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Diversity and Endangerment of Languages in Nepal

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Sueyoshi and Ingrid TobaNovel Kishor Rai

Translation into Nepali by Lekhnath Sharma Pathak

UNESCO Kathmandu Series of Monographs and Working Papers: No 7

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This paper was prepared by Sueyoshi and Ingrid Toba and Novel Kishor Rai, for thepromotion of cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue, as a follow up to the UNESCOUniversal Declaration on Cultural Diversity and to the proclamation of 21 May as theWorld Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development in the 31st Session of theUNESCO General Conference in November 2001.

The author is responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in thispublication and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those ofUNESCO and do not commit the Organization. The designations employed and the

presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of anyopinion on the part of UNESCO concerning legal status of any country, territory, city orarea or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Published in 2005 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization, Kathmandu OfficeKAT-CLT-2005/02

Front page photo © UNESCO Kathmandu/SELTER E.

Printed by Office Support Service Center Chhapakhana P. Ltd., Teku, Kathmandu, Nepal

For more information please contact:UNESCO Kathmandu Jawalakhel, Lalitpur, P.O. Box 14391KathmanduNEPALE-mail:[email protected]: +977-1-5554-396/769Fax: +977-1-5554-450http://www.unesco.org/kathmandu

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.unesco.org/kathmandu



mailto:[email protected]

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Diversity and Endangermentof Languages in Nepal


UNESCO

Kathmandu Office

Jawalakhel • Lalitpur • PO Box 14391 • Kathmandu • NepalPhone +977-1-5554-396/769 • Fax +977-1-5554-450

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 7

1. Geography..................................................................................................................................... 8

1.1. THE PHYSICAL TERRAIN AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGES IN NEPAL.................8

1.2. CHANGES IN THE GEOGRAPHICAL BOUNDARIES OF THE LANGUAGES IN NEPAL ...........8

1.3. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAL.................................... 8 1.3.1. Nepali.......................................................................................................................... 8 1.3.2. Other languages......................................................................................................... 9

1.4. The Residential Situation of the Language Communities of Nepal. .............................. 9 1.5. Internal and External Movement....................................................................................... 10 1.6. Distribution of the Languages of Nepal in Other Countries ......................................... 11

2. The Languages and Dialects of Nepal..................................................................................... 11

2.1. OFFICIAL STATUS OF LANGUAGES .............................................................................. 11

2.2. LANGUAGE AND DIALECT ........................................................................................... 11 2.3.NEPALI DIALECTS. ....................................................................................................... 12

2.4 DIALECTS OF OTHER LANGUAGES OF NEPAL................................................................ 12

2.5. SPOKEN LANGUAGE .................................................................................................... 13 2.5.1. Nepali........................................................................................................................ 13 2.5.2. Other languages....................................................................................................... 13 2.5.3. Monolingual Speakers ............................................................................................ 14 2.5.4. Bilingual Speakers................................................................................................... 14 2.5.5. Multilingual Speakers............................................................................................. 14 2.5.6. Language Shift. ........................................................................................................ 15

2.6. WRITTEN LANGUAGE. ................................................................................................ 16 2.6.1. The Writing Systems of the Languages of Nepal ............................................... 16 2.6.2. Standardization of Languages of Nepal............................................................... 16 2.6.3. Literacy rate.............................................................................................................. 17 2.6.4. Literary Traditions .................................................................................................. 17

3. Language Use.............................................................................................................................. 18

3.1. INFORMAL SITUATIONS............................................................................................... 18

3.2. USE BY SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES ................................................................. 18 3.3. USE IN ADMINISTRATION............................................................................................ 18

3.4. USE IN EDUCATION ................................................................................................... 19

3.5. USE OF LANGUAGES IN THE MEDIA ........................................................................ 19 3.6. USE IN RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES .................................................................................. 19

3.7. USE IN BUSINESS AND LABOR RELATIONS.................................................................. 20

4. Social and cultural Factors Affecting Speech Communities ................................................ 20

4.1. HISTORICAL FACTORS ................................................................................................. 20

4.2. POLITICAL FACTORS ................................................................................................... 20

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4.3. ECONOMIC FACTORS.................................................................................................. 21

4.4. EDUCATION. ............................................................................................................... 22

4.5. RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES .......................................................................................... 22

5. Language Attitude. .................................................................................................................... 22

5.1. NEPALI MOTHER TONGUE SPEAKERS ........................................................................... 22

5.2. INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES........................................................................................... 23

5.3. ATTITUDE OF MEMBERS OF NEIGHBORING COMMUNITIES ......................................... 23

6. Endangerment of Language...................................................................................................... 23

6.1. STATE OF ENDANGERMENT OF LANGUAGES OF NEPAL............................................... 23

6.2. ENDANGERMENT OF THE INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES IN NEPAL.................................. 24

7. Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 25

Appendixes ..................................................................................................................................... 58

APPENDIX 1. THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAL .......................................................................... 58

APPENDIX 2. CBS REPORT ON LANGUAGES (2001)........................................................... 60

APPENDIX 3. CARTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION............................................................... 62

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 63

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Introduction

The purpose of this monograph is to disseminate among a wider public insights gained

from the UNESCO Language Survey Report (2002) for Nepal. The emphasis is put on thelinguistic diversity of Nepal on the one hand, and on the reasons for and the status ofendangerment for some languages of Nepal on the other hand.

Nepal is well known as a country of rich diversity geographically and culturally. That it isequally rich in linguistic diversity is less known. For a small country like Nepal to have (atleast) 90 languages is often perceived incredible. A frequently met opinion is that thisnumber must be including dialects. Yet we are referring only to such languages as arespoken by indigenous peoples of Nepal, excluding the numerous dialects especially of thelarger languages. Also excluded are a number of languages spoken in neighbouringcountries by people groups spilling over into Nepal. The national language Nepali is the

mother tongue of only about half of the total population. At present (and at the time theSurvey was undertaken), almost all of the language groups of Nepal are represented in thecapital Kathmandu. This facilitates easy access to languages for the researcher, but itmeans danger for languages with a small number of speakers as it hastens language lossdue to the necessity of daily communication with speakers of other languages using theNepali language.

This monograph looks at languages spoken in Nepal in the context of Nepal’sgeographical, socio-linguistic and multi-cultural situation. In the first chapter, languageand geography is described. Chapter two deals with languages and dialects, includingmonolingualism, bilingualism and multilingualism. In chapter three, language use isdiscussed. Chapter four deals with the social and cultural situation in relation to language.Chapter five deals with language attitudes and their consequences. Chapter six focuses onendangerment of languages in Nepal. In conclusion, some counter measures are suggestedfor endangered languages, including institutions and organizations that are concernedwith description and preservation of languages. There is great urgency to act before it istoo late for some of the endangered languages in Nepal.

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1. GEOGRAPHY

1.1. THE PHYSICAL TERRAIN AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGES IN NEPAL

For maps showing the distribution of the languages spoken in Nepal, see Appendix 3.

Geographically, Nepal consists of three distinct and major geographical areas stretchingout from the west to the east: In the north, the high Himalayan mountain range, in thecenter, the mid-hills, and in the south, the sub-tropical lowland of the Terai plains. Thisgeographic diversity is reflected in a rich biodiversity. Correspondingly, there is also a richdiversity among the peoples, cultures and languages.The bulk of mother tongues other than Nepali are Tibeto-Burman. The high altitude areasbelong to linguistic communities speaking Central Bodish, West Himalayan, and WestBodish languages. In the mid-hills we find linguistic communities speaking CentralHimalayan and Kirati languages. In the lowland of the Terai, Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman,Munda, and Northern Dravidian languages are spoken (Appendix 1). In addition, asmentioned above, the national language Nepali is spoken throughout the country as itserves as the lingua franca for all the people.

1.2. CHANGES IN THE GEOGRAPHICAL BOUNDARIES OF THE LANGUAGES IN NEPAL

The kingdom of Nepal was established by Prithiwi Narayan Shah in the 18th century. Withthe establishment and the eastward expansion of the kingdom, the area where Nepali isspoken, also expanded from west to east. Nepali, the language of the founder of modern

Nepal, became the national language of the kingdom. As the Nepali language moved eastand the number of Nepali mother tongue speakers increased, some of the indigenouslinguistic communities also moved eastward. It is, for example, believed that the speakersof the Kirati languages were pushed eastward at that time. Later on, several communitiesspeaking Tibetan languages moved south into Nepal from their original habitat beyondthe Himalayan mountain range.

1.3. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAL

1.3.1. Nepali

As the national language, Nepali (alternatively called Khas Kura, Ghorkhali or Parbate) isspoken all over Nepal as the mother tongue of slightly more than half of the totalpopulation. However, Nepali is prevalent in the western part of the country where it isspoken in an area uninterrupted by areas of other linguistic communities. Throughout thesouthern plains of the Terai, both mother tongue speakers and settlers from all over Nepalspeak a “neutral” variety of Nepali. Nepali is also generally used as the lingua franca forcommunication among different language groups.

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1.3.2. Other languages.Languages other than Nepali are called the “national languages” of Nepal. This termcorresponds with the term “minority language” or “indigenous language” used in other

countries. These languages are spoken in areas inhabited by specific ethnic groups. Buteven there, Nepali dominates as a mean of communication with Nepali mother tonguespeakers and with members of other linguistic communities. In contrast to the widespreaduse of Nepali by not only mother tongue speakers, the indigenous languages are spokenonly by mother tongue speakers among themselves and within the area where they live.In the high mountainous areas in northwest Nepal: Mugu, Dolpo, Mustang and Manang,Tibetan languages are spoken. Similarly in the northern, high mountain areas of eastNepal, we find smaller Tibetan-speaking groups, namely, Yohlmo, Jirel, and Sherpa. TheSherpas arrived from the north and settled there in recent history.From central Nepal (Palpa) going east in the mid-hills, we find an increasing number ofother linguistic communities interspersed with Nepali speaking communities. In manycases, towns and villages are comprised of different language groups, each one settling inone section of the town or village.Large language groups, such as Magar, Gurung and Tamang live in the hilly regions ofcentral Nepal. They speak Tibeto-Burman languages. In the southern lowland of the Terai,Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman, Munda and North Dravidian languages are spoken.

1.4. The Residential Situation of the Language Communities of Nepal.

Compact communities of Nepali mother-tongue speakers are found throughout Nepal.Most of these are in west Nepal. Some names of these compact settlements of Nepalispeakers are indicative of the section of society that is predominant there: place names like

“Chetrigaun”, “Basnetgaun”, “Bahunepati” are examples. However, in indigenouslanguage areas such compact communities are not the rule. Instead, there may be sectionsof villages or towns that are predominantly ethnically and linguistically Nepali speakingcommunities.Villages of the mid-hills, where people speaking Tibeto-Burman languages are settled,frequently consist of communities of indigenous peoples belonging to one linguisticcommunity. At the edge of these villages, there may be a row of houses belonging to theNepali speaking occupational castes such as blacksmiths, coppersmiths, silversmiths andtailors whose services are needed by the villagers. In some places, these people may speakthe language of the predominant linguistic community as a second language.In recently settled areas like the Terai, settlers belonging to all the different ethnic and

linguistic groups including Nepali mother-tongue speakers are living side by side. Thetraditional villages of the original inhabitants are often removed from recent modernsettlements that are more easily accessible.

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1.5. Internal and External Movement

Since the establishment of modern Nepal, population movement in Nepal has been

eastward. In later waves of migration, people, originally settled in Nepal, continued tomove east, even across the border into what is now West Bengal. When Darjeeling, India,was developed as a “hill station” by the British and tea gardens were established, Nepalipeople migrated there. They found work not only in the teagardens but also had variousother occupations as house servants or servants in the restaurants and they worked astailors, blacksmiths or merchants. When teagardens were further established towards theeast, even as far as Bhutan, Nepali workers were invited over there. Another wave ofmigration brought Nepali to help in road construction in that area. When the roads hadbeen built, the migration continued, extending into Assam and states of northeast India.A southward movement began more recently, after the Terai, the southern lowlands ofNepal, was opened in the 1960’s. Vast tracts of forested areas were cleared and malariawas eradicated, and so this area became available for settlement. People from the mid-hillsmoved south to settle there because the population in some of the hill villages hadincreased beyond sustainability. It must be noted, that these waves of migration consistedof individuals, not of whole communities. Such individuals who left their home, left theircultural environment, and with it, their mother tongue to blend into the new communityof settlers from all the different language groups of the mid–hill communities.The most recent movement is directed towards urban centers, in particular theKathmandu Valley, for work and higher education. The fact that speakers of just about allthe languages of Nepal can now be found in Kathmandu shows how widespread andmassive the migration to urban areas has become in recent years. It must be noted that inmany, if not most cases, those who finish their education or find work in Kathmandu willnot return to their homes for various reasons. First of all, those who come to Kathmandu

in search for work or for higher education do so because they do not find enough arableland in their home community to sustain them and their families. Secondly, the educationand the professional training they received in the city is generally not of any use in theirrural community unless it is medical or educational. Often these migrants lose theirmother tongue simply because they find little contact with members of their own linguisticcommunity or because of marriage to a member from another linguistic community. Themost recent massive wave of migration is also partially due to the threat from theinsurgency in the countryside. People do not only migrate to Kathmandu, but also to otherNepali towns as well as to other South Asian countries. Other destinations are countries inthe Middle East, such as Qatar, Kuwait, Iraq, as well as the Far East, such as, Thailand,Malaysia, Hong Kong, Brunei, Korea and Japan. Still others move to the USA, Australia

and Europe. These migrations are accelerating the abandonment and loss of indigenousmother tongues.

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1.6. Distribution of the Languages of Nepal in Other Countries

Nepali is spoken outside Nepal for several reasons. It is spoken in areas outside Nepal’s

present day borders because Nepali speakers have been living in those areas or migratedthere before the borders were fixed. Nepali speaking communities in Northeast India andeven as far away as Burma (Myanmar) are found there because of the settling of Gurkhasoldiers after their retirement. The extensive use of Nepali in Darjeeling is a result of themassive migration mentioned above.As mentioned above, communities speaking Tibetan languages or dialects moved from thenorth into the high mountainous area of Nepal, the most recent ones being the Sherpa ineast Nepal. Some of the large language groups such as the Rajbansi in the Terai originatedin India and moved north into present-day Nepal. On the other hand, the linguisticcommunity of Maithili speakers historically lived in the area that nowadays is divided bythe international border with India. This is also the case for the Byansi who live on bothsides of the border with India in the far north west of Nepal.

2. THE LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS OF NEPAL

2.1. OFFICIAL STATUS OF LANGUAGES

Nepali is the national language and the lingua franca in Nepal, the language used bygovernment, banks, businesses, media, and all educational institutions throughout thecountry. According to the Nepali constitution of 1990, the indigenous languages are

recognized as “languages of the nation”, but not for official use.

2.2. LANGUAGE AND DIALECT

The term “language”, as opposed to “dialect”, may be described here as the mother tongueand means of communication among a specific group of people. A specific language isunintelligible to others not belonging to that specific group. Dialect may be described as avariation within a certain language. There may be variations of the lexicon or grammar orboth, but these variations do not hinder the intelligibility.Languages may have dialectical differences to a greater or smaller extent. Such differences

stand out for languages that have a large number of speakers or that are spread out over alarge area or over an area divided by rivers or mountains separating the differentsettlements. Areas at the edge of a linguistic community may be prone to not only bebilingual but also to speak a particular dialect containing vocabulary or grammatical itemsfrom both languages. In addition, a kind of dialect might be created, when a certain sectionof a language group has a specialized occupation. Many times several of these factorswork together in creating a dialect.

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2.3.NEPALI DIALECTS.

“Kathmandu-Nepali” can be considered the standard form of spoken Nepali, but we can

observe many other spoken forms or dialects. These dialects of Nepali may differconsiderably due to the isolation and inaccessibility of the different locations. But still,they are mutually intelligible dialects of one language (see appendix for examples). Wedistinguish Western, Central and Eastern dialects of Nepali. The largest number of dialectsof Nepali is found in west Nepal. These dialects of Nepali are named after the regionswhere they are spoken. Starting from the northwest there are the Dandeldhura, Baitadi,Bajhangi, Bajurali, Acchami, and Jumli (or Jumleli) and Doteli dialects. For Doteli adictionary is available. In Central Nepal, Palpali is another distinct dialect. Moving east,Kathmandu has its distinct and prestigious dialect and finally, in the far east of Nepal,Ilam has a distinct dialect.Some examples may illustrate the differences of Nepali dialects (approximate Romantransliteration. Nasalization is indicated with ‘n’ preceding a consonant or word final):

Dandeldhura: /ham aunya hunu/ “we don’t come”BaitaDi: /ham nain auna/ “we don’t come”Dhoti: /ham naiaunya hun/ “we don’t come”Palpa: /hami aunnam/ “we don’t come”Kathmandu: /hami aundainnaun/ “we don’t come”Ilam: /hami aundouna / “we don’t come”

(Source: Dr C.M. Bandhu, 2060 B.S.)

As we move east, the solid block of Nepali speaking communities is interrupted by areaswhere Tibeto-Burman languages are predominant in informal situations while Nepali is

used for business and education.

2.4 DIALECTS OF OTHER LANGUAGES OF NEPAL.

The other indigenous languages of Nepal also show dialectical differences. But todistinguish language from dialect is sometimes difficult. In the absence of a recognizedstandard or prestige dialect, mutual intelligibility and acceptance are not always helpfulcriteria to decide a complex question. Among the large linguistic communities in CentralNepal, Eastern and Western Gurung as well as Eastern and Western Tamang are cases inpoint for languages grouped together under one name, rather than mere dialects.

Similarly, the Rai languages in East Nepal are often mistakenly thought to be dialects. Butwhile it is true that Bantawa “Rai” and Chamling “Rai” are very closely related, the fewexamples below can easily prove that the majority of Rai languages are mutuallyunintelligible. They live in close proximity, yet are isolated from each other by steepmountains and rivers, which are difficult to cross.

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Khaling ‘tya maang?’ “What is this?”Thulung ‘oram ham?’ “What is this?”Kulung ‘angki ui sez?’ “What is this?”

Bantawa ‘oo Di?’ “What is this?”Chintang ‘bangoThen?’ “What is this?”

The different dialects (their mutual intelligibility yet to be established) of Magar and Khamin Central Nepal and Limbu in East Nepal are likely to be the result of a large number ofsettlements scattered widely over inaccessible terrain. The dialects within the language areaccepted, but a prestige or standard dialect is not recognized. The definition of Kagate(listed in the National Census 2001 as a language) as a dialect of Yohlmo is based on theoccupation of these people as producers of paper and their geographical proximity to theYohlmo. At the same time, the Kagate, while affirming their linguistic differences, alsoaffirm their ethnic identity as different from that of the large group they are perceived tobelong to.Yet another situation is that of small linguistic communities who, though speaking theirown language, give themselves the name of a large ethnic group they live close to. Thiscan be illustrated by the Ghale and Baram who often identify themselves as Gurung, whiletheir languages are completely different from Gurung.A shift towards the language of an adjacent larger language group has, for example, beenobserved in the case of the Dhimal who live in the neighborhood of the Rajbansi. The twodialects of Dhimal, eastern and western Dhimal are distinct in that the eastern dialectcontains many loans from Rajbansi while retaining Dhimal grammar.

2.5. SPOKEN LANGUAGE

2.5.1. Nepali.Nepali is the language of government, business, media, education and literature.Moreover, as mentioned above, Nepali plays an important role as the lingua franca forcommunication among people of different linguistic communities.Therefore, apart from very remote villages in areas traditionally belonging to speakers oflanguages other than Nepali, we find that most people in Nepal have some command ofNepali to be able to communicate to a certain degree. It goes without saying that the use ofNepali is more prevalent in urban areas such as Kathmandu, Pokhara, and other townsespecially in the Terai such as Nepalganj, Butwal, Birganj and Biratnagar.

2.5.2. Other languagesThe languages spoken by indigenous people in Nepal, mostly Tibeto-Burman languages,but also some Indo-Aryan, Munda and Northern Dravidian languages are confined tospecific areas. Their speakers belong to one particular ethnic group and in general,outsiders do not speak these languages.

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Basically and traditionally, the languages of Nepal have been passed down orally fromone generation to the next within the areas where indigenous people have been livingwithout contacts with the outside world.

Today this state of isolation is changing dramatically. Schools are now found in everyvillage, providing education in Nepali. Since the teachers mostly come from the urbanareas, the awareness of other places outside of their community is growing and the desireto see other places is increasing. Even in difficult to access areas people are now travelingmuch more than in earlier times, meeting and mixing with members of other linguisticgroups and using Nepali as the medium of communication.

2.5.3. Monolingual SpeakersMonolingual speakers of the national language, Nepali, are those whose mother tongue isNepali. They are distributed over the whole country. Among the indigenous peoples,monolingual speakers are mostly found among people of the older generation and amongthose living in remote villages without contact with outsiders.

2.5.4. Bilingual SpeakersBilingualism is prevailing all over the country. In urban areas and wherever there is accessto schools, bilingualism is prevalent among young people of all ethnic groups who acquireknowledge of Nepali in school or through work. It must be said, however, thatbilingualism for Nepali mother-tongue speakers refers to their bilingualism in Nepali andHindi or English, whereas bilingualism for members of indigenous language groups refersto bilingualism in the indigenous language and Nepali.In areas along the border between two linguistic communities, bilingualism in the twolanguages may be found, though it is by no means the rule. If one of the two languagesenjoys a higher prestige, for example because it has a greater number of speakers,

members of this group tend to remain monolingual. However, those speaking thelanguage of lesser status will tend to be bilingual. But it is also common that in suchborder areas, members of both communities communicate in Nepali rather than in one ofthe indigenous languages.For the Terai, bilingualism is very common, as many mother tongue speakers of Nepalispeak Hindi with equal competence. Speakers of other languages, who came from the hillsto settle in the Terai, have also become bilingual. It can be observed, however, thatbilinguals of Nepali and Hindi continue to be using both these languages with equalcompetence while those who came from the hill areas gradually lose their mother tongueand are bilingual only during a transitional period. In many, if not most cases, parents donot teach their mother tongue to their children with the consequence that these children

grow up as monolingual Nepali speakers. It can therefore be said that the Terai is a reallinguistic melting pot.

2.5.5. Multilingual SpeakersMultilingualism is frequent among the educated elite in the urban areas, especially inKathmandu. Multilingual Nepali mother-tongue speakers are mostly competent in Nepali,Sanskrit, English and Hindi. Nepali who studied abroad, mostly in Anglophone countries,

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but sometimes also in Russia, Germany or Japan, are fluent and literate in both Nepali andEnglish or in Russian, German or Japanese.Multilingualism is also frequently observed along trekking routes of the hills and

mountains where tourists move and interact with Nepali people involved in the tourismindustry as lodge keepers, hoteliers and restaurateurs, porters, guides, cooks, as well asthe general populace of these areas. Those who are employed in the tourism industry andin mountaineering speak a number of languages used by expeditions and trekking groups.Most frequently needed is English, followed by Japanese, German, French, Italian andSpanish, but also other languages are used, since some trekking agencies specialize inproviding services for foreigners other than English speakers. Trekking guides may learnthese languages from their clients or through attending one of the many language schoolsin Kathmandu.Multilingualism in diverse languages of indigenous people is not found as a rule, but in asmall number of individuals who acquired competence in several languages due to theirpersonal circumstances. For instance, some women who are married to a man from adifferent language group may decide to acquire their husband’s language. Some, however,decide that they can communicate sufficiently in Nepali. Others may themselves learntheir husband’s language and at the same time teach their own mother tongue to theirchildren so that they grow up bilingually or even multilingually through their schooling inNepali.Due to service in the Gurkha Regiments of the British and Indian armies, multilingualspeakers can be found not only in the urban areas, but also in rural areas all over thecountry. Retired Gurkha soldiers may be multilingual speakers of their mother tongue (inmany cases a Tibeto-Burman language), Nepali, Hindi and English.

2.5.6. Language Shift.

The number of Nepali speakers has been increasing not only because of populationgrowth, but also because of education, urbanization, migration and intermarriage.Individuals moving to the urban areas for educational or professional motives go througha transitional stage of bilingualism with Nepali increasingly replacing their mothertongue. This trend leads to a decrease in the number of speakers of several indigenouslanguages (e.g., Thakali, Gurung, Magar, Sherpa, some Rai languages). In other cases, thedecrease is upset because of a population increase in the indigenous language areas.Intermarriage outside one’s own linguistic group is much more common now than evenone generation ago. Often both partners end up speaking Nepali rather than opting for thelanguage of one of them, since Nepali carries more prestige and seems more useful, orwhen the family settles outside the indigenous language area. Very small linguistic

communities are most threatened in this respect. Kusunda is a primary example(D.Watters, 2005).The Terai area contributes particularly to the increase of Nepali speakers. Hill people whomoved there to settle must use Nepali as the language of communication. In the same way,the original inhabitants feel more and more compelled to adopt Nepali as a means ofcommunication.

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A very small number of foreign educated Nepalese from different linguistic groups arespeaking English to their children because of their intention to send their children toEnglish schools. This practice may in the end also contribute to the decrease in the number

of Nepali mother tongue speakers.

2.6. W RITTEN LANGUAGE

2.6.1. The Writing Systems of the Languages of NepalUnlike in countries as India or China, where there are large groups of indigenous peopleswhose languages have a written form; the languages of Nepal’s indigenous peoples are forthe most part unwritten ones. The Devanagari script is used for the major Indo-Aryanlanguages, such as Nepali, Maithili, Awadhi, Bhojpuri as well as for Newari (the latter is aTibeto-Burman language). The Limbu, have their Kirati “Srijanga” script which is alsoused by other Kirati (e.g. Sampang). Lepcha has its own script, the “Rong” script. For

Tamang and Sherpa, the Lamas use the Tibetan script for religious texts. Magar are tryingto use a script of their own: “Akkha” and the Sunuwar have also developed their script(used by Sunwar in Sikkim, India). Finally, the Satar brought the Roman alphabet fromIndia to write their language.However, since the national language Nepali, has been considered a unifying factor for thecountry, indigenous peoples have received little encouragement to develop their ownwriting systems. Instead, they have been encouraged to become competent in the nationallanguage in both speaking and writing. Thus, all of these people, including those havingtheir own scripts, have been using the Devanagari script as well. Some individuals havetried to make the necessary adaptations, even creating new letters to accommodate asound and tone system not represented in Nepali.

The absence of writing systems and literature in the indigenous languages also contributesto decreasing use of indigenous languages while those languages that are written andhave literature are stable. The example of Newari is an exception because the majority ofthe Newar live in urban areas, especially the Kathmandu valley, where the influence anduse of Nepali is all pervasive in daily life, through education and the media.

2.6.2. Standardization of Languages of NepalStandardization of both spoken and written language can always be challenged sincelanguage is not static but lives and changes naturally. Thus, even though the Nepalilanguage has considerable advantage over the indigenous mother tongues as a writtenlanguage, even for Nepali, the process of standardization is still ongoing.

Most of the indigenous languages in Nepal have not developed their own spoken as wellas written standard forms yet. Only recently, linguistic studies have been conducted andthese have prepared the way for standardization. “Prestige” or “standard” dialects havebeen identified and grammars, dictionaries, orthographical studies and literacy materialshave been published. Even more recently, minority groups themselves have begun tomake dictionaries and mother tongue authors write and publish in their own languages.

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But there is still a long way to go to achieve standardization of orthographies forindigenous languages.

2.6.3. Literacy rateThe lack of standardization of languages apart from Nepali, both of spoken and writtenforms, contributes to the distorted and inaccurate numbers of Nepali literacy rates. For ifthere is no written form of a language, the literacy rate is considered zero. The low literacyrates in Nepal reflect the fact that mother-tongue education is yet to be put into practice,although the right to mother tongue education has been granted in the constitution of1990. Even for Limbu, Lepcha, Magar and Sunuwar, languages having their own script,the literacy rate in that script is considerably less than the literacy rate in Nepali.There is, however, a small number of pioneers who have tried to write in their ownlanguages using the Devanagari script. Sadly, in most cases, they gave up because theirlanguages contained sounds not represented in the Devanagari script. This may nowchange for the better, since there is more general interest in indigenous languages andtheir documentation and preservation as well as an awareness of endangerment ofunwritten languages.

2.6.4. Literary TraditionsNepali has a rich literary tradition beginning with Bhanubhakta who wrote and translatedmany works from Sanskrit (notably the Ramayana). He was followed by many otherwriters who wrote in different genres and on a great variety of topics. Present day Nepaliliterature also is very much alive and newspapers and magazines abound since 1990. Inaddition to Sanskrit, Maithili and other Indo-Aryan languages have their own literatures.Newari, among the Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal, has its own literature of variousgenres, reaching back over a period of several hundred years. Other indigenous peoples

have oral traditional literature that is only now being published. The Limbu Mundum, theBantawa Dowong Dum Samkaling, and the Tamang Tambakaiten are a few examples.The Royal Nepal Academy has published many folk stories from different linguisticgroups, translated into Nepali. There is also a wealth of folk songs among a number ofindigenous linguistic groups. Such songs are often created on the spot during contests or just as entertainment. The Gurung “Rodi” and the Tamang song contests are examples.Dance accompanied by singing, such as the Limbu ‘Palam’ and the paddy dance, the Rai“Chandi” are examples of traditional oral literature alive and practiced in the present.Drama is another literary genre that is orally transmitted and very much alive in theNepali literary scene of today.In many cases indigenous languages still do not have a written form. With few exceptions,

it is only since 1990, since the advent of democracy in Nepal, that research has been doneon the kingdom’s indigenous languages. Much is yet to be done to produce grammaticaldescriptions, dictionaries, and collections of folk tales and ritual literature, as well as forspreading the use of the written indigenous languages among their mother tonguespeakers through literacy classes.

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3. LANGUAGE USE

In Nepal, Nepali is generally used for all official purposes as well as for business and

educational goals. Since most of the indigenous languages do not have written forms, theycannot be used for these purposes. However, where spoken language is concerned andsufficient, many of the linguistic communities in Nepal use their mother tongue efficientlyand enthusiastically.

3.1. INFORMAL SITUATIONS

In the villages where the indigenous people live in compact communities, the mothertongue is used consistently within the family and among the older generation. Youngadults also use their mother tongue with their elders as a sign of respect. Generally,women are more regularly using the mother tongue then men because they are lessexposed to Nepali. Only recently girls have been regularly attending school and thusbecame competent in Nepali. Traditionally, women have been staying in the village whilethe men traveled for trade or lived away from their homes working abroad or in thecapital where they had to communicate in Nepali. School age children and young peopleamong themselves tend to use Nepali in varying degrees according to the situation andthe depth of their education.In urban areas where people of different ethnicity live together the use of the (non-Nepali)mother tongue decreases greatly. The longer the stay in such urban areas, the greater thepossibility that the mother tongue is abandoned completely. In cases where maritalpartners are from different language groups, or a husband served over a long time in aGurkha regiment or because of other long absence from the village area, families may

choose Nepali as their means of communication even in their home village.

3.2. USE BY SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES

In general, indigenous languages are spoken only by members of an indigenous linguisticcommunity. Exceptions are work relationships (Nepali mother-tongue speakers workingfor members of an indigenous group as agricultural day labourers), marriage betweenmembers of different language groups and a mixed population living in villages thatstraddle a language border. (See also above, 3.1.4. and 3.1.5.)

3.3. USE IN ADMINISTRATION

Nepali is the language for official use. The indigenous languages may not be used in anygovernment offices. In recent years, two linguistic communities, namely the Newar andthe Maithili requested use of their respective languages in city offices, but the SupremeCourt rejected their request.

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3.4. USE IN EDUCATION

Nepali is used for education. Only recently, English schools have sprung up, first in the

Kathmandu Valley and later also in other towns of the more outlying districts. Indigenouslanguages have been the medium of education only in a very few cases, that is, Newari(one school in the Kathmandu valley), some of the Kirati languages, namely Bantawa,Limbu (formal education), and Khaling (adult literacy, non-formal education).Though the use of indigenous languages as a medium for education has been granted, ithas not been put into practice. Textbooks in a number of languages of Nepal have beenproduced but they are for the most part not distributed due to the lack of teachers trainedto use them. Though the number of teachers from indigenous language groups hasincreased as the result of increasing access to education, these teachers are rarely sent backto their mother tongue community after graduating. Therefore, and because of thecontinued use of Nepali as the medium of instruction, there is a high dropout rate invillage schools.

3.5. USE OF LANGUAGES IN THE MEDIA

In addition to Nepali, Radio Nepal broadcasts news in Newari, Maithili, Bhojpuri,Awadhi, Sherpa, Limbu, Bantawa, Tamang, Gurung, Magar and Kham. Some of thesebroadcasts are done from regional stations in the areas where these indigenous peoplelive. Radio Nepal has also broadcast folk songs from various indigenous language groups.Some FM stations have programs in some of the local languages.Newari, Limbu, and a few other languages produce newspapers, newsletters andmagazines either monolingual in the indigenous language or in diglot with Nepali.

A private TV station in Nepal recently produced an excellent film on life in a Limbuvillage, using the Limbu language exclusively. Private producers have produced similarfilms in Newari, Maithili, and Bantawa.On the other hand, an increasing number of news publications are in English and these areread not only by foreigners but also by bilingual and educated Nepalese, some Nepaliauthors also write literary works in English.

3.6. USE IN RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES

Hindu religious scriptures are available in Sanskrit and have been translated into Nepali.

The translation of the Ramayana done by Bhanubhakta is the most famous one and readby many to this day. Other Indo-Aryan mother tongues (such as Nepali, Maithili,Rajbansi) may also be used in Hindu ceremonies.Buddhist scriptures are mainly in Tibetan and Pali. Recently, some Buddhist texts weretranslated into Nepali from Japanese.Indigenous people who follow Islam now have a translation of the Koran in Nepali. Thistranslation also contains the Arabic original in a diglot edition.

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A portion of the Bible was first translated into Nepali in 1822 in India. This was the firstprinted book in the Nepali language. The New Testament and hymnbooks are available inNepali as well as in several other languages.

Religious rites of indigenous peoples, such as the Bantawa, “Dowong Dum Samkaling”(Rites of Passage) are conducted in ritual forms of the mother tongue.

3.7. USE IN BUSINESS AND LABOR RELATIONS

In general, the Nepali language is used for economic activities in Nepal. Business activitiesbetween members of an indigenous language group may be conducted in their ownlanguage. But where written documents are required they are in Nepali unless thelanguage has a written form.

4. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS AFFECTING SPEECHCOMMUNITIES

4.1. HISTORICAL FACTORS

From the unification of Nepal in the 18th century, the spread of the Nepali language wasactively promoted by the rulers. In order to achieve this, Nepali mother-tongue speakerswere sent into indigenous areas as schoolteachers or miners and often, retired soldierswere given land in those areas. Therefore, in some of the large language groups such asGurung and Magar, abandonment and loss of the mother tongue began early. Today,

Gurung and Magar are found outside their original area, especially in the east of Nepal,more than other non-Nepali mother-tongue speakers. Concentrated Nepali speakingsettlements of Gurung such as in Rumjatar (Okhaldhunga) and Magar miners in Wapsa(Solu-Khumbu) are examples for early loss of the mother tongue.

4.2. POLITICAL FACTORS

Under the Panchayat System (1961 – 1990) the use of indigenous languages was activelydiscouraged under the policy of “One Nation, One Language”. Still, a few organizationstried to promote indigenous languages and cultures. But because of this policy, they had

to work largely underground and therefore were not successful on a large scale. Thegovernment did not recognize the existence and uniqueness of the many indigenousgroups, each with their own language and culture that constitute the Nepali nation.The 1990 constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal finally recognized the multi-lingual realityof the country: “All languages spoken as the mother tongue in the various parts of Nepalare the languages of this nation” (Article 6.2). This constitution also states that: “Everycommunity residing within the kingdom of Nepal shall have the right to protect and

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develop its language, script and culture. Each community shall have the right to establishschools for providing education to the children up to primary level in their mothertongue.” (Article 18.1 and 18. 2). For the first time since the existence of the state of Nepal,

the right to primary education in the mother tongue was granted. It is, however, still along way to implementation.

4.3. ECONOMIC FACTORS

Maintaining the mother tongue, whether within the indigenous area or outside of it,involves an extra effort, yet brings no economic advantage. In fact, it may even be ahindrance to fluency and mastery of the prestigious national language. Thus, mothertongue speakers of indigenous languages may feel compelled to abandon their mothertongue in order to succeed economically. For the same reason, they do not see anyadvantage in teaching it to their children.

Most of the indigenous people live in the countryside working as peasant farmers,producing more or less enough to live but no cash crops. In many places in Nepal, theenvironment has been increasingly deteriorating through landslides, floods anddeforestation. Together with the steady increase in the population, the situation in themajority of the villages is now such that the arable land is not enough to support thepopulation. Thus, migration for economic reasons has become prevalent. Migration to theTerai in search of land, or to the cities in search of work has drastically changed thelanguage use, that is, from the indigenous languages to Nepali by necessity.Because of their occupation, speakers of some indigenous languages are more prone toabandon their mother tongue than others. The Raji are fishermen, while the Majhi andBote used to ferry people across the rivers as long as there were no bridges. These

occupations for a long time have brought them into contact with members from otherlinguistic communities with the result that these languages are now seriously endangered.The Newar have traditionally been merchants and artisans, especially those living in theKathmandu Valley. Through their occupations, they have a long tradition of living inurban areas. This has negatively influenced their appreciation and retention of theirmother tongue in spite of having a long literary tradition.Speakers of Byansi, and Thakali are farmers as well as traders. For these people, there hasbeen a linguistic shift from Tibetan (needed as a second language for trade with the areasnorth of their settlements) to Hindi and Nepali (needed nowadays for trade with thesouth). In addition, those Thakali speakers, who live along a pilgrimage route, have beeninteracting a lot with outsiders. This resulted not only in an early acquisition of Nepali, but

also in an early on-set of language loss.The Sherpa traditionally were traders, herders and farmers. Nowadays, they are mainlyoccupied as trekking guides, where they are constantly conversing with members of otherlinguistic communities as well as foreigners. Thus, there is great danger of accelerated lossof their mother tongue.

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4.4. EDUCATION

Education still is conducted exclusively in Nepali, which affects the use of the indigenous

mother tongue and is leading parents to teach Nepali to their children in order to makethem academically successful as well as to ensure their smooth interaction with their peersat school. This way the lack of education in the mother tongue is partially responsible forlanguage loss among indigenous peoples.The absence of a written form and literature in the indigenous languages also negativelyaffects the growth and future of the indigenous languages.

4.5. RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES

In general, the Indo-Aryan people follow the Hindu religion wherever they live in Nepaland the Hindu religious ceremonies use religious texts written in Sanskrit. Although it is

not a language of general use, Sanskrit has been taught at schools in order to enable thosewho attend rites conducted in Sanskrit to understand the proceedings.Some among the Tibeto-Burman people groups practice Lamaistic Buddhism thatpermeates all spheres of their lives. The Buddhist scriptures read by the lama are inTibetan although the listeners may not understand. For literary materials, the question ofscript – whether it should be Tibetan in accordance to the religious texts or Devanagari tobe useful in everyday life – may become a problem.In the mid-hills the indigenous people practice forms of animism that include nature andancestor worship. Religious literature in the mother tongue is orally transmitted and therelevant parts are recited at various religious observances among the indigenouscommunities. To some extent the Limbu have a written form of their religious texts called

“Mundum”. Other languages have started to record their orally transmitted sacred texts.In communities of mixed population, animism together with Hindu rites (especially thoseconnected with festivals) is practiced. In those cases, rites are frequently conducted inNepali rather than the mother tongue.

5. LANGUAGE ATTITUDE

5.1. NEPALI MOTHER TONGUE SPEAKERS

The majority of Nepali mother-tongue speakers is monolingual. Though there are manydialects from west to east, they are still mutually intelligible. Because of the prestige theNepali language enjoys as the national language and lingua franca for all of Nepal, Nepalimother tongue speakers of any dialect have pride in it.

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5.2. INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES

As many of the indigenous languages were suppressed under the Rana and Panchayat

period’s actively pursued “One-Nation-One-Language” policy, indigenous people havecome to consider their languages not only unsuitable for education and business, but alsoinferior to Nepali in general. Therefore, they tried to improve their competence in Nepalirather than cultivating and preserving their own mother tongue, thus developing astrongly negative attitude towards the mother tongue. For small linguistic communities,this attitude has had dire consequences.Kusunda is one example for language loss due in part to attitude. The Kusunda probablyalways were a small linguistic community. Because their language and their way of life inthe jungle as hunters and gatherers was looked down upon by others, the Kusundaspeakers themselves acquired a negative language attitude. This, combined with theincreasing destruction of their habitat and intermarriage, has brought the language closeto extinction.Other large communities again, who have enjoyed access to education and economicprogress over a long time neglected their mother tongue in favor of the national language.It is only now, when the number of competent speakers has become quite low, that theybecome aware of the treasure they have in their mother tongue and through it, their ethnicidentity. This is the case of some of those who have for a long time served in the Nepalese,British and Indian Armies, thus interacting with members from other speech communities,using Nepali as the means of communication exclusively.Larger groups such as the Limbu, however, never lost pride in using their own language.Although they, too, were harassed by non-Limbu speakers around them, the Limbucontinued to use their mother tongue and developed the Srijanga writing system.

5.3. ATTITUDE OF MEMBERS OF NEIGHBORING COMMUNITIES

Nepali mother-tongue speakers have little knowledge of, and regard for the languages ofthe indigenous people of Nepal. Thus, speakers of indigenous language groups feeldiscriminated. On the other hand, many speakers of local languages have only recentlybecome concerned about the inroads Nepali has made upon their mother tongues, a trendthat has led to the neglect of their mother tongues in favor of Nepali.

6. ENDANGERMENT OF LANGUAGE

6.1. STATE OF ENDANGERMENT OF LANGUAGES OF NEPAL

What is endangerment of language? The term refers to a process that begins subtly bydecreasing use of a language, yet ultimately leading to the “death” of that language. The

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causes of endangerment are varied and not “bad” in themselves: In the course of thismonograph, various causes for such endangerment were touched upon.The state of endangerment of languages in Nepal varies greatly. There are some languages

that are near to extinction because of the small number of speakers - a prime example isKusunda. But there are other small groups - a number of the Rai languages - that thriveand have a healthy appreciation for their mother tongue, while at the same time, youngpeople study at the village schools and also become competent in Nepali.The size and location of the group, the availability and quality of education and thefrequency of contact with outsiders, especially Nepali mother-tongue speakers, influencethe attitude towards the mother tongue and the consciousness of linguistic identity.Moreover, many occupations that are only available in urban areas require literacy inNepali and this also has a negative influence on the continued use and preservation of theindigenous languages.There are large linguistic communities where there is not much interest in using themother tongue, very likely due to early access to education. Schools are teaching in theNepali language and teachers are from other speech communities. Those who aresuccessful in school and go on to study at the university are also integrated into themainstream of the Nepali speaking society with the cost of loss of the mother tongue.Other linguistic communities, where the use of mother tongue has decreased, show anawakening interest to preserve and cultivate the mother tongue before it is too late.Movements to preserve or even revive the mother tongue often start with those who liveoutside their linguistic community. Yet some languages continue to thrive because of ageneral unconditional loyalty to the mother tongue.In order to accurately assess the situation of endangerment, an in-depth study is needed aswell as practical steps taken. At present, only a rough guess can be made. A list ofendangered languages may contain the following languages: among the Indo-Aryan

group: Kumal, Majhi, Bote. Among the Tibeto-Burman group: Bramu, Dura (by someconsidered a dead language), Pahari, Raute, Raji, Sunuwar, and Kirati languages of smallsize such as Mewahang, Koi, Puma, Hayu and Tilung, in addition, Kusunda (un-classified).

6.2. ENDANGERMENT OF THE INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES IN NEPAL

The reasons for endangerment of indigenous language communities are various. Theremay be destruction of traditional habitat through deforestation (as in the case of the Rauteand Kusunda), or landslides (which wiped out almost completely the only two villages

where the Koi are located). Also due to steady growth of population, arable land may getscarce and people lose their livelihoods. This forces them to leave their original settlementsand to disperse among speakers of other languages, thus being obliged to communicate inNepali.The situation in the Terai is somewhat different. Here, indigenous communities that usedto be isolated are becoming communities of mixed population as newcomers from otherlinguistic communities settle next door to the original population of Tharu, Dhimal and

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Rajbansi. Since communication will have to be in Nepali, the use of the mother tongue ofthe original population of the Terai decreases and even small children are compelled toknow Nepali in order to play with their friends.

7. CONCLUSION

A language is a living organism. It is, therefore, natural for languages to change (We speakof language development and language growth). Changes in all areas of life findexpression in the language. If languages have a written form, their preservation andspread is facilitated and their prestige is rising. Language is intricately connected with thepeople that speak it and inseparable from society and culture.In this limited monograph we have considered the actual situation of linguistic diversityand the geographical distribution of languages in Nepal, based on the results of theUNESCO 2002 Survey.

To conclude, we see the urgency to work towards the preservation of the indeginouslanguages before it is too late. “Language death” is a recent term that denotes the end of alanguage – no more speakers that use it; no more literature is created in it. In such cases,written languages are at least preserved by a written testimony. What about unwrittenlanguages? They disappear, leaving no traces, except perhaps for names of people andplaces.

What practical steps can be taken to reverse or at least, arrest the endangerment oflanguages in Nepal? Education is a prime domain for action. While education in Nepali is

a prerogative, it is also equally important to enhance positive language attitudes to themother tongue with speakers of other languages. Bilingual education at the primary levelthat bridges into the national language seems to be the best measure. Needed are not onlyprimary school textbooks, but also mother tongue teachers and villages leaders who areconvinced of the value of their mother tongue.Primary education in the mother tongue would reverse the high dropout rate in thevillages. Mother tongue literacy classes of a non-formal nature for adults, together withprimary education in the mother tongue would result in a functionally literate society thatcould easily make the transition to become literate in the national language. Such a societywould take the initiative to preserve their mother tongue and culture, thus contributing tothe wealth of language and culture in Nepal.

Other counter measures to meet the imminent demise of languages exist in severalinstitutions and organizations dealing with linguistic planning and policy on the nationallevel.A government-sponsored venture on the languages of Nepal was the formation of aNational Languages Policy Recommendation Commission. The Commission submitted its

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report to the Minister of Education, Culture and Social Welfare in 1994. The mainrecommendations in the report were the following:

• Conduct a linguistic survey of Nepal in order to identify and determine the actual

number of languages spoken in Nepal.• Identify endangered languages in Nepal.

• Promote monolingual or bilingual education in the mother tongues and/or Nepali.

• Establish a language academy.

The Linguistic Society of Nepal has been existing for the past 25 years. Each year theSociety publishes a linguistic journal and meets for their annual conference where paperson various linguistic topics are presented and discussed. Indigenous languages providethe majority of topics.The Central Department of Linguistics at Tribhuvan University was established in 1999 toteach linguistic theory and to train Nepali linguists to do research on the languages ofNepal.

The Royal Nepal Academy was established by King Mahendra for the preservation anddevelopment of the Nepalese cultures. The study of languages of Nepal was added to theAcademy’s program for a while. The Academy published Nepali translations of folkstories of some ethnic groups of Nepal as well as a comprehensive dictionary of the Limbulanguage.The National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities sponsored a projectof “Basic Dictionaries” for several languages in cooperation with the Central Departmentof Linguistics and the Center for Nepal and Asian Studies.Among the indigenous peoples have now created several organizations concerned withthe preservation and cultivation of their culture, especially related to the preservation ofcostumes, dances and singing. Recently, some of these societies have produced smalldictionaries to stop language-loss among their linguistic community. In some cases, textshave been collected and published.

This kind of initiatives only exists since the last decade. They are signs that indigenouslanguage groups have begun to consider their mother tongues as an asset worth to bepreserved and cultivated. It is now imperative to affirm them and assist them in thisendeavour.

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g]kfndf efiffx?sf] ljljwtf tyf nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt


Translated into Nepali by Lekhnath Sharma Pathak

UNESCO

Kathmandu Office

Jawalakhel • Lalitpur • PO Box 14391 • Kathmandu • NepalPhone +977-1-5554-396/769 • Fax +977-1-5554-450

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ljifo–;rL

kl/ro

= e"ufn ........................................................................................................................................ 3

!=! g]kfnsf] ef}uf]lns l:ylt tyf efiffx?sf] ljt/0f ............................................................ 32

!=@ g]kfndf efiffsf ef}uf]lns ;Ldfx?df kl/jt{g ............................................................... 32

!=# g]kfnsf efiffsf] ef}uf]lns ljt/0f .................................................................................... 33

!=#=! g]kfnL ......................................................................................................................... 33

!=#=@ cGo efiffx? ..............................................................................................................33

!=$ g]kfnsf efiff ;d'bfox?sf] cfjf;Lo l:ylt ...................................................................34

!=% cfGtl/s / afXo cfjfudg .............................................................................................. 34

!=^ g]kfnsf efiffx?sf] cGo b]zx?df ljt/0f ....................................................................... 35

@= gkfnsf efiff tyf eflifsfx? ................................................................................................... 36

@=! efiffx?sf] sfof{noLo cj:yf ............................................................................................ 36

@=@ efiff / eflifsf ................................................................................................................... 36

@=# g]kfnL eflifsfx? ................................................................................................................ 37

@=$ g]kfnsf cGo efiffsf eflifsfx? ..................................................................................... 38 @=% sYo efiff ...........................................................................................................................39

@=%=! g]kfnL ........................................................................................................................ 39

@=%=@ cGo efiffx? .............................................................................................................39

@=%=# PsefifL jQmfx? .......................................................................................................40

@=%=$ låefifL jQmfx? .........................................................................................................40

@=%=% ax'efifL jQmfx? .......................................................................................................41

@=%=^ efiff cle;/0f ..........................................................................................................42 @=^ n]Vo efiff ...........................................................................................................................42

@=^=! g]kfnsf efiffsf n]vg k4ltx? ..............................................................................42

@=^=@ g]kfnsf efiffx?sf] dfgsLs/0f ..............................................................................43

@=^=# ;fIf/tf b/ ................................................................................................................ 44

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@=^=$ ;flxlTos k/Dk/fx? ................................................................................................44

#= efiff kofu ..................................................................................................................................45

#=! cgf}krfl/s cj:yfx?df .................................................................................................... 45 #=@ cGo efiffsf jQmfx?åf/f k|of]u ........................................................................................46

#=# k|zf;gdf k|of]u .................................................................................................................. 46

#=$ lzIffdf k|of]u .....................................................................................................................46

#=% cfd;~rf/ dfWodx?df efiffsf] k|of]u ............................................................................47

#=^ wfld{s ultljlwx?df k|of]u ...............................................................................................48

#=& Jofkf/ tyf >d ;DjGwx?df k|of]u .................................................................................48

$= jfs\ ;d'bfox?nfO{ c;/ kfg ;fdflhs / ;f:s[lts sf/s tTjx?

....................................

49

$=! P]ltxfl;s sf/s tTjx? ................................................................................................... 49

$=@ /fhg}lts sf/s tTjx? .................................................................................................... 49

$=# cfly{s sf/s tTjx? ........................................................................................................50

$=$ lzIff .................................................................................................................................. 51

$=% wfld{s ;d'bfox? ..............................................................................................................51

%= eflifs cjwf/0ff .........................................................................................................................5

%=! g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? .................................................................................................... 52 %=@ hghftLo efiffx? .............................................................................................................52

%=# l5d]sL ;d'bfosf ;b:ox?sf] cjwf/0ff .......................................................................... 53

^= efiffx?sf nf]kfGd'v l:ylt ........................................................................................................53

^=! g]kfndf efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt .................................................................................53

^=@ g]kfndf hghftLo ;d'bfox?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt ........................................................... 55

&= lgrf8 ..........................................................................................................................................55

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kl/ro

o; k'l:tsfsf] p2]Zo g]kfnsf nflu ;+o'Qm /fi6« ;+3Lo z}lIfs j}1flgs tyf ;f+:s[lts ;+u7g -o'g]:sf]_

k|ltj]bg -;g\ @))@_ af6 k|fKt ePsf 1fgx?nfO{ j[xQ/ hgtf ;fd" k'¥ofpg' xf] . o;df ljz]if hf]8

Psflt/ g]kfnsf] eflifs ljljwtfnfO{ lbOPsf] 5 eg] csf{lt/ g]kfnsf sltko efiffx?sf nf]kf]Gd'v

l:yltsf sf/0f / ltgsf] l:ylt af/] hfgsf/L lbOPsf] 5 .

g]kfn ef}uf]lns tyf ;f+:s[lts ljljwtfn] wgL b]zsf] ?kdf lrlgG5 . of] b]z eflifs ljljwtfdf klg

TolQs} wgL 5 eGg] s'/f ;j{ljlbt} 5 . g]kfn h:tf] ;fgf] b]zdf slDtdf () efiffx? x'g'df ;fdfGotof

cljZj;lgo dflgG5 . w]/} h;f]sf] ljrf/ ;fdfGotof s] 5 eg] of] ;+Vof eflifsfx? nufotsf] x'g'kb{5 .t/ xfdLx? o; cWoogdf /fli6«o efiffx?nfO{ dfq} O+lut ub} {5f} + h'g g]kfnsf hghfltx? dfq af]Nb5g\ .

o; afx]s g]kfnsf l5d]sL b]zx?df af]lng] w]/} efiffx? klg o; cWoogdf ;fd]n ul/Psf 5}gg\ .

/fi6«efiff g]kfnL o; b]zsf ;Dk" 0f{ hg;+Vofsf] cfwf hltsf] dft[efiff xf] . xfn;Dd -of] ;j{ ]If0f ubf{sf]

a]nfdf_ /fhwfgL sf7df8f} +df a;f]af; ug{ ]x?n] g]kfnsf w]/} h;f] efiff ;d" xx?sf] k|ltlglwTj ub{5g\ .

o;n] cg';GWffg stf{x?sf] efiff;Ddsf] kx' FrnfO{ ;lhnf] agfpF5 . t/ o;n] cGo efiffsf jQmfx?;Fu

b}lgs ;Dks{sf] qmddf g]kfnL efiff k|of]u ug{ 'kg{ ] ePsfn] / cfˆgf] dft[efiff sd k|of]u x'g] x'bf yf]/}

jQmfx? ePsf efiffx?nfO{ nf]k u/fpg ;S5 .

o; k'l:tsfn] g]kfndf af]lng] efiffx?nfO{ g]kfnsf] ef}uf]lns ;fdflhs efiff a}1flgs tyf jx';f+:s[lts

l:yltsf] ;Gbe{df bzf{Psf] 5 . klxnf] cWofodf efiff / e" uf]nsf] ljj/0f lbOPsf] 5 . bf];|f] cWofo

PsefifLotf, låefifLotf tyf ax'efifLotf nufot cGo efiff / eflifsfx?;Fu ;DalGwt 5 . t];|f]

cWofodf efiff k|of]u af/] 5nkmn ul/Psf] 5 . rf}yf] cWofo efiffsf] ;fdflhs tyf ;f+:s[lts l:ylt;Fu

;DalGwt 5 . kfFrf} cWofo eflifs cjwf/0ffx? / ltgsf kl/0ffdx? af/] 5 . 5}7f} + cWofosf] Wofg

g]kfndf efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltdf s]lGb| 5 . cGTodf efiffx?sf] ljj/0f n]Vg] tyf ;+/If0f ug{ ] ;+3

;+:yfx? nufot nf]kf]Gd'v efiffx?nfO{ hf]ufpg] pkfox? ;'emfOPsf] 5 . g]kfndf /x]sf s]xL nf]kf]Gd'vefiffx?nfO{ hf]ufpg w]/} l9nf x'g'eGbf cufj} xfdLx?n] s]xL u/L xfNg'kg{ ] 68\sf/f] cfjZostf 5 .

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= e"ufn

= gkfnsf efuf]lns l:ylt tyf efiffx?sf] ljt/0f

g]kfndf af]lng] efiffx?sf] gS;fx?sf nfuL kl/lzi6 # x]g{ 'xf];\ .

ef}uf]lns b[li6n], klZrd b]vL k" j{;Ddj g]kfn tLg ljz]if ef}uf]lns If]qx?df km}lnPsf] 5 M pQ/df

cUnf lxdfnL kj{t >[ +vnf, dWodf dWo–kj{tx? tyf blIf0fdf pk–cIf+zLo (Sub-tropical) ;dy/ t/fO{

a] +zL . o:tf] ef}uf]lns ljljwtf oxfFsf] cd" No h}ljs ljljwtfdf klg kl/nlIft ePsf] 5 . o;} u/LoxfFsf dflg;x?df, ;+:s[ltx?df tyf efiffx?df klg To:tf] ljljwtf kfOG5 .

g]kfnL afx]ssf w]/}h;f] dft[efiffx? ef]6–ad{ ]nL kl/jf/sf 5g\ . clt prfO{sf If]qx?df s]Gb| Lo af]b]nL,

klZrdL lxdfnL tyf klZrdL af]b]nL efiffx? af]Ng] eflifs ;d'bfox? kb{5g\ . dWo–kj{tx?df xfdL

lxdfnL tyf ls+/ftL efiffx? af]Ng] eflifs ;d'bfox? kfpF5f} + . t/fO{ a];Ldf ef/tLo–cfo{, ef]6–ad{ ]nL,

d'08f -cfUg]nL_ tyf pQ/L b|lj8 efiffx? af]lnG5g\ -kl/lzi6 !_ . o; afx]s, dfyL pNn]v ul/Pem} +

;Dk" 0f{ b]zdf /fi6«efiff g]kfnL af]lnG5 lsgeg] o;n] ;a} JolStx?sf] lglDt ;Dks{ efiffsf] sfd u5{ .

=@ gkfndf efiffsf efuflns ;Ldfx?df kl/jtg

g]kfn clw/fHosf] :yfkgf c7f/f} + ztfJbLdf >L % k[YjLgf/fo0f zfxaf6 ul/aS;]sf] lyof] . clw/fHosf]

:yfkgf / k" j{sf] lj:tf/;Fu}, g]kfnL af]lng] If]q klg klZrd b]lv k" j{lt/ lj:tf/ x' Fb} uof] . cfw'lgs

g]kfnsf ;+:yfkssf] efiff g]kfnL clw/fHosf] /fi6«efiff aGof] . g]kfnL efiffsf] k" j{ tkmL{ lj:tf/ / g]kfnL

dft[efifLsf] ;+Vofdf j[l4 ;Fu}, s]xL hghftLo eflifs ;d'bfox? klg To;}a]nf k" j{lt/ ws]lnPsf lyP .

kl5 uP/, ltAatL efiffx? af]Ng] s}of} + ;d'bfox? cfˆgf] d" n ynf] lxdfnL kj{t >[ +vnf kf/Laf6 blIf0fdf

g]kfnlt/ emg{ yfn] .

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=# gkfnsf efiffsf] efuflns ljt/0f

=#= gkfnL

/fi6«efiffsf] ?kdf g]kfnL -v; s'/f, uf]vf{nL, kj{t] gfdaf6 klg lrlgg]_ g]kfnsf] hg;+Vofsf] cfwf eGbf

s]xL a9L dflg;af6 dft[efiffsf] ?kdf g]kfne/ af]lnG5 . oBlk of] g]kfnL vf;u/L b]zsf] klZrdL

efudf a9L k|rlnt 5 hxfF of] efiff cGo eflifs ;d'bfosf If]qx?af6 c;/ gkg{ ] :yfgdf af]lnG5 .

;dy/ t/fO{ e]usf ;Dk" 0f{ If]qx?df dft[efifL jQmfx? tyf g]kfn e/Laf6 cfP/ a;f]af; ug{ ]x? b'j} y/L

g]kfnLsf] Ps lsl;dsf] æt6:yÆ :j?k k|of]u u5{g . ;fwf/0ftof cGo efiffefifLx? aLr klg g]kfnL

cfd ;Dks{sf] efiffsf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/G5 .

=#=@ cGo efiffx?

g]kfnL afx]s cGo efiffx?nfO{ g]kfnsf æ/fli6«o efiffx?Æ elgG5 . of] zAb sf] cy{ cGo b]zx?df

æcNk;+Vos efiffÆ cyjf æhghflto efiffÆ nfO{ k|of]u x'g] cy{;Fu nfU5 . oL efiffx? hghftLo ;d" x

ljz]ifdf af]lnG5g\ . t/ ToxfF klg g]kfnL dft[efifLx? tyf cGo eflifs ;d'bfosf ;b:ox? lar cfd

;+rf/sf] efiffsf] ?kdf g]kfnLs} k|e'Tj 5 . g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? afx]s cGo efifLx? aLr klg

g]kfnLsf] Jofks k|of]usf] 7Ls ljkl/t hghftLo efiffx? tL efiffsf jQmfx?åf/f dfq} af]lnG5g\ / Tof]

klg To;} If]qleq dfq} hxfF ltgLx? a;f]af; u5{g . pQ/klZrd g]kfnsf pRr kxf8L If]qx?M d'u',

8f]Nkf], d':tfª / dgfªdf ltAatL efiffx? af]lnG5g\ . To;}u/L k" jL{ g]kfnsf pQ/L pRr kxf8L If]qx?df,

xfdL s]xL ;fgf ltJjtL efifL ;d" xx? kfpF5f} + h:t} of]NXdf], lh/]n / z]kf{ . z]kf{x? pQ/af6 cfPsf x'g\

/ pgLx?sf] To; If]qdf a;f]af;sf] Oltxf; Tolt nfdf] 5}g .

ef}uf]lns ?kdf g]kfnsf] dWo efu -kfNkf_ b]lv k"j{lt/ nfUbf xfdL g]kfnL efifLx?aLr 5l/P/ /x]sf

cGo eflifs ;d'bfox? a9\b} uPsf] kfpF5f} + . w]/}h;f] ufpF / zx/sf 7fpFx? ljleGg efiffefifL ;d" xaf6

ag]sf x'G5g\ / k|To]s ;d" x ufpF cyjf zx/sf] s'g} Ps efudf a;f]af; u/]sf x'G5g\ .

7" nf efiff ;d"xx? h:t} du/, u'?ª / tfdfË dWo g]kfnsf] kxf8L If]qx?df a;f]af; ub{5g\ . ltgLx?

ef]6–ad{ ]nL efiffx? af]N5g\ . blIf0fsf] t/fO{a];Ldf ef/tLo–cfo{, ef]6–ad{ ]nL, d'08f tyf pQ/L b|lj8

efiffx? af]lnG5g\ .

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34

=$ g]kfnsf efiff ;d'bfox?sf cfjf;Lo l:ylt

7f]; ;d'bfodf /x]sf g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? ;Dk" 0f{ g]kfne/L kfO{G5g\ . clwsf+z rfFxL klZrd

g]kfndf 5g\ . g]kfnL efifLsf o:tf 7f]; a;f]af;sf gfdx?n] klg To; If]qdf ;dfhsf] s'g rfFxL

;d" xsf] afx'Notf 5 eGg] s'/f tkm{ ;+s]t u5{, 7fpFsf gfdx? h:t} æ5]qLufpFÆ, æa:g]tufpFÆ,

æafx'g]kf6LÆ o:tf pbfx/0fx? x'g\ . t/ hghftLo efiff If]qx?df eg] o:tf] 7f]; ;d'bfosf] h:tf] s'/f

eg] nfu' x' Fb}g . pN6} ufpF–zx/sf To:tf 7fpFdf o:tf pkIf]q x'g ;S5g\ hxfF hftLo tyf eflifs ?kdf

g]kfnL efifL ;d'bfox?sf] afx'Notf x'g ;S5 .

dWo kxf8L ufpFx?df hxfF ef]6–ad{ ]nL efiffx? af]Ng] dflg; a;f]af; u5{g\, To:tf 7fpFx?df k|foh;f]

o:tf hghftLo ;d'bfox? x'G5g\ hxfFsf dflg; Pp6} efiff ;d'bfosf x'G5g\ . o:tf ufpFx?sf 5]pdf

nx/} g]kfnL efifL k]zfut hftx? h:t} sfdL, bdfO{, ;'gf/sf 3/sf x'g ;S5g\ h;sf] k]zfut ;]jfsf]

ufpFsf jfl;Gbfx?nfO{ vfFrf] kg{ ;S5 . s'g} s'g} 7fpFx?df oL JolQmx? To; If]qsf] afx'Notf ePsf

eflifs ;d'bfosf] efiff bf];|f] efiffsf] ?kdf af]Ng ;S5g\ . t/fO{ h:tf xfn}df a;f]af; ePsf If]qx?df

g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? nufotsf ;Dk"0f{ ljleGg hflt tyf eflifs ;d" xx? ;Fu;Fu} a;f]af; u/]sf

5g\ . k'/fgf jfl;Gbfsf k/Dk/fut ufpFx? xfn}sf cfw'lgs a;f]af;sf ;lhnf] kx' Fr ePsf 7fpFx?eGbf

k|foM h;f] s]xL 6f9f x'G5g\ .

=% cfGtl/s / afXo cfjfudg

cfw'lgs g]kfnsf] :yfkgf b]lv g} g]kfndf w]/}h;f] hg;+Vofsf] a;fO;/fO k" j{lt/} x' Fb} uPsf] 5 .

a;fO;/fOsf] kl5Nnf qmddf d" ntM g]kfndf a;f]af; ug{ ]x? xfnsf] klZrd a+ufn ;Dd ;Ldfkf/L

k" j{lt/ ;b{ } uP . ha ef/tsf] bflh{lnË c+u| ]hx?åf/f ælxn :6]zgÆ sf] ?kdf ljsl;t x' Fb} lyof] / lrof

sdfgx? :yflkt eP, g]kfnLx? a;fO;/fO u/]/ Totf uP . ltgLx?n] lrof sdfgdf sfd dfq kfPgg\

cGo k]zfx? h:t} 3/]n' sfdbf/ / /]i6'/]06x?df sfdbf/sf] ?kdf tyf bdfO{÷bhL{, nf]xf/ / Jofkf/Lsf

?kdf klg sfd ug{ yfn] . ha lrof sdfgx? cem} k" j{lt/ lj:tfl/t x' Fb} uP, oxfF ;Dd ls e'6fgdf

klg, g]kfnL sfdbf/x? ToxfF lgDTofOP . a;fO;/fOsf] csf{ ] r/0fn] g]kfnLnfO{ ;8s lgdf{0fsf] sfddf

To; If]qdf k'¥ofof] . af6fx? agL ;s]kl5 klg a;fO;/fO eg] lg/Gt/ rlng} /Xof] / o;sf] lj:tf/

cf;fd / ef/tsf k"jf{ ]Q/ /fHox? ;Dd eof] . blIf0flt/sf] ;/fO eg] s]xL k5L cf/De eof], t/fO{ k5L

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g]kfnsf blIf0fL a];Lx?nfO{ O{:jL ;g\ !(^) sf] bzslt/ v'nf ul/of] . ToxfFsf] If]qnfO{ a;f]af; of]Uo

agfpg y'k| } ag If]qx? kmfFl8P / cf}nf] pGd'ng ul/of] . kxf8sf s'g}–s'g} ufpFx?sf] hg;+Vof y]Ug}

g;Sg] l:yltdf k'u]sfn] dWo–kxf8x?af6 dflg;x? a;f]af; ug{ t/fO{lt/ emg{ yfn] . oxfF s] pNn]vug' { kg] { x'G5 eg] ;fO;/fOsf oL r/0fx?df ;Dk" 0f{ ;d'bfox? xf]Og, JolStx? lyP . 3/ 5f]8]/ lx8\g]

o:tf JolQmx?n] ljleGg vfn] ;a} efiff ;d" xx?sf dWo–kxf8L ;d'bfo;Fu ldn]/ a:g cfˆgf] ;+f:s[lts

kl/j]z / o;;Fu} cfˆgf dft[efiffnfO{ k5f8L 5f8]/ cfPsf lyP . xfnsf] kl5NNf] j]u sfd tyf pRr

lzIffsf nflu zx/L s]Gb|x?lt/ ljz]ifu/L sf7df8f} + pkTosfdf nlIft 5 . g]kfnsf nueu ;j} h;f]

efiffsf jQmfx? sf7df8f} + pkTosfdf kfOgfn] xfnsf ;dodf zx/L If]qx?df a;fO;/fO{ Jofks /

lj:t[t ePsf] b]vfpF5 . ;a} h;f] gePklg, cfˆgf] cWoog k" /f ul/;s]sf / sf7df8f} +df hflu/ kfpg]x?

sltko sf/0fx?n] 3/ gkms{g] qmd pNn]vgLo 5 . ;jeGbf klxnf t sf7df8f} +df hflu/sf nflu cyjfpRr lzIffsf nflu cfpg]x? ot} a:5g\ . lsgeg] pgLx? cfˆgf] 7fpFdf cfkm" nfO{ tyf cfˆgf kl/jf/

kfNgsf nflu rflxP hlt v]tL of]Uo hldg kfpFb}gg\ . bf];|f], pgLx?n] zx/df k|fKt u/]sf] lzIff tyf

Joj;flos tflnd lrlsT;f ;DaGwL cyjf z}lIfs afx]s cGo ;fwf/0ftof ltgsf u|fdL0f ;d'bfox?df

s'g} sfd nfUb}gg\ . ;fdfGotof o;/L a;fO;/fO ug{ ]x?n] cfˆgf dft[efiff la;{G5g\ lsgeg] pgLx?sf]

cfˆg} dft[efifL ;d'bfosf ;b:ox?;Fu vf;} e]63f6 x' Fb}g cyjf cGo eflifs ;d'bfosf] ;b:o;Fu

j}jflxs ;DjGw ePsf] x'G5 . kl5Nnf] ;dodf cfP/ a;fO;/fOsf] Jofks nx/sf] sf/0f rfFxL s]xL

xb;Dd u|fdL0f If]qdf åGåsf] qf;n] klg xf] . dflg;x? sf7df8f} +df dfq} xf]Og cGo g]kfnL zx/x?df

tyf blIf0f Pl;ofsf cGo d'n'sx?df klg ;b{ }5g\ . cGo uGtJo :ynx? rfFxL dWo k" j{sf b]zx? h:t}M

stf/, s'j}t, O{/fs tyf ;'b" / k" j{sf b]zx? h:t} yfONof08, dn]l;of, xªsª, a| 'g]O{, sf]l/of / hfkfg

x'g\ . s]xL eg] cd]l/sf, ci6« ]lnof / o'/f]k hfG5g\ . o:tf a;fO;/fOn] hghftLo dft[efiffx?nfO{ TofUg]

tyf ltgLx?sf] nf]k x'g] qmdnfO{ ltj|tf lbO{/x]sf 5g\ .

=^ g]kfnsf efiffx?sf cGo b]zx?df ljt/0f

g]kfnb]lv aflx/ g]kfnL w]/} sf/0fn] af]lnG5 . of] efiff g]kfnsf] jt{dfg ;Ldf eGbf aflx/ af]lng'sf] d'Vo

sf/0f g]kfnL efifLx? tL If]qdf ;Ldfx? lglZrt x'g'eGbf klxNo} b]lv a;f]af; u/L /x]sf lyP cyjf

ToxfF a;fO;/fO u/]/ uP . hflu/af6 lgj[Q ePkl5 uf]/vf ;}lgsx? pt} a;f]af; u/]sfn] g]kfnL efifL

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;d'bfox? k" jf{ ]Q/ ef/tdf tyf adf{ -Dofgdf/_ ;Dd kfOG5g\ . bflh{lnËdf g]kfnLsf] Jofks k|of]u

x'g'sf] sf/0f dfly pNn]v ul/Pem} + Jofks a;fO;/fOsf] sf/0fn] ubf{ xf] .

dfly pNn]v ul/Pem} + ltAatL efiff cyjf eflifsf af]Ng] ;d'bfox? pQ/lt/af6 g]kfnsf pRr kxf8L

If]qx?df hfg yfn], o:tf kl5Nnf ;d'bfox?df k" jL{ g]kfnsf z]kf{ x'g\ . t/fO{df /fhj+zLem} + s]xL 7" nf

efiff ;d" xx? ef/tdf hGd] / pQ/df jt{dfg g]kfnlt/ ;/] . csf{lt/, d}lynL efifLx?sf] eflifs ;d'bfo

P]ltxfl;s ?kdf To; If]qdf a;f]af; ub{ } cfPsf] lyof] h'g xfndf ef/t;Fu cGt/f{li6«o ;Ldfn] ljeflht

5 . ef/t / ;'b" / klZrdf]Q/ g]kfnsf] ;Ldfsf b'j}lt/ a:g] Aof;Lx?sf] syf klg o:t} 5 .

@= g]kfnsf efiff tyf eflifsfx?

@= efiffx?sf] sfofnoLo cj:yf

g]kfnL g]kfnsf] /fi6«efiff tyf – ;/sf/L lgsfox?df, a} +sx?df, Jofkfl/s If]qdf cfd ;~rf/df tyf

g]kfnel/sf ;Dk" 0f{ z}lIfs ;+:yfx?df k|of]u x'g] hg;Dks{sf] efiff xf] . ;g\ !(() -lj=;+= @)$&_ sf]

g]kfnsf] ;+ljwfg cg';f/, g]kfnL afx]s cGo hghftLo efiffx?nfO{ æ/fi6«sf efiffÆ -/fli6«o efiff_Æ

elgPsf] 5 t/ ltgsf] ;/sf/L sfdsfhdf k|of]u ePsf] 5}g .

@=@ efiff / eflifsf

eflifsfsf] ljkl/t æefiffÆ nfO{ s]xL ljz]if ;d" xsf dflg;x?sf] dft[efiff tyf ltgLx?aLrsf] ;Dks{sf]

dfWod eGg ;lsG5 . s'g}klg efiff ljz]if To; ;d" x ljz]if b]lv aflx/sf JolQmx?nfO{ a'‰g ufx|f] x'G5 .

eflifsfnfO{ s'g} efiff leqsf] Ps e]b eGg ;lsG5 . o:tf e]bx?n] af]wuDotfnfO{ c;/ kfb{ }gg\ .

efiffx?df w]/}–yf]/} s]xL xb;Dd eflifsfut ljleGgtfx? x'g ;S5g\ . o:tf ljleGgtfx? tL efiffx?df

x'G5g\ h;df w]/} ;+Vofdf jQmfx? 5g\ cyjf h'g w]/} 7" nf If]qdf km}lnPsf 5g\ cyjf o:tf If]qdf hxfF

ljleGg a;f]af;sf 7fpFx?nfO{ gbLx? tyf kxf8x?n] 5'6\ofPsf x'G5g\ . s'g} eflifs ;d'bfosf 5]psf

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37

If]qsf JolQmx? låeflifs dfq xf]Og s'g} o:tf] ljz]if eflifsf klg af]Ng ;S5g\ h;df b'j} efiffsf

zAbx? tyf Jofs/0fLo k|efj k/]sf] x'G5 . o; afx]s, olb s'g} efiff ;d" xdf s'g} ;d" xsf] ljlzi6 k]zf

5 eg] To;n] klg s'g} Ps lsl;dsf] eflifsf lgdf{0f ug{ ;S5 . w]/} h;f] ;dodf o:tf w]/} sf/stTjx? ;Fu} ldn]df Pp6f eflifsfsf] lgdf{0f x'g ;S5 .

@=# gkfnL eflifsfx?

æsf7df8f} +sf] g]kfnLÆ nfO{ sYo g]kfnLsf] dfgs ?k eGg ;lsG5 t/ xfdL cGo sYo?k cyjf

eflifsfx? klg kfpF5f} + . g]kfnLsf oL eflifsfx? cGtaf6 5'l§Psfn] tyf tL ljleGg If]qx? b'u{d ePsfn]

pNn]Vo ?kdf km/s x'g ;S5g\ . t}klg, tL ;a} Pp6} efiffsf Ps cfk;df a'lemg] eflifsfx? x'g\ .pbfx/0fsf nflu kl/lzi6 x]g{ 'xf];\ . xfdLx? klZrdL, dWo tyf k" j{ ]nL eflifsfx? 5'6\ofpg ;S5f} + .

g]kfnLsf eflifsfx? w]/} ;+Vofdf klZrd g]kfndf kfO{G5g\ . g]kfnLsf oL eflifsfx?sf] gfdfs/0f tL

efiffx? af]lng] If]qsf gfdsf] cfwf/df ePsf] 5 . klZrdf]Q/af6 cf/De ubf{ 8F8]nw'/f, a}t8L, aemfËL,

afh'/fnL, c5fdL, h'DnL tyf 8f]6]nL eflifsfx? 5g\ . 8f]6]nLdf t Pp6f zAbsf]z klg pknAw 5 . dWo

g]kfndf kfNkfnL Pp6f csf{ ] ljlzi6 eflifsf xf] . k" j{lt/ nfUbf sf7df8f} +sf] cfˆgf] ljlzi6 tyf vf;

k|lti7f ePsf] eflifsf 5 / cGTodf g]kfnsf] ;'b" / k" j{df Onfdsf] cfˆg} ljlzi6 eflifsf 5 . tnsf s]xL

pbfx/0fx?n] g]kfnL eflifsfsf leGgtfnfO{ k|i6\ofPsf 5g\ .

8F8]Nw'/fdf xd\ cpGof x'g' .

a}t8Ldf xd\ gfOF cfpgf .

8f]6Ldf xd\ gOcpGof x' F .

kfNkfdf xfdL cfpGgd\ .

sf7df8f} +df xfdL cfpFb}gf} + .

Onfddf xfdL cfpFbf} +g .

-;|f]tM 8f= r'8fd0fL aGw', @)^)_

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38

xfdL k" j{lt/ a9\b} hfFbf g]kfnL efifL ;d'bfosf] afx'Notf ePsf] jl/kl/sf] If]qdf cgf}klrf/s

cj:yfx?df ef]6–ad{ ]nL efiff / Jofkf/ / lzIffdf g]kfnL k|of]u eO{ /x]sf] kfpF5f} .

@=$ gkfnsf cGo efiffsf eflifsfx?

g]kfnsf cGo hghftLo efiffx?df klg eflifsfut leGgtfx? b]vf k5{g . s'g} Ps dfGotf k|fKt dfgs

cyjf k|ltli7t eflifsfsf] cefjdf, h6Ln ;d:ofaf/] lg0f{o lngsf nflu dfq kf/:kl/s af]wuDotf

tyf ;j{:jLsfo{tf Tolt ;xof]uL dfkb08 x'g ;Sb}gg\ . dWo g]kfnsf 7" nf eflifs ;d'bfox?dWo], k" j{ ]nL

/ klZrdL u'?Ë ;fy;fy} k" j{ ]nL / klZrdL tfdfË 5'§f–5'§} efiff x'g\ t/ tL efiffsf k"j] {nL / klZrdL

e]bnfO{ eflifsfsf] ?kdf lnOPsf] 5 . To;}u/L k" jL{ g]kfnsf /fO{ efiffx? k|foM e" njz eflifsfx?dflgG5g\ . t/ oBlk jfGtjf æ/fO{Æ tyf rfdlnË æ/fO{Æ df w]/} ;dfgtf eP klg tnsf s]xL

pbfx/0fx?n] ;lhn} k|dfl0ft ub{5g\ ls w]/} h;f] /fO{ efiffx? Ps cfk;df a'lem+b}gg\ . pgLx? glhs–

glhs a:5g\ t}klg r9\g} g;lsg] kxf8 tyf kf/ ug{ g;lsg] gbLx?af6 Ps csf{af6 sfl§Psf 5g\ .

s'n'Ë …ªsf] pjL<Ú æof] s] xf]<Æ

vflnË …Tof dfª<Ú æof] s] xf] <Æ

l5Gtfª …afuf] 7]d\Ú æof] s] xf] <Æ

y'n'Ë …cf]/fd xfd\ <Ú æof] s] xf] <ÆafGtfjf …cf]sf] 8LÚ æof] s] xf] <Æ

dWo g]kfndf du/ tyf vfd clg k" jL{ g]kfndf lnDa'sf eflifsfx? -ltgLx?sf] kf/:kl/s af]wuDotfsf]

:t/ :yflkt x'g cem} afFsL_ x'g'sf] sf/0f clt b'u{d If]qx?df ltgsf jStf Jofks ?kdf 5l/P/

a;f]af; u/]sf sf/0f x'g ;S5 . oL efiffleqsf eflifsfx? :jLsf/ ul/Psf 5g\, t/ s'g} k|ltli7t cyjf

dfgs eflifsfn] dfGotf k|fKt u/]sf] eg] 5}g . sfut]sf] -/fli6«o hgu0fgf ;g\ @))! df efiffsf] ?kdf

pNn]lvt_ kl/efiff of]NXdf]sf] Ps eflifsfsf] ?kdf tL dflg;x?sf] sfuh pTkfbgsf] k]zf / ef}uf]lns?kdf of]NXdf] ;Fusf] glhstfdf cfwfl/t 5 . o;;Fu} sfut]x? cfˆgf eflifs cGt/x?nfO{ cf} +NofpFb}

cfkm" ePsf] dflg;sf] 7" nf] ;d" xeGbf 5'§} hflto klxrfg ePsf] 7fpFsf dflg/x]sf 5g\ .

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o; ljkl/t csf{ ] l:ylt s] klg 5 eg] ;fgf eflifs ;d'bfox? cfˆg} efiff af]n] klg pgLx? cfkm" nfO{

cfkm" h'g 7" nf] ;d'bfo glhs a:5g\ ToxL gfd lbG5g\ . o; s'/fsf] k'li6 3n] / a/fdaf6 ug{ ;lsG5

hf] cfkm" nfO{ u'?Ë eg]/ lrgfpF5g\, hals ltgLx?sf efiff u'?ËeGbf k" 0f{ ?kdf leGg 5g\ .

cfˆgf] 5]j}sf] cfkm" eGbf 7" nf] ;d" xsf] efifflt/ cle;/0f x'g] qmdsf] pbfx/0f /fhj+zLsf] l5d]sdf a:g]

lwdfndf kfOG5 . lwdfnsf b'O{ k" j{ ]nL / klZrdL eflifsfx? cfkm}df ljlzi6 5g\ lsgeg] k" j{ ]nL

eflifsfdf lwdfn Jofs/0fnfO{ oyfjt /fVb} /fhj+zLaf6 lgs} zAb ;fk6L lnOPsf kfOG5g\ .

@=% sYo efiff

@=%= gkfnL

g]kfnL ;/sf/L sfdsfhsf], Jofkf/sf], cfd;~rf/sf], lzIff tyf ;flxTosf] efiff xf] . o;eGbf klg dfly

pNn]v ul/Pem} +, g]kfnLn] ljleGg eflifs ;d'bfox? aLr ;~rf/sf lglDt ;Dks{ efiffsf] e" ldsf v]n]sf]

5 . To;y{, k/Dk/fut ?kdf g]kfnL afx]s cGo efiffefifLsf If]qsf clt b'u{d ufpFx? afx]sdf, xfdL s]

kfpF5f} + eg] s]xL xb;Dd ;~rf/sf lglDt ePklg g]kfndf w]/} h;f] dflg;x? g]kfnLdf s]xL g s]xL

?kdf kf]Vt x'G5g\ . :jfefljs ?kdf g]kfnLsf] cTolws k|of]u sf7df8f} +, kf]v/f h:tf zx/L If]qx?df

tyf t/fO{sf g]kfnu+h, lj/u~h / lj/f6gu/ h:tf zx/x?df x'G5 .

@=%=@ cGo efiffx?

hghfltx?n] af]Ng] efiff vf;u/L ef]6–ad{ ]nL efiffx? tyf s]xL ef/tLo–cfo{, d'08f / pQ/L b|lj8

efiffx? s]xL If]q ljz]ifx?df ;Lldt 5g\ . ltgsf jQmfx? s'g} Ps vf; hftLo ;d" x;Fu ;Da4 x'G5g\ /

;fwf/0ftof aflxl/ofx? tL efiffx? af]Nb}gg\ .

cfwf/e"t tyf k/Dk/fut ?kdf h'g If]qdf hghfltx? aflx/L ;+;f/;Fu ;Dks{ ljxLg cj:yfdf /xL

a;f]af; ub{ } cfPsf 5g\ tL If]qx? leq} ltgsf efiffx? Pp6f k':tf b]lv csf{ ] k':tf;Dd df}lvs ?kd}

x:tfGtl/t x' Fb} cfPsf 5g\ .

cfh of] cnluP/ /xg] cj:yf gf6sLo ?kdf kl/jt{g eO/x]5 . lxhf]cfh k|To]s ufpFdf g]kfnLdf lzIff

k|bfg ug{ ] ljBfnox? kfOG5g\ . w]/}h;f] lzIfsx? zx/L If]qaf6 cfpg] ePsfn] pgLx? cfˆgf]

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40

;d'bfob]lv aflx/sf ufpFx?af/] ;r]t ePsf 5g\ / pgLx?df cGo 7fpFx? x]g{ rfxg] OR5f klg hfu[t

x' Fb} uO{/x]sf] 5 . kx' Frsf b[li6n] s7Lg ePsf 7fpFx?df klg dflg;x?sf] cfjfudg aflx/sf eflifs

;d'bfosf JolQmx?;Fu e]63f6 ug] { / s'/fsfgLsf dfWodsf] ?kdf g]kfnLsf] k|of]u ug{ ] qmd klxn] eGbfa9\bf] 5 .

@=%=# PsefifL jQmfx?

/fi6«efiff g]kfnL dft[efiff ePsf jQmfx? PsefifL 5g\ . pgLx? g]kfnsf ;Dk" 0f{ efudf 5l/Psf 5g\ .

hghfltx?df eg] PsefifL jQmfx? w]/}h;f] aflx/sf dflg;x?;Fu ;Dks{ gePsf clt b'u{d u|fdL0f

e]sdf a;f]af; ug{ ] a[ 4fj:yfsf k':tfx?df dfq kfOG5 .

@=%=$ låefifL jQmfx?

låeflifstf ;Dk" 0f{ b]zdf JofKt 5 . zx/L tyf ljBfnodf kx' Fr ePsf If]qx?df ljBfnodf cyjf sfd

dfkm{t g]kfnLsf] 1fg cfh{g u/]sf ;Dk" 0f{ hftLo ;d" xsf o'jf dflg;x?df låeflifstf kfO{G5 .

pNn]vgLo s'/f s] 5 eg] g]kfnLefifLsf] låeflifstfn] ltgLx?sf] g]kfnL tyf lxGbL cyjf c+u| ]hLdf

låeflifstfnfO{ ;+s]t u5{ t/ hghftLo efiff ;d" xsf ;b:ox?sf] låeflifstf hghftLo efiffdf tyf

g]kfnLdf x'g] ub{5 .

b'O{j6f eflifs ;d'bfox?sf] ;Ldf ePsf If]qx?df tL b'O{j6f efiffx?df låeflifstf kfOG5 t/ of] rng

g} eg] xf]Og . olb b'O{ efiffx? dWo] Ps a9L k|ltli7t 5 eg], pbfx/0fsf nfuL w]/} jQmfx? ePsf

sf/0f, To:tf] cj:yfdf o; ;d" xsf ;b:ox? PsefifL g} /xg] u5{g\ . cfˆgf] efiff eGbf sd Jofkstf

ePsf] efiff klg af]Ng]x? låefifL g} x'g] u5{g . t/ o:tf ;LdfIf]qx?df ;fdfGotof b'j} eflifs

;d'bfosf ;b:ox? tL b'O{ dWo Ps hfghftLo efiffeGbf g]kfnLdf g} s'/fsfgL u5{g .

t/fO{df rfFxL låeflifstf cfd ?kdf 5, lsgeg] w]/} h;f] g]kfnLsf dft[efifL jQmfx? plQs} ;dfg

bIftfsf ;fy lxGbL af]N5g\ . kxf8x?af6 t/fO{df a;f]af; ug{ cfPsf cGo efiffsf jQmfx? klglåeflifs ePsf 5g\ . oxfF s] klg b]lvG5 eg] g]kfnL / lxGbLsf låefifLx? b'j} efiff a/fa/ bIftfsf ;fy

k|of]u u/L g} /xG5g\ t/ kxf8L e]saf6 cfpg]x? ;+qmd0fsfnLg a]nfdf dfq} låefifL x'G5g\ / kl5

lj:tf/} cfˆgf] dft[efiff u'dfpFb} hfG5g\ . ;a}h;f] cj:yfdf gePklg w]/} h;f]df afa'cfdfx?n] cfˆgf

5f]/f5f]/Lx?nfO{ cfˆgf] dft[efiff l;sfpFb}gg\ . kl/0ffd:j?k o:tf aRrfx? g]kfnL PsefifL jQmfsf

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?kdf x'ls{G5g\ . t;y{ of] eGg ;lsG5 ls t/fO{ jf:tjd} eflifs b[li6sf]0faf6 Pp6f ;+ud :yn -d]lN6ª

k6_ xf] .

@=%=% ax'efifL jQmfx?

ax'eflifstf zx/L If]qx?df ljz]ifu/L sf7df8f} +df a:g] lzlIft pRr ju{aLr JofKt 5 . g]kfnL dft[efifL

ax'efifL jQmfx? w]/}h;f] g]kfnL, ;+:s[t, c+u| ]hL / lxGbLdf bIf 5g\ . ljb]zdf w]/} h;f] c+u| ]hL efifL

b]zx?df / slxn]sfFxL ?;, hd{gL cyjf hfkfgdf uO{ cWoog u/]sf g]kfnLx? g]kfnL tyf cfkm" n]

cWoog u/]sf] b]zsf] efiff c+u| ]hL, ?;L, hd{g cyjf hfkfgLdf kf]Vt / lzlIft 5g\ . ax'eflifstf kxf8

kj{tx?sf 6] «lsªdf lx8\g] dfu{x?df klg lgs} b]Vg kfOG5 hxfF ko{6sx? cfjt hfjt u5{g tyf nh,

xf]6n tyf /]i6'/]06 rnfpg] g]kfnLx? el/of, ufO{8, efG;] tyf o;sf ;fy} tL If]qsf cfd g]kfnLhgtf;Fu cGtlqm{of u5{g\ . ko{6g pBf]u tyf kj{tf/f]x0fdf ;]jf/t dflg;x? 6] «lsª tyf e|d0fdf hfg]

;d" xx?åf/f k|of]u x'g] y'k| } efiffx? af]N5g\ . cTolws ?kdf rflxg] efiffrfFxL c+u| ]hL xf], o; k5L

hfkfgL, hd{g, k| m]Gr, O6fnL / :k]gL x'g\ t/ cGo efiffx? klg k|of]u x'G5g\ lsgeg] sltko 6] «lsË

Ph]G;Lx? oL jQmfx? afx]s cGonfO{ klg ;]jf k|bfg ug{df ljz]iftf xfl;n u/]sf x'G5g\ . 6] «lsª

ufO{8x? oL efiffx? ls t cfˆgf u|fxsx?af6 l;S5g\ ls t sf7df8f} +df v'n]sf y'k| } efiff l;sfpg]

ljBfnox?dWo] s'g} Psaf6 .

hghftLo efiffsf dflg;x?df ax'eflifstf s'g} lgod;+ut ?kdf eGbf klg JolQmut sf/0fx?n] ubf{

x'G5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu, cGo efiff ;d" xsf] dflg;;Fu ljjfx ePsf s]xL dlxnfx?n] cfˆgf >Ldfgsf]

efiff cfh{g ug{ ;S5g\ . s]lxn] eg] g]kfnL d} kof{Kt dfqfdf s'/fsfgL ug{ ] x'g ;S5g\ . cGo s]xLn]

cfˆgf kltsf] efiff l;Sg] / cfˆgf 5f]/f5f]/LnfO{ klg cfˆgf] dft[efiff l;sfpg ;S5g\, kmn:j?k ltgLx?

låeflifs ?kdf cyjf k7gkf7g g]kfnLdf ePsfn] ax'eflifs ?kdf x'ls{g ;S5g\ . a]nfotL tyf ef/tLo

;]gfsf uf]/vf /]lhd]G6x?sf] hflu/n] klg ax'efifL jQmfx? zx/L If]qx?df dfq geO{ b]zel/sf u|fdL0f

If]qx?df kfOg ;S5g\ . ;]jflgj[Q uf]/vf ;}lgsx? cfˆgf] dft[ efiffdf -w]/} h;f] cj:yfdf s'g} Ps

ef]6–ad{ ]nL efiff_ g]kfnLdf, lxGbL tyf c+u| ]hLdf ax'efifL x'g ;S5g\ .

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42

@=%=^ efiff cle;/0f

g]kfnL efifLx?sf] ;+Vof a9\g'df hg;+Vofsf] a[l4 dfq} xf]Og, lzIff, zx/Ls/0f, a;fO;/fO tyf

cGt{hflto ljjfx klg xf] . cWoog cyjf k]zfut p2]Zon] zx/LIf]qx? lt/ nfUg] dflg;x? Ps

lsl;dsf] låeflifs ;+qmd0fsflng cj:yfaf6 kf/ ug' { kg] { x'G5 . h;df g]kfnLsf] a9\bf] k|of]un] lj:tf/}

ltgLx?sf] dft[efiffsf] 7fpF lnFb} hfG5 . o:tf] em'sfjn] s}of} + hghflt efiffsf jQmfx?sf] ;+Vof 36fpFb}

nfG5 . pbfx/0fsf lglDt ysfnL, u'?Ë, du/, z]kf{, tyf s]xL /fO{ ;d" xsf s]xL efiffx?nfO{ lng

;lsG5 . cGo cj:yfx?df rfFlx, ;+Vof 36\g] o:tf qmdnfO{ hghftLo efiffIf]qx?df hg;+Vof a9\gfn]

c;/ kf5{ .

lxhf]cfh cfˆg} eflifs ;d'bfo b]lv aflx/ cGthf{tLo ljjfx ug{ ] qmd Ps k':tf cufl8 eGbf clxn]

;fdfGo eO{;s]sf] 5 . g]kfnLn] w]/} k|lti7f af]s]sf] x'gfn] a9L pkof]uL b]lvPsfn] cyjf kl/jf/ cfˆgf]

hghftLo efiff If]qb]lv aflx/ a;f]af; u/]sfn] k|foMh;f] b'j} bDktL s'g} Pssf] efiff /f]Hg'eGbf

cGttf]uTjf g]kfnL g} af]Ng yfN5g\ . o; cj:yfdf lgs} ;fgf eflifs ;d" xx? cTolws vt/fo'St 5g\ .

s';'08f o;sf] 7" nf] pbfx/0f xf] -8]lj8 jf6;{, @))%_ . g]kfnL efifL jQmfx? a9fpg'df vf;u/L t/fO{n]

of]ubfg k'¥ofPsf] 5 . ToxfF a;f]af; ug{ hfg] kxf8sf dflg;x?n] s'/fsfgLsf lglDt g]kfnL af]Ng} k5{ .

To;}u/L, ToxfFsf :yfoL jfl;Gbfx? klg g]kfnLnfO{ ;~rf/sf] dfWodsf] ?kdf cfTd;ft ug{ kg] { cj:yf

a9L eGbf a9L dx;" ; ub{ } hfG5g\ .

cfˆgf 5f]/f5f]/Lx?nfO{ c+u|hL ljBfnox?df k9fpg] O{R5fn] ljleGg eflifs ;d" xsf ljb]zdf lzlIft

Pp6f ;fgf] ;+Vofsf g]kfnLx? cfˆgf 5f]/f5f]/Lx?;Fu c+u| ]hLd} af]N5g\ . o:tf] cEof;n] cGttf]uTjf

g]kfnLs} klg dft[efifL jQmfx? 36fpg ;S5 .

@=^ nVo efiff

@=^= gkfnsf efiffsf n]vg k4ltx?

ef/t cyjf rLg h:tf b]zx?df y'k| } hghftL efiffx? 5l/Psf 5g\ / ltgsf efiffx?sf lnlvt ?k 5g\,

g]kfnsf hghfltsf efiffx? eg] w]/} h;f] clnlvt 5g\ . d'Vo ef/tLo–cfo{ efiffx? h:t} g]kfnL,

d}lynL, cjlw, ef]hk'/L / o;sf ;fy} g]jf/L -kl5Nnf] rfFxL ef]6–ad{ ]nL efiff xf] h;sf] cfˆg} lnkL klg

5_ sf nflu eg] b]jgfu/L lnkL k|of]u ul/G5 . lnDa'x?sf] cfˆg} ls/fFtL æ>[h+ufÆ lnkL 5 h;nfO{ cGo

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ls/fFtLx? klg k|of]u u5{g . n]Krfsf] cfˆg} æ/f]ªÆ lnkL 5 eg] tfdfª tyf z]kf{ wfld{s kf7x?sf nflu

ltAatL lnkL k|of]u u5{g\ . du/x? cfˆg} æcfSvfÆ lnkL k|of]u ug{ ] k|of; u/L /x]sf 5g\ tyf

;'g'jf/x?n] klg cfˆg} lnkL ljsf; u/]sf 5g\ -l;lSsd ef/tdf ;'g'jf/x?n] k|of]u u/]sf_ To:t} u/L;tf/x?n] cfˆgf] efiff n]Vg ef/taf6 /f]dg j0f{dfnf NofPsf 5g\ . t}klg, /fi6«efiff g]kfnL /fi6«nfO{ Ps

;" qdf afFWg] efiffsf] ?kdf x]l/Psfn], hghftLx?n] cfˆg} efiffdf n]vg k4ltx? ljsf; ug{ ] vf;}

k|f]T;fxg kfPsf 5}gg\ . pN6} pgLx?nfO{ n]vg / af]nLrfnL b'j} ?kdf g]kfnLdf bIftf xfl;n ug{

k|f]T;fxg ul/Psf] 5 . To;y{ oL ;a} dflg;x?n] cfˆg} lnkL eP nufotsfn], b]jgfu/L lnkL klg k|of]u

ul//x]sf 5g\ . s]xL JolQmx?n] g]kfnLdf k|ltlglwTj gePsf WjgL tyf no k4ltnfO{ ;dfj]z ug{ gofF

j0f{x?sf /rgf ug{ ] ;Ddsf cfjZos kl/dfh{gx? ul//x]sf 5g\ .

n]vg k4ltx? tyf ;flxTosf] cefjn] klg hghftLo efiffx?sf] k|of]u 36\g] sf/s ag]sf] 5 t/ n]Vo

efiffx? / h;sf] ;flxTo 5 tL l:y/ x'G5g\ . g]jf/Lsf] pbfx/0f rfFxL ckjfbsf] ?kdf 5 lsgeg]

ax';+Vos g]jf/x? zx/L If]qx?df ljz]if u/L sf7df8f} + pkTosfdf a:5g\ hxfF lzIff / cfd;~rf/sf]

dfWodaf6 g]kfnLsf] k|efj / k|of]u b}lgs hLjgdf ;j{JofkL 5 .

@=^=@ g]kfnsf efiffx?sf dfgsLs/0f

n]Vo / sYo b'j} lsl;dsf] efiffsf] dfgsLs/0fn] ;+w} r'gf}ltsf] ;fdgf ug' { k5{ lsgeg] efiff ;w}

hLjGt x'G5 / :jfefljs ?kdf kl/jlt{t x' Fb} hfG5 . n]Vo efiffsf] ?kdf g]kfnL cGo hghftLo

dft[efiffx?eGbf s]xL a9L efUozfnL ePklg o;sf] k|lqmof eg] rnL g} /x]sf] 5 .

g]kfnsf w]/} h;f] hghftLo efiffx?n] klg cfˆgf] 5'§} sYo ;fy;fy} n]Vo efiffsf] ljsf; ul//x]sf

5g\ . xfn}df tL efiffdf cWoogx? ul/Psf 5g\ . log}n] dfgsLs/0fsf] dfu{ k|z:t u/]sf 5g\ . s]xL

hghftLo efiffsf æk|ltli7tÆ cyjf æ:t/LoÆ eflifsfx?sf] klxrfg klg ul/Psf] 5 / Jofs/0fx?,

zAbsf]zx?, j0f{ljGof; ;DjGwL cWoogx? tyf ;fIf/tf ;DjGwL ;fdu| Lx? k|sflzt ePsf 5g\ . emg\

xfn}df t, cNk;+Vos ;d" xx? cfkm}n] zAbsf]zx? lgdf{0f ug{ yfn]sf 5g\ tyf dft[efifL n]vsx?n] cfˆg} efiffdf n]Vg] / k|sfzg ug{ ] nufotsf sfdx? ug{ yfn]sf 5g\ t/ hghftLo efiffsf

j0f{ljGof;x?n] ] dfgsLs/0f k|fKt ug{sf lglDt dfg{ kg{ ] km8\sf] lgs} nfdf] 5 .

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@=^=# ;fIf/tf b/

g]kfnL afx]s cGo efiffx?df sYo / n]Vo b'j} ?kdf dfgsLs/0fsf] cefjn] g]kfnL ;fIf/tf b/nfO{ aªUofpg] / unt ;+Vofdf b]vfpg] sfd u5{ . lsgeg] olb s'g} efiffsf] lnlvt ?k 5}g eg] To;df

;fIf/tf b/ z" Go dflgG5 . lj=;+= @)$& -O{=;= !(()_ sf] ;+ljwfgn] dft[efiffdf lzIffsf] clwsf/

;'lglZrt u/]tfklg g]kfndf Go" g ;fIf/tf b/x?n] s] k|ltljlDat u5{g eg] dft[efiff lzIffnfO{ k|of]udf

Nofpg cem} afFsL 5 . cfˆg} lnkL ePsf lnDa', n]Krf, du/ tyf ;'g'jf/ efiffx?df klg To; lnkLdf

;fIf/tf b/ g]kfnLdf eGbf lgs} sd 5 .

oBlk cu'jfx?sf] Pp6f ;fgf] ;+Vofn] eg] b]jgfu/L lnkL k|of]u u/]/ cfˆg} efiffdf n]Vg] k|of; u/]sf

5g\ b'ef{Uojz, w]/}h;f] cj:yfx?df pgLx?n] n]Vg 5f8LlbP lsgeg] ltgLx?sf efiffdf o:tf Wjlgx?

lyP h'g b]jgfu/L lnkLdf k|ltlglwTj ePsf 5}gg\ . t/ ca eg] Pp6f /fd|f] kl/jt{g cfpg ;S5

lsgeg] ;fwf/0ftof hghftLo efiffx?df w]/} rf;f] a9L /x]sf] 5 tyf ltgsf] clen]vLs/0f / ;+j4{gsf

;fy ;fy} clnlvt efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltk|lt klg hfu?stf al9/x]sf] 5 .

@=^=$ ;flxlTos k/Dk/fx?

efg'eQmn] y'k| } s[ltx? ;+:s[taf6 g]kfnLdf cg'jfb -ljz]ifu/L /fdfo0f_ u/] b]lv g} g]kfnL efiff

;flxlTos k/Dk/fdf lgs} wgL 5 . efg'eQm kl5 y'k| } n]vsx? eP h;n] ljleGg ljwfx? tyf cg]sf} +

ljifox?df n]v] . jt{dfg g]kfnL klg lgs} hLjGt 5 tyf lj=;+ +=@)$& -O=;+= !(()_ b]lv k|z:t dfqfdf

kq–klqsfx? lgl:s/x]sf 5g\ . o;afx]s ;+:s[t, d}lynL tyf cGo ef/tLo–cfo{ efiffx?sf cfˆg}

;flxTox? 5g\ .

g]kfnsf ef]6–ad{ ]nL efiffx? dWo] g]jf/Lsf] ;}of} + jif{b]lvsf] y'k| } ljwfx? ePsf] cfˆg} ;flxTo 5 . cGo

hghftLo efiffx?sf >'ltk/Dk/fsf k/Dk/fut ;flxTo 5g\ h'g lxhf]cfh k|sflzt x'b}5g\ . lnDa' d'Gb'd,

afGtjf, bf]jf]Ë b'd ;fdsflnË tyf tfdfË tfDafsfOt]g s]xL pbfx/0fx? x'g\ .

/fhsLo k|1f k|lti7fgn] g]kfnLdf cg'jfb u/fP/ ljleGg eflifs ;d" xx?sf y'k| } nf]s syfx? k|sflzt

u/]sf] 5 . hghftL eflifs ;d" xx?sf] lgs} 7" nf] ;+Vofdf nf]suLtx?sf] vfgL g} 5 . o:tf uLtx?

k|ltof]lutfsf a]nf cyjf dgf]/~hgsf lglDt hlta]nf ufOG5g\ plQs} a]nf /lr+b} hfG5g\ . o;sf

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pbfx/0fx? u'?Ë æ/f]bLÆ, tfdfË uLlt k|ltof]lutfx? x'g\ . ufpFb} gflrFb} ul/g] gfFrx? h:t} lnDa'sf]

…kfndÚ / wfg g[To, /fO{sf] ær08LgfrÆ hLljt /x]sf / cEof; ul/Psf k/Dk/fut >'lt ;flxTosf

pbfx/0fx? x'g\ . df}lvs ?kdf ;Dk| ]lift eO{/x]sf] / g]kfnL ;flxlTos d~rdf cToGt hLjGt /x]sf] csf{ ] ;flxlTos ljwf xf] gf6s .

w]/} h;f] cj:yfx?df hghftLo efiffx?sf cem} klg lnlvt ?k 5}gg\ . s]xL ckjfb afx]s, ;g\ !(()

b]vL g]kfndf k|hftGq k|flKt kZrft\ dfq} clw/fHosf hghftLo efiffx?df cg';Gwfg ug{ yflnPsf

5g\ . Jofs/0fut ljj/0fx?, zAbsf]zx?, tyf nf]ssyfx? / ;+:sf/hGo ;flxTosf ;+sngx? tof/

kfg{ 'sf ;fy} ;fIf/tf sIffx?sf dfWodaf6 dft[efifL jQmfx? dfem n]Vo hghftLo efiffx?sf] k|of]usf]

lj:tf/ ug{sf lglDt w]/} sfdx? ug{ afFsL 5g\ .

#= efiff kofu

g]kfndf ;fdfGotof g]kfnL g} ;Dk" 0f{ ;/sf/L sfdsfhsf ;fy} Jofkf/ / z}lIfs p2]Zosf nflu k|of]u

ul/G5 . w]/} h;f] hghftLo efiffx?sf lnlvt ?k gePsfn] o:tf k|of]hgsf nfuL tL efiffx? k|of]u

ug{ ;lsb}gg\ . oBlk hxfF;Dd sYo efiffsf] ;Gbe{ 5 / n]Vo?k lagf o;n] g} sfd rN5 eg] g]kfnsfw]/} h;f] eflifs ;d'bfox? cfˆg} dft[efiff bIftf / pT;fxsf ;fy k|of]u u5{g\ .

#= cgfkrfl/s cj:yfx?df

ufpFx?df hxfF hghfltx?sf] hg3gTj 5 ToxfF dft[efiffsf] k|of]u kl/jf/leq / k'/fgf -j[ 4_ k':tf dfem

lg/Gt/ ?kdf g} /lx /x]sf] 5 . gofF k':tf klg a'9fkfsf;Fu s'/f ubf{ cfb/sf] k|ltssf] ?kdf cfˆg}

dft[efiff k|of]u u5{g\ . ;fwf/0ftof g]kfnL efiffdf Tolt gleh]sfn] dlxnfx? k'?ifx?eGbf a9Ldft[efiffsf] k|of]u u/L /x]sf x'G5g\ . xfn}b]lv dfq} afnaflnsfx? lgoldt ?kdf ljBfno uO{/x]sf 5g\ /

g]kfnLdf bIftf xfl;n ub} { 5g\ . k/Dk/fut ?kdf, dlxnfx? ufpFd} a:b5g\ eg] k'?ifx?n] Jofkf/sf]

l;nl;nfdf ofqf ul//xg' kg] { x'G5 / ljb]zdf jf /fhwfgLdf sfd ug{ 3/b]lv 6f9f a:g' kg] { x'G5 . o;

cj:yfdf pgLx?n] g]kfnLd} s'/fsfgL ug' { kg] { afWotf x'G5 . cj:yf x]/L tyf cfˆgf] lzIffsf] :t/

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46

cg';f/ ljleGg txdf ljBfno hfg] pd]/sf afnaflnsfx? tyf o'jf ju{x? Ps cfk;df g]kfnL efiff

k|of]u ug{ ] u5{g .

zx/L If]qx?df hxfF ljleGg hfltsf dflg;x? ;Fu} ldn]/ a:5g\ cg]kfnL dft[efiffsf] k|of]u cTolws

?kdf 36]/ hfG5 . hlt w]/} o:tf zx/L If]qx?df a:of] cfˆgf] dft[efiffnfO{ k" 0f{?kdf kl/Tofu ug{ ]

;Defjgf klg plQs} a9]/ hfG5 . j}jflxs bDklQx? leGg leGg efiff ;d" xaf6 ePsf] cj:yfdf cyjf

kltn] nfdf] ;do;Dd uf]/vf /]lhd]G6df hflu/ vfPsf] eP cyjf u|fdL0f If]qaf6 cGo s'g} sf/0fjz

nfdf] ;do ;Dd aflx/ ePsf] cj:yfdf kl/jf/x?n] cfˆg} ufpF–3/df klg cfk;L s'/fsfgLsf] dfWodsf]

?kdf g]kfnL g} 5gf}6 ug{ ;S5g\ .

#=@ cGo efiffsf jQmfx?åf/f kofu

;fwf/0ftof hghftLo efiffx? tL eflifs ;d'bfosf ;b:ox?åf/f dfq} af]lng] ul/Ptf klg ckjfbsf]

?kdf sfdsfhL ;DaGwx? -g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? b}lgs s[lif Hofnfbf/L dhb'/x?sf] ?kdf s'g}

hghftLo ;d'xsf] ;b:osxfF sfd ubf{_, leGg leGg eflifs ;d" xx?sf ;b:ox? aLr j}jflxs ;DjGw

tyf s'g} eflifs ;Ldfsf b'j}lt/ kg{ ] ufpFx?df a:g] ldl>t hg;+Vof kb{5g\ . -dfly #=!=$ tyf #=!=%

klg x]g{ 'xf];\_

#=# kzf;gdf kofu

g]kfndf ;/sf/L sfo{fnosf] sfdsfhsf] efiff g]kfnL xf] . s'g} klg ;/sf/L sfof{nodf hghftLo

efiffx? k|of]u x' Fb}gg\ . xfn;fn} g]jf/ / d}lynL b'O{ eflifs ;d'bfox?n] zx/L sfof{nox?df cf–cfˆgf

efiffx? k|of]usf] lglDt cg'/f]w u/]sf lyP, t/ ;jf{ ]Rr cbfntn] pgLx?sf] cg'/f]w dfg]g .

#=$ lzIffdf k|ofu

g]kfndf g]kfnL efiff lzIffsf nflu k|of]u x'G5 . xfn}df dfq, cf/Dedf sf7df8f} +df clg To;kl5 aflx/L

lhNnfx?sf cGo zx/x?df klg c+u| ]hL ljBfnox? k|z:t} v'n]sf 5g\ . clt sd cj:yfdf dfq}

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47

hghftLo efiffx? lzIffsf dfWod ag]sf 5g\ . tL x'g\ g]jf/L -sf7df8f} + pkTosfdf Pp6f ljBfno_ s]xL

ls/fFtL efiffx? h:t} afGtjf, lnDa' -cf}krfl/s lzIff_, tyf vflnË -k|f}9 ;fIf/tf, cgf}krf/s lzIff_ .

hghftLo efiffx?nfO{ lzIffsf] dfWodsf ?kdf :jLs[lt lbOPtf klg o;nfO{ /fd|/L Jojxf/df ptfl/Psf]

5}g . g]kfnsf y'k| } efiffx?df kf7\ok':tsx? t}of/ ul/Psf 5g\ t/ ltgLx?sf] k|of]uaf/] tflnd k|fKt

lzIfsx?sf] cefjdf ltgsf] pNn]Vo ?kdf ljt/0f ePsf] 5}g . lzIffdf a9\bf] kx' Frn] ubf{ hghftLo

efiff ;d" xx?af6 lzIfssf] ;+Vofdf j[l4 ePtfklg, oL lzIfsx?n] lzIff xfl;n u/L ;s]kl5 ltgsf

cfˆg} dft[efifL ;d'bfodf sd} k7fOG5g\ . To;}n] / cljlR5Gg ?kdf lzIffsf] dfWodsf ?kdf g]kfnLsf]

k|of]un] u|fdL0f ljBfnox?df k9fO{ ck" /} 5f8\g]x?sf] ;+Vof lgs} w]/} 5 .

#=% cfd;~rf/ dfWodx?df efiffsf] k|ofu

/]l8of] g]kfnn] g]kfnLdf afx]s, g]jf/L, d}lynL, ef]hk'/L, cjwL, z]kf{, lnDa', afGtjf, tfdfË, u'?Ë, du/ /

vfd efiffdf ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f u5{ . oL dWo] s]xL k|;f/0fx? If]qLo :6]zgx?af6 ul/G5g\ h'g If]qx?df

oL hghftLx? a;f]af; u5{g\ . /]l8of] g]kfnn] ljleGg hghftLo efiffsf nf]s uLtx? klg k|;f/0f

u/]sf] 5 . s]xL Pkm=Pd= :6]zgx?n] s'g} s'g} :yfgLo efiffx?df ;d]t sfo{qmd agfPsf 5g\ . g]jf/L

lnDa' tyf s]xL cGo efiffx?n] hghftLo efiff cyjf g]kfnL ;Fu} låefifL ;dfrf/kq, va/klqsf tyf

cGo klqsfx? lgsfn]sf 5g\ .

xfn}df g]kfndf Pp6f lghL 6L=eL :6]zgn] lnDa' efiffsf] ljz]if k|of]u u/L Pp6f lnDa' ufpFsf] hLjg

dfyL Pp6f clt pQd lkmNd agfPsf] 5 . g]jf/L, d}lynL, afGtjf efiffdf klg o:t} lkmNdx? lghL

lgdf{tfx?n] lgdf{0f u/]sf 5g\ .

csf{lt/, a9\bf] ;+Vofdf c+u| ]hLdf ;dfrf/ k|sfzg eO{ /x]sf 5g\ / oL k|sfzgx? ljb]zLx? dfq} xf]Og

låefifL lzlIft g]kfnLx?åf/f klg kl9G5g\, s]xL g]kfnL n]vs t c+u| ]hLdf ;flxlTos s[ltx? ;d]t

n]V5g\ .

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48

#=^ wfld{s ultljlwx?df kofu

lxGb' wfld{s u|Gyx? ;+:s[tdf pknAw 5g\ / tL g]kfnLdf cg'jfb ul/Psf 5g\ . o;df ;a}eGbf Vofltk|fKt efg'eQmaf6 ePsf] /fdfo0fsf] cg'jfb xf] / cfh;Dd of] w]/}hgfaf6 kl9Psf] 5 . cGo ef/tLo–

cfo{ efiffx? -h:t} g]kfnL, d}lynL, /fhj+zL_ klg lxGb' cg'i7fgx?df k|of]u x'g ;S5g\ . af} 4 u|Gyx? w]/}

ltAatL / kfnLdf 5g\ . xfn}df s]xL af} 4 k':tsx? hfkfgLaf6 g]kfnLdf cg'jfb ePsf 5g\ .

O:nfd wd{ dfGg] hghftLx?sf nflu lxhf]cfh g]kfnLdf cg'lbt s'/fg pknAw 5 . o; cg'lbt låefifL

;+:s/0fdf c/aL efiffdf d" nkf7 klg ;dfj]z 5 .

afOansf] Ps c+z k|yd k6s g]kfnLdf ;g\ !*@@ df ef/tdf cg'jfb ul/Psf] lyof] . of] g} g]kfnLefiffsf] klxnf] d'lb|t k':ts lyof] . æGo" 6]:6fd]G6Æ -gofF lgod_ / ehg;+lxtfx? g]kfnL ;fy;fy} cGo

y'k| } efiffx?df pknAw 5g\ .

hghftLx?sf wfld{s ;+:sf/x? h:t} afGtjfsf æbf]jf]Ë b'd ;fdsflnËÆ -;+:sf/sd{x?_ x? dft[efiffs}

wfld{s tj/af6 ;DkGg ul/G5g\ .

#=& Jofkf/ tyf >d ;DjGwx?df kofu

;fwf/0ftof g]kfndf cfly{s ultljlwx?df g]kfnL efiffg} k|of]u ul/G5 . hghftL efiff ;d" xsf ;b:ox?

aLr Jofkfl/s ultljlwx? cfˆg} efiffdf ;~rfng x'g ;S5g\ t/ hxfF lnlvt b:tfj]hx?sf] cfjZostf

k5{ ToxfF hghftLo efiffsf] n]Vo ?k gePsf] v08df g]kfnL d} x'G5g\ .

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49

$= efiffefifL ;d'bfox?nfO{ c;/ kfg{ ;fdflhs / ;f:slts sf/s tTjx?

$= Pltxfl;s sf/s tTjx?

c7f/f} + ztfJbLdf g]kfnsf] PsLs/0f eP b]lv, zf;sx?åf/f g} lqmofzLn?kdf g]kfnLsf] lj:tf/nfO{

k|j4{g ul/of] . of] s'/f xfl;n ug{sf nflu g]kfnL dft[efifL hghftLo If]qx?df lzIfs cyjf vfgL

dhb" /sf ?kdf k7fOof] . k|foM ;]jf lgj[Q ;}lgsx?nfO{ tL If]qx?df hUuf lbOof] . To;}n], s]xL 7" nf

efiff ;d" xx?df h:t} u'?Ë / du/df cfˆgf] dft[efiff kl/Tofu ug] { / nf]k x'g] qmd cl3 b]lv g} cf/De

eof] . cGo cg]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx?eGbf clxn] u'?Ë / du/ cfˆgf] d" n ynf] eGbf aflx/, ljz]ifu/Lg]kfnsf] k" j{df kfOG5g\ . dft[efiff l56} nf]k ePsf pbfx/0f dWo] jfK;f -;f]n'v'Da'_ df du/ vfgL

dhb" /x?sf / ?Dhf6f/ -cf]vn9'Ëf_ df u'?Ësf g]kfnL af]lng] 3gf a;f]af;sf If]q x'g\ .

$=@ /fhg}lts sf/s tTjx?

k~rfot Joj:yf -;g\ !(^!–!(()_ cGtu{t hghftLo efiffx?sf] k|of]unfO{ æPs /fi6«, Ps efiffÆ

gLlt cGtu{t lqmofzLn ?kd} xtf]T;fx ul/Psf] lyof] . t}klg, s]xL ;+u7gx?n] hghftLo efiff /;+:s[ltx?sf] k|j4{g ug{ ] k|of; u/] t/ /fHo kIfsf] gLltn] ubf{ pgLx?n] d'Vo?kdf e" ldut eO{ sfd

ug{ 'kYof{ ] / To;}n] ltgLx? Jofks ?kdf ;kmn x'g ;s]gg\ . cg]s hghftL ;d" xx? h;sf] cfˆg}

df}lns efiff / ;+:s[ltn] g]kfn /fi6« ag]sf] 5 t/ ltgnfO{ ;/sf/n] dfGotf lbPg . lj=;+= @)$& -;g\

!(()_ sf] g]kfn clw/fHosf] ;+ljwffgn] cGttM b]zsf] ax'eflifs ;TotfnfO{ :jLsf¥of] M æg]kfnsf

ljleGg efudf dft[efiffsf ?kdf af]lng] ;a} efiffx? g]kfnsf /fli6«o efiff x'gÆ -wf/f ^, pkwf/f @_

o; ;+ljwfgn] cuf8L eG5M æg]kfn clw/fHodf a;f]af; ug{ ] k|To]s ;d'bfonfO{ cfˆgf] efiff, lnkL /

;+:s[ltsf] ;+/If0f / ;Da4{g ug{ ] clwsf/ x'g] 5 . k|To]s ;d'bfon] afnaflnsfnfO{ k|fylds tx;Ddcfˆgf] dft[efiffdf lzIff lbg] u/L ljBfno ;+rfng ug{ kfpg] 5 .Æ -wf/f !* pkwf/f ! / @_ /fHosf]

?kdf g]kfn cl:tTjdf cfPb]lv klxnf]kN6 dft[efiffdf k|fylds lzIffsf] clwsf/ ;'lglZrt ul/of] .

t}klg o;sf] sfof{Gjogsf nfuL eg] lgs} sfd ug{ afFsL g} 5 .

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50

$=# cfly{s sf/s tTjx?

hghftLo If]qleq cyjf o;af6 aflx/ dft[efiffnfO{ ;+/If0f ug{ k|of; t lgs} ug{ 'k5{ t/ o;n] cfly{s

kmfObf eg] s]xL k'¥ofpFb}g . jf:tjdf o;n] k|ltli7t /fi6«efiffdf kf]Vt x'g / To;dfyL k" 0f{ clwsf/

k|fKt ug{df pN6} Jojwfg kfg{ ;S5 . To;}n] hghftLo efiffsf dft[efifL jQmfx? cfly{s ?kn] k|ult

ug{sf lglDt cfˆgf] dft[efiffnfO{ kl/Tofu ug{ afWo x'g ;S5g\ . o;} sf/0fn] ubf{, pgLx? cfˆgf

afnaflnsfnfO{ l;sfpg'df klg vf;} kmfObf gb]Vg ;S5g\ .

w]/} h;f] hghfltx? u|fdL0f e]sdf gub] afnL lagfsf] cefjdf ls;fgsf] ?kdf sfd u/]/, h;f] t;f]

cfkm" nfO{ wfGg] nfossf] pTkfbg u/]/ a;]sf x'G5g\ . g]kfnsf w]/} h;f] 7fpFx?df e" –:vng, af9L,

jgIfon] ubf{ jftfj/0fdf x|f; cfpg] qmd a9\bf] 5 . hg;+Vofsf] nuftf/ a[l4 x'g] qmd n] ubf{ ax';+Vos ufpFx?df v]tL of]Uo hdLgn] ToxfFsf] hg;+VofnfO{ wfGg ;ls/x]sf] 5}g . To;}n], cfly{s

sf/0fn] ubf{ a;fO;/fOsf] qmd a9\b} 5 . hdLgsf] vf]hLdf t/fO{lt/ cyjf sfdsf] vf]hLdf zx/lt/

a;fO;/fOn] ubf{ efiffsf] k|of]udf Jofks kl/jt{g NofPsf] 5 Tof] s] eg] afWotfjz hghftLo efiffx?

g]kfnL tkm{ pGd'v eO{ /x]sf 5g\ .

k]zfn] ubf{ s]xL hghftLo efiffsf jQmfx?n] c?n] eGbf a9L cfˆgf] dft[efiff kl/Tofu u5{g\ . /fhLx?

s]j6sf ?kdf, clg dfemL / af]6]x?n] k" nx? gx' Fbf ;Dd dflg;x?nfO{ gbL tfg] { sfd uy{ ] . oL k]zfx?n]

logLx?nfO{ nfdf] ;do ;Dd cGo eflifs ;d'bfox?;Fu ;Dks{df NofOlbof] . o;sf] kl/0ffd s] eof] eg]

clxn] oL efiffx? uDeL/ vt/fdf 5g\ .

ljz]if u/L sf7df8f} + pkTosfdf a:g]x? g]jf/x? k/Dk/fut ?kdf Jofkf/L / snfsf/ x'g\ . pgLx?df

cfˆgf] k]zfn] ubf{ logLx?sf] zx/df a:g] nfdf] k/Dk/f 5 . o;n] ubf{ nfdf] ;flxlTos k/Dk/f eP klg

pgLx?n] cfˆgf] dft[efiffnfO{ k|z+;f ug{ ] / o;nfO{ cfTd;ft ug{ ] s'/fdf gsf/fTds k|efj kf/]sf] 5 .

Aof+;L / ysfnLsf jQmfx? ls;fg x'g'sf ;fy} Jofkf/L klg x'g\ . pgLx?df ltAatLaf6 -cfˆgf]

a;f]af;sf] 7fpFaf6 pQ/lt/sf If]qx?df Jofkf/sf nfuL bf];|f] efiffsf] ?kdf rflxg]_ lxGbL / g]kfnL lt/

-lxhf]cfh blIf0f;Fu Jofkf/sf nflu rflxg]_ eflifs cle;/0f eO{/x]sf] 5 . o;sf ;fy} kbofqf /

tLy{ofqfsf dfu{df a:g] ysfnLx? aflx/sf dflg;?;Fu lgs} ;Dks{df cfpF5g\ / cGtlq{ mof u5{g .

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o;sf] kl/0ffd s] eof] eg] ltgLx?n] g]kfnL l56f] dfq} l;s]gg ls, o;n] plgx?sf] efiffsf] nf]k x'g]

qmdnfO{ klg l56} NofOlbof] .

k/Dk/fut ?kdf z]kf{x? Jofkf/L, kz'kfns / ls;fg lyP . lxhf]cfh pgLx? ljz]ifu/L 6] «lsË ufO8sf]

?kdf ;+nUg 5g\ hxfF pgLx? lg/Gt/ ?kdf ljb]zL nufotsf cGo eflifs ;d'bfosf dflg;x?;Fu

s'/fsfgL ul//xG5g\ . To;}n] ToxfF klg ltj|?kdf dft[efiff nf]k x'g] vt/f 5 .

$=$= lzIff

lzIff cem} klg ljz]ifu/L g]kfnLd} lbOG5 h;n] hghftLo dft[efiffsf] k|of]unfO{ c;/ kf5{ /

afa'cfdfx?nfO{ klg cfˆgf 5f]/f5f]/Lx?nfO{ k|fl1s?kdf ;kmn agfpg / ;fy;fy} ljBfnodf cfˆgf

;fyLx?;Fu ;lhnf];Fu cGtlqm{of ug{ ;Sg] agfpgsf nflu pgLx?nfO{ g]kfnL l;sfpg k| ]l/t ub{ }5 .

o;/L dft[efiffdf lzIffsf] cefj s]xL xb;Dd hghfltx?sf] efiff nf]k u/fpgdf lhDd]jf/ 5 .

hghftLo efiffx?df n]Vo ?k / ;flxTosf] cefjn] klg hghftLo efiffx?sf] ljsf; / eljionfO{

gsf/fTds c;/ kf5{ .

$=% wfld{s ;d'bfox?

;fdfGotof, ef/tLo–cfo{x? g]kfndf hxfF a;]klg lxGb' wd{ dfG5g\ / lxGb' wfld{s cg'i7fgx?df

;+:s[tdf n]lvPsf u|Gyx? k|of]u ul/G5g\ . ;+:s[t ;fdfGo k|of]usf] efiff gePklg, o;df u/fOPsf

;+:sf/ sd{x?df ;fd]n x'g]sf nflu a'‰g ;lhnf] xf];\ elg ;+:s[t ljBfnox?df k9fOb} cfOPsf] 5 .

ef]6–ad{ ]nL ;d" xsf s]xL dflg;x? af}4 wd{ dfG5g\ h'g pgLx?sf] hLjgsf ;Dk" 0f{ efux?df JofKt x'G5 .

>f]tfx?n] ga'em]klg nfdfåf/f kl9g] u|Gyx? ltAatL efiffd} x'G5g\ . ;flxlTos ;fdu| Lsf nfuL lnkLsf]

k|Zg – wfld{s kf7x? cg';f/ ltAatL x'g'k5{ ls b}lgs hLjgdf k|of]u x'g ;Sg] u/L b]jgfu/L x'g'k5{

eGg]s'/f Pp6f ;d:ofsf] ?kdf x'g ;S5 . dWo–kxf8x?df hghftLx? k|s[ltk" hs x'g\ h;df k|s[lt

tyf lkt[x?sf] k" hf ul/G5 . dft[efiffsf wfld{s kf7x? df}lvs ?kdf ;+k| ]lift x'G5g\ / logsf pko'Qm

efux? hghftLo ;d'bfox?dfem ljleGg lsl;dsf wfld{s cg'i7fgx?df kf7 ul/G5g\ . s]xL xb;Dd

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lnDa'x?sf æd'Gb'dÆ elgg] lnlvt wfld{s kf7x? 5g\ . cGo efiffx?n] klg df}lvs ?kdf x:tfGtl/s x' Fb}

cfPsf wfld{s kf7x?nfO{ /]s8{ -cyjf lnkLa4_ ug{ yfn]sf 5g\ . ldl>t ;d'bfox?df k|s[ltk" hgsf

;fy ;fy} lxGb' ;+:sf/x? -ljz]ifu/L rf8–kj{ ;Fu ;DalGwt_ klg dfG5g\ . To:tf cj:yfx?df;+:sf/sd{x? dft[efiffdf eGbf g]kfnLd} u/fOG5g\ .

%= eflifs cjwf/0ff

%= gkfnL dft[efifL jQmfx?

ax';+Vos g]kfnL dft[efifLx? PsefifL 5g\ . klZrd b]lv k" j{;Dd y'k| } eflifsfx? ePklg ltgLx?

kf/:kl/s ?kdf af]wuDo 5g\ . ;Dk" 0f{ g]kfnsf] /fi6«efiff / cfd;Dks{sf] efiffsf] ?kdf g]kfnL efiffn]

k|lti7f xfl;n u/]sfn], s'g} klg eflifsfsf g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? o;df uj{ u5{g\ .

%=@ hghftLo efiffx?

/f0ff / k~rfot cjlwsf] ltj| ?kn] k|ltkflbt æPs–/fi6« Ps–efiffÆ gLltn] ubf{ hghftLo efiffx?

bdg ul/Psfn], ltgsf jQmfx?n] cfˆgf efiffnfO{ lzIff / Jofkf/sf lgldQ cg'ko'Qm dfq xf]Og,

;fdfGotof g]kfnLeGbf sd;n 7fGg yfn]sf 5g\ . To;}n], pgLx?n] cfˆg} dft[efiffsf] ljsf; / ;Dj4{g

ug{ 'eGbf g]kfnLdf bIftfj[l4 ug{ ] k|of; u/] / o;/L dft[efiff k|lt ulx/f] gsf/fTds wf/0ff ljsl;t x' Fb}

uof] . ;fgf eflifs ;d'bfox?nfO{ o:tf] wf/0ffn] eofgs kl/0ffd NofPsf] 5 .

s]xL xb;Dd o:t} cjwf/0ffn] ubf{ nf]k x'g] efiffdf s';G8f Pp6f pbfx/0f xf] . s';'G8fx? ;DejtM ;w}

;fgf] eflifs ;d'bfosf] ?kdf /x] . ltgLx?sf] efiff / l;sf/ ug{ ] tyf sGbd" n a6'Ng] vfnsf] hLjg

k|lqmofnfO{ cGon] x]osf b[li6n] x]g{ yfn]kl5 pgLx? cfkm}df gsf/fTds eflifs cjwf/0ff aGof] . o:tf]

cjwf/0ff ;Fu;Fu} pgLx?sf] af;:yfgsf] a9\bf] ljgfzn] / cGt/hftLo ljjfxn] To; efiffnfO{ nf]k x'g]

;+3f/df NofO{ k'¥ofPsf] 5 .

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cGo 7" nf ;d'bfox?n] klg /fi6«efiffsf] kIfdf cfˆgf] dft[efiffnfO{ nfdf] ;do;Dd pk]Iff u/] . lxhf]cfh

dfq}, ha bIf jQmfx?sf] ;+Vof lgs} 36]sf] 5 ta dfq} pgLx? cfˆgf] dft[ efiffdf /x]sf] lglwsf] /

o;;Fu} ufFl;Psf] cfˆgf] hftLo klxrfgaf/] ;r]t ePsf 5g\ . o:tf] cj:yfdf vf;u/L pgLx?sf] 5h;n] nfdf] ;do;Dd g]kfnL, a]nfotL tyf ef/tLo ;]gfx?df hflu/ vfPsf dflg;x? cGo efiffefifL

;d'bfosf ;b:ox?;Fu cGtlqm{of ubf{ s'/fsfgLsf] dfWodsf] ?kdf g]kfnL dfq} k|of]u u/]sfn] klg o:tf]

l:ylt pTkGg x'g k'u]sf] xf] . oBlk, lnDa' h:tf 7" nf] ;d'bfox?n] cfˆg} efiffsf] k|of]u ug{ 'df uj{ ug{

slxNo} 5f8]gg\ . pgLx? jl/kl/sf u}/ lnDa' jQmfx?n] pgLx?nfO{ x/]; v'jfP klg lnDa'x?n] cfˆgf]

efiffsf] k|of]u ul/g} /x] / >[h+uf n]vg k4ltsf] ljsf; u/] .

%=# l5d]sL ;d'bfosf ;b:ox?sf cjwf/0ff

hghftLx?sf] efiff k|lt g]kfnL dft[efiffL jQmfx?sf] 1fg / rf;f] sd 5 . To;}n] hghftLo efiff

;d" xsf jQmfx? cfkm" x? k|lt e]befj ePsf] 7fG5g\ . csf{lt/ :yfgLo efiffsf w]/} jQmfx? g]kfnLn]

cfˆgf] efiffdf kf/]sf] k|efj / pgLx?n] g]kfnLsf] kIfdf cfˆgf] efiffnfO{ pk]Iff ug{ ] u/]sf] k|j[lQ k|lt

rf;f] b]vfpg yfn]sf 5g\ .

^= efiffx?sf] nfkfGd'v l:ylt

^= gkfndf efiffx?sf] nf]kfGd'v l:ylt

efiffsf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt eg]sf] s] xf] t < o; zAbn] o:tf] k|lqmof k|lt ;+s]t u5{ h'g clt ;" Id?kdf

efiffsf] 36\bf] k|of]uaf6 cf/De x'G5 / cGttf]uTjf To;efiffnfO{ æd[To'Æ ;Dd k'¥ofpF5 . nf]kf]Gd'v

l:yltsf w]/} sf/0f 5g\ / hf] :jfefljs klg xf] . o; k'l:tsf tof/ kfbf{sf] qmddf nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltsf

o:tf ljleGg sf/0fx? cf} +NofOPsf 5g\ .

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g]kfndf efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt Psgf; 5}g . sltko efiffx? jQmfsf] ;+Vof yf]/} ePsf sf/0fn]

d[tk|foM eO{ ;s]sf 5g\ . s';'G8f o;sf] Pp6f 68\sf/f] pbfx/0f xf] . /fO{ efiff ;d" xsf cGo ;fgf

hLjGt efiffx? klg 5g\ / tLgn] cfˆgf] dft[efiff k|lt cfb/efj /fVbf-/fVb} klg ufpF 5f]8\g' kg] { /ljBfnodf cWoog ug' { kg] { sf/0fn] cfˆgf] dft[efiff ;Fu;Fu} g]kfnLdf klg pgLx?sf] bIftf j[l4 x'g

yfn]sf] kfOG5 .

dft[efifL ;d" xsf] cfsf/, :yfg, lzIffsf] pknAwtf / u'0f:t/ tyf cGo efiffefifL ljz]ifu/L g]kfnL

dft[efifL jQmfx?;Fu ;Dks{sf] s|dx?n], To; ;d" xsf] cfˆgf] dft[efiff k|ltsf] wf/0ff / eflifs klxrfg

k|ltsf] r]tgfnfO{ k|efj kf5{ . o; afx]s zx/L If]qdf dfq} pknAw x'g] sltko k]zfx?df g]kfnLdf

;fIf/tf cfjZos k5{ / o;n] hghftLo efiffx?sf] lg/Gt/ k|of]u / ;+/If0fdf klg gsf/fTds k|efj

kf5{ .

o:tf 7" nf eflifs ;d'bfo w]/} 5g\ h;df cfˆgf] dft[efiff k|lt vf;} rf;f] 5}g, o;sf] sf/0f lzIffdf

l56f] kx' Fr x'gfn] x'g ;S5 . ljBfnox?df g]kfnL efiffdf k9fOG5 tyf lzIfsx? cGo eflifs

;d'bfoaf6 x'G5g . ljBfnodf ;kmn x'g]x? / ljZjljBfnodf cWoog ug{ hfg]x? g]kfnLefifL ;dfhsf]

d" nk|jfxdf ;dflxt x' +bf cfˆgf] dft[efiff nf]k x'g] d" No r'sfO /x]sf x'G5g\ .

cGo eflifs ;d'bfox?df hxfF dft[efiffsf] k|of]u 36]sf] 5 ToxfF w]/} l9nf eO{ ;Sg' eGbf cufj} cfˆgf]

dft[efiffnfO{ hf]ufpg / ljsf; ug{ ] tkm{ Toxfsf ;b:ox? ;hs ePsf 5g\ / rf;f] klg b]vfO/x]sf

5g\ . dft[efiffnfO{ ;+/If0f ug{ ] / Ao'pFtfpg] cfGbf]ngx? klg k|foh;f] cfˆgf] eflifs ;d'bfob]lv aflx/

a:g]x?af6 yflnG5g\ . t}klg s]xL efiffx? ;fdfGotof tL efiffsf jStfx?sf] dft[efiffk|ltsf] jkmfbf/Ln]

ubf{ afFrL /x]sf 5g\ .

nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltsf] ;xL d" Nof+sg ug{ ] uxg cWoogsf ;fy;fy} Jojxfl/s sbdx? rflng' h?/L 5 .

xfnnfO{ eg] df]6fdf]6L cg'dfg nufpg dfq} ;lsG5 . nf]kf]Gd'v efiffx?sf] ;" lrdf b]xfosf efiffx?

k5{g\M ef/tLo–cfo{ efiffx?dfM s'dfn, dfemL, af]6] / ef]6–ad{ ]nL ;d" xdfM a|fd', b'/f -s]xLn] d[tefiffdfg]sf]_, kxf8L, /fp6], /fhL, ;'g'jf/ tyf ;fgf] cfsf/sf ls/ftL efiffx? h:t} d]jfxfª, sf]O{, k" df, /

ltn'ª tyf xfo' / s';'G8fsf] -cjuL{s[t_ klg o:t} l:ylt 5 .

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^=@ gkfndf hghftLo ;d'bfox?sf nfkf]Gd'v l:ylt

hghftLo efiff ;d'bfox?sf nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltsf sf/0fx? ljleGg 5g\ . h:t} /fp6] / s';'G8fsf] dfldnfdf ltgsf k/Dk/fut jf;:yfgnfO{ jg kmF8fgLn] Iflt k'¥ofOPsf]n] cyjf e" –:vngn] -h;n]

sf]O{x? ePsf] b'O{ dfq ufpFnfO{ nueu k" 0f{?kdf ;vfk kf¥of]_ x'g ;S5 . hg;+Vofsf] lg/Gt/ j[l4n]

v]tL of]Uo hdLgdf sdL cfpg ;S5 / dflg;x? cfˆgf] lhljsf]kfh{gsf] u'dfpg ;S5g\ . o;n]

pgLx?nfO{ pgLx?sf] cfˆgf] d" n a;f]af;sf] ynf] 5f8]/ cGo efiffsf jQmfx? dfem ldl:;g afWo kfg{

;S5 . o;n] pgLx?nfO{ g]kfnLd} s'/fsfgL ug{ ] afWo t'NofpF5 .

t/fO{sf] cj:yf eg] s]xL km/s 5 . oxfF cGo eflifs ;d'bfo gjfuGt'sx? yf?, lwdfn / /fhj+zL d" n

hg;+Vosf] 9f]s} ghLs a;f]af; ug{ ] yfn]kl5 cGo ;d'bfoaf6 cnu /x]sf oL hghftLo ;d'bfox?

ldl>t ;d'bfodf kl/0ft eO{ /x]sf 5g\ . cfk;L s'/fsfgL g]kfnLd} x'g'kg{ ] x' Fbf, t/fO{sf d" n hg;+Vofsf]

dft[efiffsf] k|of]u 36\b5 tyf ;fgf s]6fs]6Lx? klg cfˆgf ;fyLx? ;Fu v]Ng g]kfnL hfGg afWo x'G5g\.

&= lgrf]8

efiff Ps hLljt tTj xf] . To;}n] efiffx?df kl/jt{g x'g' :jfefljs xf] -xfdLx? eflifs ljsf; / eflifs

j[l4sf] s'/f u5f{ } +_ hLjgsf ;a} If]qx?df ePsf kl/jt{gn] efiffdf cfˆgf] cleJolQm kfpF5g\ . olb

efiffsf n]Vo ?k 5g\ eg] To;n] ltgsf] ;+/If0f / lj:tf/df ;xof]u k'¥ofpF5 clg ltgsf] k|lti7f klg

a9\b} hfG5 . efiff cGof]Gofl>t ?kdf of] af]Ng] dflg;x?;Fu hf]l8Psf] x'G5 / ;dfh tyf ;+:s[ltaf6

cljefHo x'G5 . o; ;fgf] k'l:tsfdf xfdLn] ;+o'Qm /fi6« ;+3Lo z}lIfs, j}1flgs tyf ;f+:s[lts ;+u7g -

o'g]:sf]_ ;j{ ]If0f ;g\ @))@ sf] glthfdf cfwfl/t eflifs ljljwtf tyf g]kfndf efiffx?sf] ef}uf]lns

ljt/0f af/] rrf{ u/]sf 5f} + .

lgrf]8df eGg'kbf{, hghftLo efiffx?sf] ;+/If0fdf w]/} l9nf x'g'eGbf cufj} o; lbzf tkm{ sfd u/L

xfNg'kg{ ] 68\sf/f] cfjZostf b]Vb5f} + . æeflifs d[To" æ Pp6f gofF ;+1f xf] h;n] Pp6f efiffsf] cGTo

ePsf] hgfpF5 . of] efiff k|of]u ug{ ] ca s'g} jQmfx? x'g] 5}gg\, o;df ca s'g} ;flxTosf] ;[hgf x'g]

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5}g . o:tf cj:yfx?df lnlvt k|df0fåf/f slDtdf n]Vo efiffx? ;+/lIft t x'G5g\ . clnlvt efiffx?sf]

cj:yf s] x'G5 t < tL x/fpF5g\, ;DejtM dflg; / 7fpFx?sf gfd afx]s, s]xL klg k5fl8 g5f8L

x/fpF5g\ .

g]kfndf efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltnfO{ pN6\ofpg cyjf s]xL xb;Dd /f]Sg s] s:tf Jojxfl/s sbdx?

rflng' k5{g t < o; sfo{sf] klxnf] If]q t lzIff g} xf] . g]kfnLdf lzIff ljz]iflwsf/ xf] eg], cGo

efiffsf jQmfx?df cfˆgf dft[efiff k|ltsf] ;sf/fTds wf/0ffdf j[l4 u/fpg' klg plQs} cfjZos 5 .

k|fylds txdf, /fi6«efiff ;Fu hf]8\g] låefifL lzIff ;a}eGbf pQd pkfo x'g ;S5 . k|fylds ljBfnosf

kf7\ok':ts dfq geO{ dft[efiffsf] dxTj af/] ljZj:t ePsf dft[efiffsf lzIfsx? tyf ufpFsf

cu'jfx?sf] klg vfFrf] 5 . dft[efiffdf k|fylds lzIff lbgfn] ufpFx?df cTolws ljBfno 5f8\g]b/nfO{

36fpg ;SYof] xf]nf . dft[efiffdf k|fylds lzIffsf ;fy;fy} jo:sx?sf nfuL cgf}krfl/s k|s[ltsf

;fIf/tf sIffx? dft[efiffd} rnfO{ lbg] xf] eg] To;n] Pp6f k|sfof{Tds ?kdf lzlIft ;dfhsf] lgdf{0f

ug{ ;S5 . h;n] /fi6«efiffdf klg lzlIft x'g] cj:yf ;Dd k'¥ofpg' ;lhnf] kfg{ ;S5 . o:tf] ;dfhn]

cfˆgf dft[efiff tyf ;+:s[ltsf] ;+/If0f ug{df kxn uYof{ ] / o;/L g]kfndf efiff / ;+:s[ltsf] lglwdf

;xof]u k'¥ofpFYof] .

efiffx?sf] cjZo+efjL cj;fgsf] ;fdgf ug{ ] k|lt-pkfox? /fli6«o :t/df eflifs of]hgf tyf lglt

th{ 'df ug{ ] ;+3;+:yfx? ;+u 5g\ .

/fli6«o efiff gLlt ;'emfj cfof]usf] u7g ;/sf/åf/f /fli6«o efiff ljsf; af/] yfngL ul/Psf] Pp6f

;sf/fTds k|of; lyof] . o; cfof]un] ;g\ !(($ df cfˆgf] k|ltj]bg lzIff, ;+:s[lt tyf ;dfh sNof0f

dGqL ;dIf k]z u¥of] . o; k|ltj]bgdf lbOPsf ;'emfjx? b]xfo adf]lhd 5g\ M

• g]kfndf af]lng] efiffx?sf] jf:tljs ;+Vof klxrfg / lgwf{/0f ug{ g]kfnsf] eflifs ;j{ ]If0f u/fpg'

kg{ ] .

•

g]kfndf nf]kf]Gd'v cj:yfdf /x]sf efiffx? klxrfg ug{ ' kg{ ] .• dft[efiffx?df låefifLo cyjf g]kfnLdf PsefifLo lzIff k|j4{g ug{ ] .

• efiff k|lti7fgsf] :yfkgf ug{ ] .

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ljut @% jif{b]lv g]kfn efifflj1fg ;dfh lqmofzLn 5 . k|To]s jif{ o; ;dfhn] æg]kfnL efifflj1fgsf]

hg{nÆ k|sflzt u5{ / jflif{s ;Dd]ngsf] cfof]hgfu5{ h;df ljleGg eflifs ljifox?df sfo{kqx?

k|:t't x'G5g\ / tL k|:t'ltx? af/] 5nkmn ul/G5g\ . cTolws ljifox? hghftLo efiffx?af6 cfpg] u/]sf 5g\ .

eflifs l;4fGt cWofkg u/fpg tyf g]kfnL efiffljb\÷efiff j}1flgsx?nfO{ g]kfnsf efiffx?af/]

cg';GWfg ug{ ] tflnd lbgsf lglDt ;g\ !((^ df lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf efifflj1fg s]Gb|Lo ljefusf]

:yfkgf ul/of] .

>L % dx]Gb|af6 g]kfnL ;+:s[ltx?sf] ;+/If0f / ljsf;sf nflu g]kfn /fhsLo k|1f k|lti7fgsf] :yfkgf

u/L aS;]sf] lyof] . g]kfnsf efiffx?sf] cWoognfO{ s]xL ;do ;Dd k|1f k|lti7fgsf] sfo{qmddf ;dfj]zul/Psf] lyof] . k|1f k|lti7fgn] s]xL hghftL ;d" xsf nf]ssyfx?sf] g]kfnL cg'jfbsf ;fy ;fy} lnDa'

efiffsf] zAbsf]z k|sflzt u/]sf] 5 .

cflbjf;L hghflt pTyfg /fli6«o k|lti7fgn] efifflj1fg s]Gb| Lo ljefu tyf g]kfn / Pl;ofnL cWoog

s]Gb|sf] ;xof]udf ljleGg efiffx?sf æcfwf/e"t zAbsf]zÆ / Jofs/0fx?sf] lgdf{0f ;DaGwL ;+:s[lt

kl/of]hgf k|fof]hg u/]sf] 5 .

hghfltx?n] ljz]ifu/L e]ife" iff, g[To tyf uLt ;+uLtx?;Fu ;DalGwt ;+:s[ltsf] ;+/If0f / ljsf;sfnflu o; ;Fu ;DalGwt y'k| } ;+u7gx? vf]n]sf 5g\ . lxhf]cfh cfˆgf eflifs ;d'bfox?sf] efiff nf]k

x'g'af6 /f]Sg o:tf s]xL ;dfhx?n] ;–;fgf zAbsf]zx? lgdf{0f ug{ ] yfn]sf 5g\ . s]xL cj:yfx?df

kf7\o;fdu|L klg ;+sng / k|sfzg ul/Psf 5g\ .

o:tf lsl;dsf kxnx? ljutsf bzsb]lv dfq} cl:tTjdf cfPsf x'g\ . o:tf kxnx?n] hghftLo effiff

;d" xx?df cfˆgf dft[efiffx?nfO{ ;+j4{g / ljsf; ug{ 'kg{ ] gLlwsf ?kdf lng yfn]sf] b]vfpF5g\ . ca

o; qmddf plgx?sf] k|of;nfO{ ;dy{g ug{ / pgLx?nfO{ ;xof]u ug{ lgtf+t cfjZos 5 .

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APPENDIXES

APPENDIX 1. THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAL

1. Indo-European Language Family: Indo-Aryan Group

Language Subgroup Distribution (by zone)

Nepali Eastern Pahari All over the country

Awadhi Mid-Eastern Bheri, Lumbini

Bhojpuri Mid-Eastern Narayani

Maithili Mid-Eastern Janakpur, Koshi, Narayani, Sagarmatha

Tharu Mid-Eastern Seti, Lumbini, Narayani, Rapti, Koshi, Janakpur,Sagarmatha

Rajbansi Eastern Mahakali, Mecchi

Bote Nepal Group Narayani

Danuwar Nepal Group Narayani

Darai Nepal Group Narayani

Kumal Nepal Group Gandaki

Majhi Nepal Group Janakpur, Lumbini, Narayani

2. Sino-Tibetan Language Family: Tibeto Burman Group

Language Subgroup Distribution (by zone)

Lepcha Mirish Mechi

Meche Bodo Mechi

Chantyal West Bodish Dhaulagiri

Dura West Bodish LamjungGhale West Bodish Gandaki

Gurung West Bodish Gandaki

Tamang West Bodish Bagmati, Narayani

Thakali West Bodish Dhaulagiri

Dhimal Dhimalish Morang, Jhapa

Chepang Central Himalayan Narayani, Gandaki

Kham Central Himalayan Rapti

Magar Central Himalayan Bheri

Newari Central Himalayan Bagmati

Pahari Central Himalayan Bagmati

Raji Central Himalayan Bheri, Seti

Raute Central Himalayan Bheri, Rapti, Seti, KarnaliHayu East Himalayan Janakpur

Baramu West Himalayan Gandaki

Byansi West Himalayan Mahakali

Thami West Himalayan Janakpur

Athapaharia Kirati Koshi

Bahing Kirati Sagarmatha

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Bantawa Kirati Koshi, Mechi, Sagarmatha

Belhare Kirati Koshi

Chamling Kirati Sagarmatha

Chintang Kirati Koshi

Dumi Kirati Sagarmatha

Khaling Kirati Sagarmatha

Koyu Kirati Sagarmatha

Kulung Kirati Koshi, Sagarmatha

Limbu Kirati Koshi, Mechi

Lohorung Kirati Koshi

Mewahang Kirati Koshi

Puma Kirati Sagarmatha

Sangpang Kirati Koshi

Sunuwar Kirati Janakpur, Sagarmatha

Thulung Kirati Sagarmatha

Wambule Kirati SagarmathaYakkha Kirati Koshi

Yamphu Kirati Koshi

Dolpike Central Tibetan Dolpa

Jirel Central Tibetan Janakpur

Lhomi Central Tibetan Koshi

Mugali Central Tibetan Karnali

Sherpa Central Tibetan Sagarmatha

Yohlmo Central Tibetan Bagmati

3. Austro-Asiatic Language Family

Language Group Subgroup Distribution (by zone)Santhali Munda North Munda Koshi, Mechi

4. Dravidian Language Family

Language Group Subgroup Distribution (by zone)

Dhangar NorthernDravidian

Northern Dravidian Janakpur

5. Other

Language Group Subgroup Distribution (by zone)

Kusunda Not known Not known Beri

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APPENDIX 2. CBS REPORT ON LANGUAGES (2001)

The Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), HMG/Nepal has published in 2001 its population

census report. According to this report, the following is the list of languages used inNepal:

SN Mother tongue Number %

1 Nepali 11053255 48.98

2 Maithili 2797582 12.40

3 Bhojpuri 1712536 7.59

4 Tharu (Dagauri/Rana) 1331546 5.90

5 Tamang 1179145 5.22

6 Newar 825458 3.66

7 Magar 770116 3.41

8 Awadhi 560744 2.489 Bantawa 371056 1.64

10 Gurung 338925 1.50

11 Limbu 333633 1.48

12 Bajjika 237947 1.05

13 Urdu 174840 0.77

14 Rajbansi 129883 0.58

15 Sherpa 129771 0.58

16 Hindi 105765 0.47

17 Chamling 44093 0.20

18 Santhali 40193 0.18

19 Chepang 36807 0.16

20 Danuwar 31849 0.1421 Dhangar/Jhangar 28615 0.13

22 Sunuwar 26611 0.12

23 Bangala 23602 0.10

24 Marwad (Rajsthani) 22637 0.10

25 Majhi 21841 0.10

26 Thami 18991 0.08

27 Kulung 18686 0.08

28 Dhimal 17308 0.08

29 Angika 15892 0.07

30 Yakkha 14648 0.06

31 Thulung 14034 0.06

32 Sangpang 10810 0.0533 Bhujel/Khawas 10733 0.05

34 Darai 10210 0.05

35 Khaling 9288 0.04

36 Kumal 6533 0.03

37 Thakali 6441 0.03

38 Chhantyal 5912 0.03

39 Sanketic (NepaliSymbolic sign)

5743 0.03

40 Tibbetan 5277 0.02

41 Dumi 5271 0.02

42 Jirel 4919 0.02

43 Wambule/Umbule 4471 0.02

44 Puma 4310 0.02

45 Yholmo 3986 0.02

46 Nachhiring 3553 0.0247 Dura 3397 0.02

48 Meche 3301 0.01

49 Pahari 2995 0.01

50 Lepcha/Lapche 2826 0.01

51 Bote 2823 0.01

52 Bahing 2765 0.01

53 Koi/Koyu 2641 0.01

54 Raji 2413 0.01

55 Hayu 1743 0.01

56 Byangshi 1734 0.01

57 Yamphu/Yamphe 1722 0.01

58 Ghale 1649 0.0159 Khadiya 1575 0.01

60 Chhiling 1314 0.01

61 Lohorung 1207 0.01

62 Punjabi 1165 0.01

63 Chinese 1101 0.00

64 English 1037 0.00

65 Mewahang 904 0.00

66 Sanskrit 823 0.00

67 Kaike 794 0.00

68 Raute 518 0.00

69 Kisan 489 0.00

70 Churauti 408 0.0071 Baram/Baramu 342 0.00

72 Tilung 310 0.00

73 Jero/Jerung 271 0.00

74 Dungmali 221 0.00

75 Oriya 159 0.00

76 Lingkhim 97 0.00

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77 Kusunda 87 0.00

78 Sindhi 72 0.00

79 Munda 67 0.00

80 Hariyanwi 33 0.00

81 Magahi 30 0.00

82 Sam 23 0.00

83 Kurmali 13 0.00

84 Kagate 10 0.00

85 Dzonkha 9 0.00

86 Kuki 9 0.00

87 Chhingtang 8 0.00

88 Mizo 8 0.00

89 Nagamise 6 0.00

90 Lhomi 4 0.00

91 Assamise 3 0.00

92 Sadhani 2 0.00

93 Unidentified languages 168340 0.75

Total 22736934

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APPENDIX 3. CARTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION1

1 Gordon, Raymond G. (ed.). 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas: SIL International.

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REFERENCES

Bandhu, C.M., 2060 B.S. Nepali Baal-Biswakosh. New Delhi. UNESCO and Nepali Sahitiya

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Breton, Roland J.- L. 1997. Atlas of the Languages and Ethnic Communities of South Asia.New Delhi: Sage Publications

Ebert, Karen H., 1994. The Structure of Kiranti Languages. Zurich: Universitaet Zurich.

Eppele, John. 2003. Kathmandu Valley Survey: Bahing, Thulung and Wambule Rai (Ms.)

-- , Cho, Kwang-Ju, Rai, Padam Kumar. 2003. Bantawa: A sociolinguistic Survey (Ms.)

Gordon, Raymond G. (ed.). 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas: SILInternational.

Gurung, Harka. 1996. Ethnic Demography of Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Foundation forAdvanced Studies.

-- 1998. Nepal: Social Demography and Expressions. Kathmandu: New ERA

-- 2002. Janganana 2001 Anusar Jatiya Tathyak

Lee, Maureen. 2005. Ba’yung (Bahing) Rai: Socio – Linguistic Survey. Pre-publication Draft

Nembang, Til Bikram (Coordinator). 2050 B.S. National Languages PolicyRecommendation Commission Report. Kathmandu: Royal Nepal Academy

Prarambhik Lekhajokha. (First Evaluation of Nationality). Kathmandu:

Rai, Dhan Raj. 2001. Bilingualism and Language Attitude: A Case Study of Bantawa Rai ofPhakphok Kolbote VDC in Ilam District. M.A. Thesis, Central Department ofLinguistics, T. U. Kirtipur

Rapacha, Lal. 1997. Sunwar as an Endangered Language of Nepal. Nepalese Linguistics14, 89-102

Toba, Sueyoshi. 1992. Language Issues in Nepal. Kathmandu: Samdan Books andStationeries

-- 1998. A Bibliography of Nepalese Languages and Linguistics (BNLL). Kathmandu:Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University

-- 2005. Addenda to BNLL

-- Ingrid Toba and N.K. Rai. 2002. UNESCO Language Survey Report Nepal.Kathmandu: UNESCO

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Von der Heide, Susanne, Thomas Hoffmann, ed., 2001. Aspects of Migration and Mobilityin Nepal. Kathmandu

Watters, David E., with the participation of Yogendra P. Yadava, Madhav P. Pokharel,Balaram Prasain. 2005. Notes on Kusunda Grammar: a linguistic isolate of Nepal,Kathmandu: National Foundation for the Development of Indigenous Nationalities

Watters, Stephen. 2002. Language Death: a Review and an Examination of a Global Issuein the Nepalese Context. Gipan, 2: 39 – 66

Yadav, Yogendra P. 2003. Population Monograph of Nepal. Vol. 1. Chapter 4 Language.Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu

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UNESCO Kathmandu Series of Monographs and Working Papers:

No. 1 Democracy, Gender Equality and Women’s Literacy: Experience from Nepal

No. 2 Celebrating Diversities Through Policy, Practice, and Research: A Case of Literacyand Non-Formal Education in Nepal

No. 3 Review of Research Literature on Girls’ Education in Nepal

No. 4 Girls in Science and Technology Education: A Study on Access, Participation, and Performance of Girls in Nepal

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