0 F c2 0 = 0 ?2.20@

which has no bound solutions in the open space. (herefore, one mustassume that $ _ ` and $ _ ` . 6owever, the solutions of ?2.#$@are abstract because they depend on the indefinite >uantity

A= g 2 d# ?2.2#@ 0. As the reflection intensity grows in the bound states, it achieves itse/treme value. (he e/treme state separates the domain of bound statesfrom that of free states and, therefore, is both bound and free, a boundstate of free con ugate composiums, a free self-con(ugate state, the stateof rest% !n the latter, the reflection is determined only by the self1con ugateness and concentrated in the minimal sphere corresponding tothe uncertainty sphere determined by the function : o . !n the state ofrest, therefore, it is necessary to put ' @ : o , which, as seen from ?2.3@,is ensured when

g 2 K g o2= A= 4 = y = ?2.22@

where ? @ is the delta1function. uation

J 0 H o 0 = 0 , ?2.2%@

where H K H o when g K g o % As a bound state, the state of rest is a stable stateE and as a free state,it is a single state isolated from other bound states, the most stable singlestate. (herefore, when solving ?2.2%@, it is necessary to choose the value A in such a way that would ensure the e/istence of the most stable single

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%0 A Theory of Ether, Particles and Atoms

bound solution. (o this end, changing A from 9ero up, one should findvalues AL and A/ corresponding to the emergence of the first and thesecond bound solutions, respectively. As the value A determines theenergy of reflection in the e/treme state and, as follows from ?2.2#@, is

proportional to that energy, the mean value, A= A# A2 /2 ,corresponds to the most stable solution. As a result, the >uantity Aac>uires a definite value depending on o . (hus, the two differentcharacteristics of vacuum, represented by the functions g and : o , have

been agreed with each other.

C. !n their evolution, the bound states have turned into a free self1

con ugate state, but the latter has also proved to be bound. (hat mutualtransition of boundness and free self1con ugateness suggests thee/istence of their unity = a multitude of free and ound self1con ugatestates, corresponding, apparently, to the oint solution of ?2.#$@ and?2.2%@. *hysically, this means that in the self1controlled cloud con ugatestates unite into ound self-con(ugatestates thus ma ing themselves freewithin the cloud. :ormally, we have the multitude of comple/1con ugate numbers { J$ } ,{ J$ } and the corresponding wavefunctions {0

$ } ,{ 0

$ } , $ @#,2, ,n, which, unli e the previous

solutions, are definite, not abstract.As the time factor of ?2.#8@ coincides with the function of coherency

of vacuum ?see Chapter #@, it should be assumed that

J= E M , M= h

2V ?2.23@

(hen the energy of the self1con ugate composium in the $-th state isdetermined by the pair of the comple/1con ugate numbers

E $ = m$ c

2 i p$ c E $ = m$ c

2 i p$ c ?2.2&@

where E $ @ J$ , that is

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C. uation

J ! O ! = 0 ?2.%2@

O being the matri/ transposed to H E the relationship of orthogonality,

! i ,0 ( =0, i ( ?2.%%@

ta ing place I3J. (hus a spatial consistency with vacuum is achieved, which results inthe self1con ugate cloud turning into a consistent cloud% (he latter hasan organi9ed totality of modes of reflection characteri9ed by a 3n1component self1con ugate function,

f # ,t =$ = #

n

$ 0 $ e J$ t $ 0 $ e

J$ t ?2.%3@

which describes the correlation of processes in the consistent cloud and,therefore, can be called its correlation function%

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Spontaneous eneration of Neutrons %%

-.3 Di%cu%%ion o" t ! r!%u+t%

). As follows from the above development, the first four creatures =

the self1consistent, the balanced, the self1controlled, and the self1con ugate clouds F depend on the correlation function of vacuum, whichhas been introduced from outside and is alien to them. Contrary tothem, the consistent cloud itself models that function and, therefore,stands, as it were, on its own feet, affirms itself. (herefore, consistencywith vacuum means high stability of the particleE for that reason, theconsistent cloud is the neutronE while the above earlier creatures, notconsistent with vacuum, correspond to the much less stable types of the

so1called elementary particles = the muon, the 9-meson, the P-meson,and the Q-meson, respectivelyE these particles prove to be theintermediate stages of the synthesis of the neutron and, clearly, are notelementary. (hus in vacuum there ta es place spontaneous generationof mesons and neutrons because this process, as shown above, is logicaland, therefore, inevitable.

(he above result confirms the well1 nown dialectical thesis that theessence must appear?see I5J, Q#%#@. (he essence of vacuum consists

in the correlation of composiums, defined by the correlation function.(he birth of neutrons in vacuum is the materiali9ation, or theappearance of the essence, because the neutron is a discrete model of

vacuum, of its correlation domain. (hus the aspiration for evolution andself1e/pression, common for Nature in general, is inherent in vacuum aswell. (he conclusion about the process of spontaneous generation ofmesons and neutrons in vacuum is confirmed by the e/istence in outerspace of cosmic rays and hydrogen gas, in particular, being created,supposedly, during, and as a result of, the above process. (hus thisresult enables us to give a new e/planation of the origin of matter in theuniverse.

-. (he e>uation ?2.#3@ is not so1called relativistically invariant, as itshould have been to conform with modern theory. Fhat is the matterT(he answer is that one should distinguish between a mathematicalapproach and a physical one. Mathematically, it is admissible to choosearbitrarily any frames of reference moving relative to each other at any

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velocity. *hysically, it is, strictly spea ing, inadmissible, because in physics any frame of reference is some material body which interactswith the ob ect investigated and should be united with it into a single

system. !t is such an interaction with the frame of reference that isessential for the above theory.

/. As ?2.#8@ suggests, the self1con ugate composium in the n1th stateis the basis of the real electronto be created after the neutron decayE the

pair of momenta transforming into the spin of the electronE the real andimaginary parts of the factors n and n transforming into theelectric charge and the magnetic moment of the electron, respectively.

1. (he above theory enables us to e/plain some peculiarities of themuon. (hus the e/tremely wea interaction of the latter with matter can

be e/plained as follows. (he muon is the simplest self1consistent groupof composiums and has no material structure. ut any material particleis also, first of all, a self1consistent creature, that is, contains the self1consistent cloud as its basis. (herefore, the muon interacts with thenuclei of matter not as with anything alien, but as with its li e. :or thatreason, the interaction of the muon with matter ta es the form ofsuccessive replacements of the self1consistent clouds underlying thenuclei by the self1consistent cloud of the muon, with the last replacedcloud, due to the conservation laws, leaving the matter with parametersclose to those of the original muon. (he fact that one of the products of the muon decay is the electron isaccounted for by the result that it is in the self1consistent cloud, that is,muon, that the formation of the self1con ugate composiums startsE one ofthem, that in the e/treme state, completes, supposedly, its formation andtransformation into the electron during the muon decay.

2. (he above theory hints perhaps at the nature of the so1called#uar$s. !ndeed, as can be supposed, the >uar s are the internal organsof the mesons and neutrons, carrying out the collective pair ande/change interaction inside those particles and their e/changeinteraction with vacuum. :or that reason, the >uar s cannot e/ist beyondthose particles and, naturally, are not elementary as they are considered

at present. (his suggestion is confirmed in the ne/t chapter.

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Spontaneous eneration of Neutrons %&

Conc+u%ion

(here have been obtained new results introducing a drastic change to

the e/isting theories concerning the nature and the ade>uate way ofdescription of the so1called elementary particles, and the origin ofmatter in the universe.

R!"!r!nc!%

#. Ma arov !.". "pontaneous ;eneration of Neutrons in 7acuum. Indian ?ournal of Theoretical 1hysics, vol. &2, No.#, 2003.2. ;ottfried G., Feiss opf 7.:. oncepts of 1article 1hysics% New or , /ford

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CHAPTER /

THE NE'TRON

0ECOMIN THE ATOM

Introduction

!n modern physics the neutron decay is considered a ind of so1called wea interaction and there is a lot of wor s based on such anapproach, for e/ample, I#J, I2J. !n our view, such approach isinade>uate to the problem. !ndeed, our above investigation of the natureand the structure of the neutron ma es it possible to develop >uite adifferent approach to, and interpretation of, the above process.

!n this chapter, which is a direct continuation of Chapter 2, it isshown that, because of a space1time contradiction in its structure, underthe influence of interaction with vacuum, the neutron transforms into thehydrogen atom. (he latter proves to be a linear system with lumped

parameters characteri9ed by a structural function. (he hydrogen atomconstitutes a perfect discrete model of vacuum, is immune to itsinfluence and hence absolutely stable. !t is actually an organic systemcontaining three interdependent subsystems, so1called >uar sE the latterimplementing collective interaction of virtual electrons and positronsinside the atom, and its photon e/change interaction with vacuum.(hese >uar s are described by real symmetric matrices and may becalled, in a generali9ed sense, the subsystems of inertia, elasticity, anddissipation. (he agents of the above processes correspond to so1called

gluons. (his part of the research was published first in I%J and is statedhere with some correction.

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/.) T ! con%i%t!nt c+oud

A. (he consistent cloud, that is the neutron, as shown in Chapter 2, is

an organi9ed system of reflection consistent with vacuumE it ischaracteri9ed by its 3 n1component correlation function,

f # ,t =$ = n

n

$ 0 $ e J$ t

a F $ = a$ , 0= 0. ?%.#@

:unction ?%.#@ consists of n terms such as

f $ # ,t = $ 0 $ e J$ t $ 0 $ e

J$ t , ?%.2@

where the spacial functions 0 $ # and 0 $ # describe the formof reflection, a standing 'ave . !n this reflection, every element of spaced# carries oscillation with the infinitesimal amplitude $ 0 $ d# and thecomple/ fre>uency J$ % (hus function ?%.2@ describes oscillation of adamped harmonic oscillator with

continuously distri uted parametersE

its mode of oscillation defined by the function e J$ t .

(he functions 0 $ # and 0 $ # are solutions of e>uation?2.#$@ with the operator H described by the matri/ ?2.# @. (his operatoris of a strange ind4 it is not a completely structured and articulatedmatri/ operator. (herefore, the structure of the consistent cloud is, in asense, underdeveloped.

0. As to the mode of oscillation, : $ t =e J$ t

, it has a definitefre>uency and, ta en directly, corresponds to the oscillation of adamped harmonic oscillator with lumped parametersdescribed by thee>uation

S$ d 2 : $ dt 2

$ d: $ dt U$ : $ = 0 ,

?%.%@

where S$ , $ ,U$ are positive coefficients.

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The Neutron !ecomin" the Atom %$

As a whole, there is a set of n oscillation modes {e J$ t }corresponding, as it were, to the set of n independent oscillators withlumped parameters. 6owever, their independence is abstract, because

their fre>uencies are intimately connected and organi9ed by the wholestructure of the consistent cloud determined by the operator H%

/.- T ! organi?!d c+oud

C. ?#@ As follows from above, the consistent cloud is, on the onehand, a linear system with continuously distributed parameters, and, onthe other hand, as it were, a set of independent oscillators with lumped

parameters constituting no integral system. (hus the structure of theconsistent cloud is internally contradictory4 the continuous spacialdistribution of its parameters contradicts the discrete character of itsoscillation modes. At the same time, as we have seen, thesecontradictory features mutually suggest, and are intimately connectedwith, each other, which implies the e/istence of their unity with theabove contradiction settled.

?2@ !ndeed, under the influence of the above contradiction, on the onehand, and the e/change interaction with vacuum, on the other hand, thestructure of the consistent cloud undergoes re1structuring4 there ta es

place the process of concentrating the continuously distributed parameters into lumped parameters, li e churning mil into grains of butter. As a result, the consistent cloud completes its process of self1organi9ation and becomes an organi9ed system of interdependentoscillators with lumped parameters, an organi ed cloud% (he latter is,apparently, the hydrogen atom, the simplest and most spread one in theuniverse. (he orbiting electron is e/actly the manifestation of thediscrete character of the atom s internal structure.

(hrough the e/change interaction with vacuum, the organi9ed cloudcontinuously reproduces itself and, therefore, retains the traces of all the

previous entities = the muon, the mesons, and the neutron = being thecompletion of their evolution, on the one hand, and the most perfectdiscrete model of vacuum, on the other. :or that reason, the organi9edcloud is immune to the destructive influence of vacuum and henceabsolutely stable.

Fith the identity of space and time in vacuum and the space1timesymmetry of its correlation function, the transformation of the neutron

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into the 61atom, with the spatially distributed parameters of the formerturning into the lumped parameters of the latter, means the loss of spaceconsistency of the neutron and its transformation into the time

consistency of the 61atom.?%@ (he process of the organi9ed cloud is described by a system of

linear differential e>uations

=## : # =#2 : 2 ... =#n : n= 0=2# : # =22 : 2 ... =2n : n= 0

=nL: # =n/ : 2 ... =nn: n= 0

?%.3@

where

=i$ = Si$ d 2

dt 2 i$

d dt

Ui$ , ?%.&@

Si$ , T i$ ,Ui$ are real constants. Ma ing use of the matrices,

A= a i$ =

S## S#2 ... S#nS2# S22 ... S2n..... ..... ... ....SnL Sn/ ... Snn

,

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The Neutron !ecomin" the Atom 3#

W=

: #: 2

...: n

?%. @

we rewrite ?%.3@ as

A d 2 W

dt 2 < dWdt

VW= 0 ?%.8@

or

d udt X u = 0, ?%.$@

'here

u =dWdt W

?%.#0@

X = A F # < A F # V

F I 0 @%.##@(he partial solution of ?%.8@ is nown to be

u = U e Jt ?%.#2@

where U is a 3 n1eigenvector satisfying the e>uation

JU X U = 0 ?%.#%@

where the comple/ eigenfre>uency J is determined by the characteristice>uation

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det J I X = 0 ?%.#3@

and is supposed to be close to those of the consistent cloud.

"upposing the solutions of ?%.#%@ to be simple and comple/1con ugate = otherwise they would ma e no physical sense = we arrive at thegeneral solution of ?%.8@,

u t = $ = n

n

T $ U k e J$ t , a F $ = a$ ?%.#&@

where the comple/ coefficients Z T $ [ are, in general, different from thecoefficients ZC $ [ in ?2.%#@ determined by the consistency of theconsistent cloud with vacuum.

(he vector function u(t) characteri9es the structure of the organi9edcloud and may be called its structural function%!ts $-th term,

u k t = T $ U k e J$ t T $ U k e

J$ t , ?%.#5@

is a vector describing the oscillation with the comple/ fre>uency J$ 7

the vectors

U k =

0 $L0 $/

...

0 $n

, U k =

0 $L0 $/...

0 $n

, ?%.# @

defining the form of that oscillation4 all their components, {0 $i} and { 0 $i} , oscillate with the same comple/ fre>uency J$ but havedifferent amplitudes and initial phases.

/./ T ! %u5%$%t!#%

(he organi9ed cloud has a completely developed organi9ation of itsinternal and e/ternal processes, that is, the pair and the e/changeinteractions of virtual electrons and positrons inside the cloud, and its

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R!"!r!nc!%

#. 6olstein . Dea$ Interactions in 2uclei,#$8$.2. un . Dea$ Interactions of Elementary 1articles, #$5&.%. Ma arov !.". (he Neutron ecoming the Atom. Indian ?ournal of Theoretical 1hysics,vol.&3, No.3, 2003.3. 6ughes !.". Elementary 1articles% "econd )dition. Cambridge

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CHAPTER 1

E AL'ATION OF

THE PARAMETERS ANDCHARACTERISTICS OF ETHER

Introduction

As the reader nows, the problem of ether, as an actual problem oftheoretical and e/perimental physics, arose with the development of thetheory of light, and especially in connection with Ma/well selectromagnetic theory, but then was almost abandoned after the adventof the special theory of relativity. And despite the fact that e/perimentshave shown vacuum to be not an abstract space but an arena of intense

physical processes, modern physics still evades using the term Lether , preferring its substitutes, such as Lelectromagnetic vacuum , Lphysical

vacuum , L irac s vacuum , etc. ut all this suggests that ether doese/ist and needs investigation. !n this part of the research, published first in I#J, we show that theabove theoretical conclusions are confirmed by available e/perimentaldata on cosmic rays, ma ing it possible to evaluate the essential

parameters and characteristics of ether. !n particular, there have beenevaluated the normali9ed energy spectrum of ether and its correlationfunction. (he latter proves to consist of two parts4 ? i@ a small ascending

part, determining the 9one of uncertainty and corresponding to the

process of corpuscular interaction of virtual electrons and positronsE and

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?ii@ a large e/ponentially descending part, corresponding to the processof photon e/change. (hese results suggest the mean radius of theelectron in the state of rest to be over two hundred times less than the

so1called electronic radius r e suggested by modern physics.

1.) T ! nor#a+i?!d !n!rg$ %&!ctru# o" !t !r

1.).) E4&!ri#!nta+ data on co%#ic ra$%

Now that the e/istence of ether, the primary physical medium, has been confirmed and elucidated by the above theoretical analysis, it isnecessary to evaluate its characteristics. (o begin with, we should tryand evaluate the spectrum of photons in ether, ma ing use of theavailable e/perimental data.

(he only e/perimental data available now and ade>uate to the case arethose concerned with cosmic rays. 6owever, the >uestion may suggestitself, if the properties of cosmic rays are characteristic of ether to asufficient degree. (his >uestion should be answered in the affirmative,

because now that we now that it is ether that generates all the matter inthe universe, cosmic rays, with their intrinsic isotropy, should be

considered the primary, basic form of matter generated in ether, its proper radiation% Bet us consider first the e/perimental data on the spectrum of cosmicrays stated in 2 , p.#$3, and reproduced in rough in :ig.3.#. Analy9ingthe spectra of different particles electrons, positrons, protons and 1

particles@ depicted there, one cannot fail to note that they haveappro/imately the same cut1off energy ?about #0 8.&e! @ and thesame steepness of their slopes ?about 2. @ for energies beyond the cut1

off up to about #0#2

e! . (his implies that the spectrum of the primary cosmic particles beyond #0 8.&e! does not depend on thenature of the particles and is determined only by the properties of ether.(herefore the primary cosmic photons, which cannot perhaps bedetected directly, but are nevertheless present in cosmic rays, shouldhave the same spectrum, too. (hus to evaluate the latter, it suffices nowto consider the spectrum of cosmic rays electrons available in detail.

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dotted, dashed, and bold1dotted lines. As indicated in I%J, the firstcorresponds to the estimated galactic flu/, as interpreted from satellitemeasurementsE the second is the spectrum re>uired for interstellar cloud

heating, and the third is that re>uired for pressure support of the galacticdis . (hus different authors, from different points of view, have arrivedat the same conclusion, i.e. the spectrum of the galactic flu/, andtherefore, of cosmic photons as well, should have a plateau from about

#0 .2e7 down perhaps to the 9ero energy.

(o be more confident with the above assumption, let us consider nowthree additional arguments of our own. (he first one is that thespectrum of cosmic photons, being supposedly the :ourier transform ofthe correlation function, or its li e, which is a positive one, should havea positive 9ero1energy component. (he second argument is that theelectromagnetic properties of ether have been e/perimentally found to

be constant from e/tremely low fre>uencies to, at least, Y1rays.(he third argument is that in depicting the spectrum of cosmic rays we

6 7 8 9 10 11 12-8

-7

-6

-

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

Fig.1.- S&!ctru# o" co%#ic ra$% !+!ctron%

$o# (%ner#y & electron' e )

$ o #

( n

t e n s

i t y '

1 & s * + , s

s r

. e

)

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E#aluation of Parameters and Characteristics 3$

should not ignore their isotropy. !ndeed, as the momentum of a cosmicrays particle is a %1vector, the three1dimensional spectrum of momentumof cosmic rays, given their isotropy, is a function sphericallysymmetrical about the center of coordinates, the latter corresponding tothe 9ero energy. !n a one1dimensional representation, this spectrum isan even function, and the problem of hypothesi9ing the missing part ofthe spectrum of electron and, therefore, photons is thus reduced to thatof interpolating the even function in a close vicinity of its 9ero abscissa,as shown on a linear scale in :ig.3.% for the spectrum of photons. (hemost natural form of such an interpolation is, graphically, a straight lineconnecting two symmetrical points at #0 8 e7 indicated in curve of:ig.3.% by two vertical dashed lines. Conse>uently, applying a

piecewise linear appro/imation to the rest of the curve, we obtain thefollowing evaluation of the normali edenergy spectrum ?the relativeintensity, *@ of ether4

log 1 E e! ={0 7 0 [ log E [ 8.&8.& F log E 7 8.&[ log E [ $.0#&. F #.8 log E 7 $.0 [ log E [ $.&23.05 F 2.58 log E 7 $.&[ log E }?3.#@

-2 -2 -1 -1 -0 0 0 1 1 2 2

0

0 2

0 4

0 6

0 8

1

1 2

Fig. 4.3 Spectrum of cosmic rays photons

%ner#y' 10/9 e

0 e

l a t i e

! p e c

t r ,

2 e n s

i t y

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&0 A Theory of Ether, Particles and Atoms

1.- T ! corr!+ation "unction o" !t !r

1.-.) For#u+a% "or co#&utation

(o evaluate the correlation function of ether ?C:)@, we should observethat the above evaluation of the spectrum of photons in ether ?"*6)@deals with the relative probabilities of particles, which are associatedwith the second power of their wave functions, while the C:), being asuperposition of partial functions, is associated with the first power ofwave functions. (herefore, on a linear scale, the first power of theabsolute value of the "*6) is

.1HE E =#07.2+og P E ?3.2@

As shown in Chapter #, see ?#.#3@, the C:) is determined by theformula

g r = #2Vi 3 . e

r d 7 = 4 iy7 4 0 7 ?3.%@

where the indefinite curve 3 envelops the half1plane 0 andwhere the function . ;,the comple/ spectrum of composiums in ether,is analytic in the half1plane 0. -epresenting . ; in the polarform as

. = + 4 , yei : 4 , y , ?3.3@where

+ 4 , y 0 7 F 9 : 4 , y 9 7 : 4 ,F y = F : 4 , y7

and ta ing natural logarithm of both sides, we get the function

ln . =ln + 4 , y i: 4 , y , ?3.&@

which is also analytic under the above restrictions. eing con ugate

parts of an analytic function, the functions f 4 , y =ln + 4 , y

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3.2, and 3.%, respectively, and depicted in :ig.3.&. (hese three casescorrespond to three different ranges of energy4 #.25 #0#0 e! ,

2.&2 #0#0 e! and 5.% #0 #0 e! , with accordingly moredetailed space information. (o investigate the trend, the point [email protected]& fm, near the ma/imum, wascomputed at W0.00& fm, BW#000 and gave ;W#.&3#. (his result meansthat the ma/imum of the curves increases indefinitely, when the energyrange involved in the calculation e/pands. (hat prompted us to considerthe above data in reference to the ma/imum of the curves, instead oftheir 9ero1energy value. "o considered, and depicted on a linear scale,the above curves loo as shown in :ig.3.5 and :ig.3. .

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E#aluation of Parameters and Characteristics &%

START

INP'T= D, L, M

TB )

TBT ), (B ), B7, FB7

(B( ), IB L ), 0B7, CB7

I B I )

A@I;

0B0 A @@I (;- );CBC A @@I (;- 1;

I G L

0B0 , CB-C A@(; B 7.2 @C A; +n )7

SB)7 0

'BS cos , BS sin

RB T( L

FBF ' cos R sin R

( G L

B!4& @ T L; F L

PRINT T,

TG M

END

1

1

1

Fig.1.1 0+ock*&rogra# o" co#&utation

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E#aluation of Parameters and Characteristics &&

0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 0 6 0 7-2

-2

-1

-1

-0

0

0

Fig. 1.2 CFE. Pr!+i#inar$ r!% u+t%

a le 1

a le2a le 3

istance' f,

$ n

5 6 %

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0 1 2 3 4 6 7

0

0 2

0 4

0 6

0 8

1

1 2

Fig. 1.3 Corr!+ation "unction o" ! t !r

$ 200$ 00$ 1000$

istance' 0 1 f,

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E#aluation of Parameters and Characteristics &

0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1

0

0 2

0 4

0 6

0 8

1

1 2

Fig. 1.8 Corr!+ation "unction o" ! t !r. D!tai+

$ 200$ 00$ 1000$

istance' 10/-2 f,

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1.-./ Ana+$%i% o" t ! r!%u+t%

As seen from :ig.3.&, the computed curves consist of two parts,ascending and descending, meeting at appro/imately the same point,r @ r et ?et stands for ether@. (he first part depends strongly on the highenergy components involved in the analysis. (he second part followsalmost a strict e/ponential law at the negative rate

Set = %.#8 fm F # , which but slightly depends on the high energy

components. (o determine r et , let us use a parabolic appro/imation,

f = Ar 2 uite comprehensible from the physical

point of view. !ndeed, the C:) starts with an e/citation at r W0 whichgives birth to a pair of virtual electron and positron, with theircorpuscular interaction to follow. (he latter cannot be concentrated inthe infinitesimal region of the point r W0 and, to develop, must spreadover a finite region, about r et wide. (hus the first part of the curves?r^r et @ corresponds to the region of corpuscular interaction, this region

being, therefore, the 9one of uncertainty, the distance r et the minimalinterval discernible in ether, the radius of uncertainty%Fithin this 9one,the concept of correlation between composiums ma es no sense, whiche/plains the ascending character of the C:) at r^r et . (he second part of the curves ? r_r et @ corresponds to the process of

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E#aluation of Parameters and Characteristics &$

photon e/change. (he intensity of this process, >uite predictably, with asufficiently wide range of energy involved in the analysis, declinese/ponentially with distance. (he very fact that the above computationhas e/posed this intrinsic e/ponential character proves the aboveappro/imation of the e/perimental data, as well as the subse>uentevaluation of the energy spectrum of ether, to be sufficiently accurate. (a ing into account both the calculation results and the abovereasoning, we can describe the C:), to a constant factor, by thee/pression

g r e/p Set r F e/p et r ?3.##@

where the parameters Set and et characteri9e the rate of degradationwith distance of the processes of photon e/change and corpuscularinteraction , respectivelyE accordingly, these parameters may be calledthe rate of e4change interaction and the rate of pair ?corpuscular @interaction, respectively.

"olving the e>uation

dg

dr = 0 at r = r et ?3.#2@

we find et = &5.8# fm F # .

(he function ?3.##@, as shown in :ig.3.5 ?the solid curve@, seems to provide a good appro/imation of the computed curves at B `.

(he function e/p et r ,characteri9ing the 9one ofuncertainty, enables us to determine the singularity density function," : ?see "ec. 2.# @. !ndeed, it is the process of pair interaction that isresponsible for the formation of the 9one of uncertainty and is itselfformed by that 9one. (herefore the function e/p et r characteri9es the " :. Now, as the function g?r@ has been treated aboveli e a wave function, so should we treat its part, the function

e/p et r . (o convert a wave function into the density function,we should s>uare it. After normali9ation, we arrive at the followingform of the " : 4

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E#aluation of Parameters and Characteristics 5#

(his function covers both the 9one of correlation and that of uncertainty,that is the whole volume of the muon. Although the 9one of uncertaintydoes not contribute to the mass of the correlated composiums, it is the

birth place of the electron and, therefore, does contribute to the totalmass of the muon. (his reasoning, beyond the implications of formula?2.3@ and as a result of its unfolding, suggests e/pression ?3.#&@ to be thee/act representation of the muon density, which gives the followingestimation of the mean radius of the muon,

r m = #2j et

0.#5 fm% ?3.#5@

and its mean s>uare1root radius,

r m2 = # 2 Set 0.22 fm% ?3.#5 @

As the relation of the masses of neutron and muon is about 8.8$, themean s>uare1root radius of the neutron is appro/imately

r n r m 8.8$# /%= 0.3&$ fm ?3.# @

(o compare the last figure with the e/isting evaluations, let usconsider the values given, for e/ample, in I3J. Analy9ing electric andmagnetic models of nucleons, the authors arrived at the followingevaluations of the mean s>uare1root radii of the neutron4 0.85 fm forthe magnetic model and about 0,# fm for the electric model.Additio

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