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Ivan Franko National University in Lviv Faculty of Foreign Languages Hryhoriy Kochur Department of Translation Studies and Contrastive Linguistics

LEXICAL AND STYLISTIC PECULIARITIES OF ROBERT BURNS SONGS AND THEIR REPRODUCTION IN TRANSLATION (based on Robert Burns' song and their translation by Mykola Lukash)

Course paper Done by a 3rd -year student Solomiya Talokha Group: Inp 31 Scholarly supervisor: O. S. Semenikhina, Lecturer Reviewer: L. M. Kholod, Candidate of Psychology

Lviv 2009

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LIST OF CONTENTS Introduction.. 2-4 Part I The complexities of Robert Burns songs and their Ukrainian translation... 5-131. The problem of a song as a genre.... 5-10 2. Ukrainian translations of Robert Burns songs by M. Lukash.. 10-13

Part II Lexical and stylistic devices in some of Robert Burns songs and the translators strategies employed in their translation . . . .. .14-25 Conclusion ..26 List of references27-28

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INTRODUCTION The topicality of the paper lies in the necessity of encouraging present generation of translators to work on new translations of the classics, in particular, of Robert Burns works. This research paper also examines the translators methods, strategies employed to render the songs of Robert Burns. Thus, it will help to make even better translations in future. Although extensive research was done in reference to Robert Burns works, some of Ukrainian translations of his songs were not analyzed in detail before. This, in my view, constitutes the novelty of the paper. The object of the research is to find peculiarities of a song genre, its specific features and ways of translation. Thus, the subject of the research is the translators strategies employed to render peculiarities of some songs by Robert Burns. As a result, the paper concentrates on its linguistic expression and particular examples from the songs translated by Mykola Lukash. Objectives of the paper: 1) 2)3)

to study English and Ukrainian lexical and stylistic devices related to song genre and their linguistic expression; to collect a corpus of samples from Robert Burns songs; to research translation technique employed by Mykola Lukash in the translations of Robert Burns songs; to single out convergent and divergent features of Scottish and Ukrainian folklore.

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Theoretical value of the paper is constituted by the linguo-stylistic analysis of the particular examples from songs and corresponding examples from the translation, which, in its turn, allows to evaluate the translations.

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The paper consists of the Introduction, Part I, Part II, Conclusion and the List of References. In Part I of the paper, special attention is paid to the complexities of a song as a genre, of specific features of Robert Burns songs and the history of Ukrainian translations of Robert Burns works. Part II concentrates on some specific problems encountered by the translator of the songs and his solutions. A number of songs and its translations were analyzed. Unfortunately, due to the limitations of the paper, many of the examples have been left undiscussed. In the Conclusion, an attempt is made to evaluate the rendering of specific problems of a song genre, in particular Robert Burns songs, and the Ukrainian translation. The List of References provides the list of literary, scholarly, lexicographical, and electronic sources cited in the paper.

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I. THE COMPLEXITIES OF ROBERT BURNS SONGS AND THEIR UKRAINIAN TRANSLATION 1. THE PROBLEM OF A SONG AS A GENRE.The memory of Burns, -- every mans, every boys and girls head carries snatches of his songs, and they say them by heart, and, what is strangest of all, never learned them from a book, but from mouth to mouth. The wind whispers them, the birds whistle them, the corn, barley, and bulrushes hoarsely rustle them, nay, the music boxes at Geneva are framed and toothed to play them; the hand organs of the Savoyards in all cities repeat them, and the chimes of bells ring them in the spires. They are the property and the solace of mankind. Ralph Waldo Emerson [22, p.5]

Robert Burns (25 January 1759 21 July 1796) was a poet and a lyricist. He is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland. He is the best known of the poets who have written in the Scots language, although much of his writing is also in English and a 'light' Scots dialect, accessible to an audience beyond Scotland. He is regarded as a pioneer of the Romantic Movement. As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising or adapting them. His poem (and song) Auld Lang Syne, for example, is often sung at Hogmanay (New Year), and Scots Wha Hae served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country. In this part of research paper I would like to describe some particular features of song as a literary genre. A song is a musical composition. In the classical tradition, songs contain vocal parts commonly accompanied by musical instrument. The words of songs are typically of a poetic, rhyming nature, although they may be religious verses or free prose. Early collections of songs and ballads were made by Samuel Pepys (16331703) and by the end of the eighteenth century this was becoming increasingly common, with collections including John Ritson's, The Bishopric Garland (1784), which paralleled the work of Robert Burns and Walter Scott in Scotland. He both collected and wrote his own songs and ballads, using the form to create an artistic product. Burns collected and preserved Scottish folk songs, sometimes revising, expanding, and adapting them. One of the better known of these collections is

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The Merry Muses of Caledonia (the title is not Burns), a collection of bawdy lyrics that were popular in the musical halls of Scotland as late as the 20th century. Many of Burns most famous poems are songs with the music based upon older traditional songs. For example, Auld Lang Syne is set to the traditional tune Can Ye Labour Lea, A Red, Red Rose is set to the tune of Major Graham and The Battle of Sherramuir is set to the Cameronian Rant. Many lyric songs written by poets later became so much loved by people that they were regarded as folk songs. In our native Ukrainian tradition of song creating we have such examples, for instance, such Ukrainian songs as , (T. Shevchenko), (M. Petrenko). As I. P. Symonenko makes clear, A distinguishing feature of folk songs is conciseness, laconic judgments, a tendency to the creation of aphorisms. Artistic peculiarities of Scottish folk songs, despite the richness of described feelings and characters, are very simple. Popular (meaning of the people) poetry does not like magnificent epithets and grandiose similes. It refers to them only to make a comic effect. You may encounter fixed, for folk songs, epithets (bonnie lassie, bonnie laddie, glancing ee, braw young lad etc.) in everyday colloquial speech. However, this does not deprive folk songs of high artistry. Insignificant number of epithets is successfully compensated by a masterly usage of words and expressions synonymic meanings, synonymic parallelisms, witty unexpected metaphors. The language of popular poetry is an ordinary daily Scottish speech. [17, p.151] Favourite folk songs stanzas quatrain (a four-line stanza) and ottava rima (an eight-line stanza), more rare are ten-line and six-line stanzas. One more peculiarity is a refrain line at the end of every stanza (it is also called a bobwheel) and chorus. The usual metre trimeter iambus or tetrameter iambus (around 65% of Scottish songs). However, one can rarely encounter iambus in its classical form. In most of cases, besides interaction of tetrameter and trimeter iambus (or their stressed and unstressed form) the omitting of stressed syllables, the emerge of out-of-scheme stresses and syllables, accidental trochee that gives a wonderful flexibility and expressiveness to the rhythm are observed. Sometimes amphibrach is used.

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In Scottish folk poetry great attention is paid to sound instrumenting, besides that peculiar is a rhyme inaccuracy together with the richness of alliterations. This peculiarity can be understood only by tracing the history of forming of accentual syllabic versification system in Scottish poetry. At first, in Scotland existed an alliterational versification system, in which lines had the same number of stresses and had to have as much as possible alliterating connections, rhyme was not necessary. Alliteration as well as a free rhythm of the works, remains a favorite device in Scottish folklore forever. Typical folk songs rhyme: for quatrain abab, abcb, aabb, aaba, in chorus often aaaa, for ottava rima abcbdefe, abcbbdbd, ababcdcd, abababab, aabaccdb. Very often it happens so that one of the rhymes is steady for the whole song. The peculiarity of syntactical as well as sound structure of folk songs is their saturation with repetitions. The variety of repetitions is enormous: refrain (the repetition of the last line of the first stanza in the following ones); the identity of second and last quatrains lines in the next two lines; the repetition of one or two initial lines; anaphoric structure of stanzas; countless variants of repetition of separate words (e.g. John Anderson, my Jo) Rhyme can be stable, cross, pair (formed by assonance), very often it is inexact. [17, p.183] Robert Burns in his songs stuck to a traditional folk songs stanza quatrain or ottava rima with refrain or chorus, but he showed preference for refrain and modified it in different ways. However, there is a considerable variation of this pattern in almost every respect, including length, number of lines and rhyming scheme, making the strict definition of a song extremely difficult. To characterize Robert Burns poetic style and thus the problems that a translator may encounter it is necessary to examine tropes that are used in his works. Robert Burns used epithets, similes, metaphors and parallelisms. Moreover, parallelisms and metaphors predominate in songs, and epithets, similes, metaphors in other works. According to V.A. Kukharenko: a metaphor transference of names based on the associated likeness between two objects. [] The expressiveness of the metaphor is

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promoted by the implicit simultaneous presence of images of both objects the one which is actually named and the one which supplies its own legal name. So that formally we deal with the name transference based on the similarity of one feature common to two different entities, while in fact each one enters a phrase in the complexity of its other characteristics. The wider is the gap between the associated objects the more striking and unexpected the more expressive is the metaphor. [8, p.42-43] Robert Burns uses metaphors mainly in descriptions of nature, aiming at powerful and vivid image. These metaphors are very much linked with personification, because for the most part the poet inspirits nature in them, imparts it with traits and manners of a living being. If a metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects, we deal with personification. [8, p.43] To describe social phenomena, people, feelings etc. the poet applies metaphors more rarely, but even here they are picturesque and expressive. Robert Burns favorite stylistic device is parallelism or repetition. As V. A. Kukharenko points out: As a syntactical SD repetition is recurrence of the same word, word combination, and phrase for two or more times. According to the places which the repeated unit occupies in a sentence (utterance), repetition is classified into several types: anaphora, epiphora, framing, catch repetition (anadiplosis), chain repetition, ordinary repetition, successive repetition and parallel constructions. [8, p.78-79] Parallelism is solely a folk device for artistic description of reality. One may encounter it in one or another form in numerous works of folklore. Moreover, the question in point is not only an intonationally-syntactical parallelism but also such an artistic device when an author draws a parallel between different notions or contrasts them. Similar parallelisms and antitheses one often encounters in Robert Burns songs. In separate songs sense parallelisms go far beyond the stanza: the description of a picture of Nature takes more than a half of the whole song and only in final stanzas correlates with the state of mind and thoughts of a romantic hero by metaphor or simile. (e.g. The Banks oDoon)

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As stated by V. A. Kukharenko parallelism: is a powerful means of emphasis. Besides, repetition adds rhythm and balance to the utterance. [8, p.79] Epithets that Robert Burns applies to his songs are always simple, concrete, precise and at the same time figurative and original. They always clearly reflect the poets attitude towards the described phenomena. According to V. A. Kukharenko: Epithet expresses characteristics of an object, both existing and imaginary. Its basic feature is its emotiveness and subjectivity: the characteristic attached to the object to qualify it is always chosen by the speaker himself. Our speech ontologically being always emotionally colored, it is possible to say that in epithet it is the emotive meaning of the word that is foregrounded to suppress the denotational meaning of the latter. [8, p.58-59] V. A. Kukharenko distinguishes between fixed, Homeric epithets; affective (or emotive proper) epithet, figurative (or transferred); single epithets, pairs, chains (also called strings), two-step epithets, phrase-epithets, inverted epithets. While O. S. Hrabovetska discriminates between fixed, authors epithets; tautological, figurative, comparative, synesthetic, oxymoronic epithets; single, pairs, chains, two-step epithets. In this course paper mainly fixed and single epithets are mentioned. With the help of different epithets the poet gives different meanings to one and the same word. In his songs poet willingly uses fixed epithets from the works of folklore. Sometimes in humorous stories any attribute becomes a fixed epithet and is repeated with different nouns throughout the whole work. As in the song Dusty Miller where the epithet dusty is used with different nouns: dusty miller, dusty coat, dusty color, dusty kiss, dusty sack, dusty pack, dusty silver. Summing up, I would like to emphasize that Robert Burns masterly uses the richness and inexhaustible literary possibilities of national Scottish language. He applies its flexibility to express various ideas and feelings. This course paper presents an attempt to analyze the peculiarities of Robert Burns poetry, in particular, songs from the Translation Studies point of view.

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2. UKRAINIAN TRANSLATIONS OF ROBERT BURNS SONGS BY MYKOLA LUKASH. In Ukraine the creative work of Robert Burns was highly estimated by Taras Shevchenko, Ivan Franko, Lesia Ukrayinka, Pavlo Hrabovskyi and others. Taras Shevchenko called him a national and prominent poet. For the first time the works of Robert Burns were translated into Ukrainian in 70s of the 19th century by Ivan Franko and Pavlo Hrabovskyi. Later on they were translated by Vasyl Mysyk, Mykola Lukash, Sava Holovanivskyi, V. Kolodiy etc. Mykola Bazhan wrote a poem dedicated to Robert Burns, it was called (Memory of Burns). In 1959 State Literary Publishing House published the book called Robert Burns: Selected works. The book included Ukrainian translations of Robert Burns songs, ballads, poetry, epigrams and poems done by two prominent Ukrainian translators Mykola Lukash and Vasyl Mysyk. In his review on this collection Viktor Koptilov stated that Robert Burns works are not easy to translate; they take their roots deeply into his native Scotland. Thus to transplant them successfully into Ukrainian ground a remarkable skill and talent is needed. Fortunately, both translators of the book were not lacking these. The great merit of Mykola Lukash as a translator is the reproduction of folk character of Burns poetry. Among all the peculiarities of Robert Burns works Mykola Lukash emphasized on their closeness to Scottish folklore. Almost every poem of Scotlands favourite son is filled with images and motives of folklore. (And to many of them the author made notes indicating with what national melody it should be sung.) Only by using linguo-stylistic peculiarities of Ukrainian folk songs translator can reproduce national character of Burns songs. Then a reader perceives the works of Robert Burns on the background of native folklore. That very method was used by Mykola Lukash. The translator skillfully used Ukrainian national phraseology: , ( ), , , (), , (). Mykola Lukash is also famous for such a translation technique as

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domestication, which vivid examples will be discussed in the second part of this research paper. Domestication pragmatic translation technique or strategy in which the translator gives priority to target-language fluency, minimizing the Otherness of the original and e.g. adapting culture-bound items. [26] Mykola Lukash was both criticized and respected for such strategy. In my opinion, sometimes his choice as a translator is more justified, sometimes less but an unquestioning statement is that his translations are very poetic and melodious, meant for singing. To my mind, in many respects this is due to domestication. Besides, it is a wellknown fact that poetry translation is a special type of translation. In my view, it is here, where a translator should sacrifice one thing to achieve another. Poetry is less susceptible to changes in the vocabulary than prose. Partly because of poetic associations and partly to lift the message above the ordinary and commonplace, poetry retains, long after they have gone out of general use, words that were favored by former poets. Thus, poetry presents special challenges to translators, given the importance of a text's formal aspects, in addition to its content. The Russian-born linguist and semiotician Roman Jacobson went so far as to declare that poetry by definition [is] untranslatable. [27] In 1974 the American poet James Merril wrote a poem, Lost in Translation, which in part explores this idea. The question was also discussed by Douglas Hofstadter, he argues that a good translation of a poem must convey as much as possible not only of its literal meaning, but of its form and structure (meter, rhyme or alliteration scheme, etc.). [28] Vitaliy Radchuk in his article writes that the functions of a translation are determined by objectively artistic peculiarity of primary source. If a work of art is important by its artistic uniqueness, then the art of reproduction consists in taking into account this uniqueness. [19, p.19] To my mind, this is what Mykola Lukash as a translator of the works of Burns had done. Depart to draw nearer this is dialectics of translation. [19, p.26]

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M. Morozov notes that a special difficulty for a translator of Robert Burns lyrical songs lies in a combination of naturalness and simplicity of daily colloquial speech with musical melodiousness. [10, p.327] V. R. Savchyn indicates that translations of M. Lukash, besides very often having a deep underlying idea, had an important peculiarity: by demonstrating an absolute adequacy of the Ukrainian language and affirming of a high, qualitatively new level of Ukrainian culture, they made all the postulates of the totalitarian ideology concerning the domestic use of the Ukrainian language null and void. He gave priority to the target text that would meet the requirements of the target literature and culture and show a rich expressive potential of the target language. [15, p.6] Poetic translations done by Mykola Lukash are wonderfully melodious and very good for singing. This led to the fact that very many songs translated by Mykola Lukash were set to music a rare case in Ukrainian song creation. [Ibid] Mentioning the translators general strategy and specific translators decisions we may claim that one of his decisions was the choice of works of a distinct folk character with substantial layer of national phraseology, colloquialism, dialectal elements that would allow the translator to operate with similar vocabulary while translating. The translators conception is aimed at preservation, renovation and enrichment of the Ukrainian language by means of translation. Thus, one may see that the translators choice of the material to be translated is determined not only by his personal preferences but, first of all, by his civil position, his patriotic feelings. Translation is the force of languages development. [19, p.19] It should be remembered that in the 20th century, due to Ukrainian political situation, translation was the instrument for the development of the Ukrainian language. Mykola Lukash took an active role in this process. That is why in Lukashs translation one may encounter many dialectal words, colloquialisms, exclusive metaphors, epithets based on authors stylistic derivatives. In such a way Mykola Oleksiyovych showed a great potential of our native language.

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II.

LEXICAL AND STYLISTIC DEVICES IN SOME OF ROBERT BURNS SONGS AND THE TRANSLATORS STRATEGIES EMPLOYED IN THEIR TRANSLATION

In this chapter an attempt will be made to analyze some peculiarities of a number of Robert Burns songs and the ways of translation introduced by Mykola Lukash. Robert Burns uses many colorful lexical and stylistic devices, in particular: fixed epithets, metaphors, sound instrumenting (alliteration, rhymed alliteration, and assonance), parallelisms. He combines them with both Scottish poetical tradition and his own manner of writing. Thus, all these peculiarities constitute the authors unique style. As noted by Vitaliy Radchuk: Not only the English language is translated but the language of Byron, Shakespeare [13, p. 20] Generally, Mykola Lukash translated 53 songs and ballads. Here 12 songs are discussed. A corpus consisting of 100 lexical and stylistic devices samples is collected. The first song that I would like to analyze is Green Grow the Rashes written in 1784. Let us look at the whole song:GREEN GROW THE RASHES, O! Green grow te rashes, O! Green grow the rashes, O! The sweetest hours that eer I spend Are spent amang the lasses, O. Theres nought but care on evry han, In every hour that passes, O: What signifies the life o man, An twere na for the lasses, O? The warly race may riches chase, An riches still may fly them, O; An tho at last they catch them fast, Their hearts can neer enjoy them, O. But gie me a canny hour at een, My arms about my dearie, O: An warly cares, an warly men, May a gae tapsalteerie, O. For you sae douce, ye sneer at this, Yere nought but senseless asses, O: The wisest man the warl eer saw He dearly lovd the lasses, O.

, , ! , , ! , , ! , . , .. , , . , , . , , :

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, , . Auld Nature swears the lovely dears Her noblest work she classes, O: Her prentice han she tried on man, An then she made the lasses, O. [22, p.392] , : , , , , ! , , ![2, p.28]

The first thing that attracts attention is the number of lines in translation: Mykola Lukash repeats the first stanza at the end of the song. It is called a chorus. This is a traditional song pattern. Generally, Robert Burns uses a chorus in his songs but gives preference to a refrain that is why in this particular song Burns did not include chorus. The translator sticks precisely to the rhyme of the original. In this song we may see an exemplary case of sound instrumenting, namely alliteration (the repetition of consonants, usually in stressed syllables) Green Grow the Rashes. Talented Ukrainian translator masterly reproduces such song peculiarity: , ! It produces the effect of euphony and creates a great image of Nature. In Ukrainian consonants and are more sharp and do not reproduce the sound and image of rushes (rashes mean rushes in Scottish) shaken by the wind. That is why Mykola Lukash uses consonants , , to recreate the sound of rustle. Green Grow the Rashes is an inexhaustible source of similes and parallels. The translator managed to reproduce these peculiarities. For instance, An warly cares/an warly men , . Another parallel construction in Lukashs translation is , r , . It should be noticed that in the last example we may observe a stylistic derivative based on an active model of wordcreation . Mykola Lukash rather often uses such method, it renovates, accentuates the semantics of stylistically unmarked lexemes. [16, p.8] As to some domestication elements in translation, attempts of the translator to bring the original song closer to the Ukrainian folklore, we may observe that the translator uses Ukrainian idiom

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/ . Since phraseology is inseparable feature of Ukrainian folk songs, the translator applies idioms in his translation, thus making it more close to the Ukrainian reader. The last lines from the song that I would like to analyze are Auld Nature swears, the lovely dears/Her noblest work she classes,O/Her prentice han she tryd on man/An then she made the lasses, O. This is actually the last stanza of the song and Robert Burns uses here such a trope as personification, namely, personification of nature. Here personification adds dramatic power to the description and expresses the authors individual vision of the world. In the translation one may see that Mykola Lukash does not preserve the image of nature and uses the word instead: / / / . Ukrainian translator uses lexical transformation (logical development of meaning). Though the personification is not reproduced in the translation, to my mind, the translator is rather close to the original. He rendered the meaning, the sense properly. As ths verse suggests, Robert Burns calls it the genuine language of his heart, he turned instinctively from the grave, money-getting, place-seeking men to the gay group of pleasure-lovers. [22, p.10] To my mind, Mykola Lukash managed to recreate its melodiousness, rhyme, lexical and stylistic peculiarities perfectly. While analyzing another Robert Burns song John Anderson my Jo it was encountered that the translator misunderstood the main idea of the poem. John Anderson my Jo is the story about a married couple. In the illustration which accompanied the song in Thomsons work the old couple are seated by the fire-side, the gude-wife in great good humor is clapping Johns shoulder, while he smiles and looks at her with such glee as to show that he fully recollects the pleasant days when they were first acquent.. [22, p.59] Mykola Lukash understood this poem as the story about two friends, one of whom talks about their lifelong friendship. For better understanding of the theme, I have included the entire verse in original and translation:JOHN ANDERSON MY JO. John Anderson my jo, John, When we were first acquent, Your locks were like the raven, Your bonie brow was brent; , ! , , , .

16But now your brow is beld, John, Your locks are like the snaw; But blessings on your frosty pow, John Anderson my jo. John Anderson my jo, John, We clamb the hill thegither; And monie a canty day, John, Weve had wi ane anither: Now we maun totter down, John, And hand in hand well go, And sleep thegither at the foot, John Anderson my jo. [22, p.59] , , , ! , ! , . , , , ! [2, p.46]

While translating the poem The Banks of Doon Mykola Oleksiyovych decided himself to whom this song belongs to lady or to man. The original could be interpreted in both ways. [11, p.150] In the song John Anderson my Jo it is also rather hard to understand who the addresser is. However, basing on the work written by a respected American literary critic Charles Lane Hanson, one may claim that the addresser is a woman, a wife that speaks to her husband. What concerns lexical and stylistic peculiarities of the song the translator managed to recreate them perfectly. It is worth of emphasizing that the whole poem is based on contrast: youth and old age and translator manages to reproduce it perfectly. In the original there is the simile Your locks were like the raven, n the translation we have , . Although the image is changed, in my opinion, the translation is accurate. The translator changed denotational meaning but connotational meaning stays the same. Another way to translate this phrase is . Ballas dictionary gives the following translation of the word raven:Raven I 1) n 1. . , ; 2. . , ; , , ; 2) adj. , ;[1, p. 212]

In Barantsevs phraseological dictionary one may find such definition:Black as a crow ( as black as crows wing) , ; ; .

However, the phrase is too long and it is a well-known fact that, regarding rhyme and rhythm, Mykola Lukash was trying to make his poetic translations as close to the original as possible. Thus, the choice of the translator, to my mind, is the best choice possible. Another simile in the song John Anderson my Jo But now your brow is

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beld, John/Your locks are like the snaw. Lukash translated it like , / . Mykola Oleksiyovych decided not to translate the simile in the original by simile in the target text. He used a nearly literal repetition of formulas characteristic of Ukrainian song folklore. I think it is a good translation. It reflects the meaning and style properly. Looking at the last two lines of the song in the original And sleep thegither at the foot/John Anderson my jo, and translation: / , one may see that instead of the proper name John Anderson, translator again uses the phrase from Ukrainian folklore . Such form of adjective reduced adjective is very emphatic and poetic. Returning to the description of John Anderson, the fourth line of the song says: Your bonie brow was brent. In the translation we have . According to Longman dictionary:Brow n 1) the part of your face above your eyes and below your hair; [20, p.161]

In Ballas dictionary:Brow 1. n 1) ; 2) . , ; 3) . ; ;[1, p. 155]

Brent means high and straight. [22, p.59] Thus, in the original we have rather natural usual description of a man, while in translation it is substituted by a metaphor. It reflects the meaning of the original phrase; it shows that the man was young. However, lexically the phrase is rather far from the original. Mykola Lukash describes eyes of the man and not brow. Nevertheless, Mykola Oleksiyovych generally managed to recreate the description of John Anderson correctly. Another interesting example for comparative analysis of the source text and the translation is the song The Highland Laddie:THE HIGHLAND LADDIE The bonniest lad that eer I saw, Bonnie laddie, Highland laddie, Wore a plaid, and was fu braw, Bonnie Highland laddie. On his head a bonnet blue, Bonnie laddie, Highland laddie; His royal heart was firm and true, Bonnie Highland laddie. Trumpets sound, and cannons roar, Bonnie lassie, Lawland lassie; And a the hills wi echoes roar, - -, , . -, . , -? ,

18Bonnie Lawland lassie. Glory, honour, now invite, Bonnie lassie, Lawland lassie, For freedom and my king to fight, Bonnie Lawland lassie. The sun a backward course shall take, Bonnie laddie, Highland laddie, Ere aught thy manly courage shake, Bonnie Highland laddie. Go! For yourself procure renown, Bonnie laddie, Highland laddie; And for your lawful king, his crown, Bonnie Highland laddie. [22, p.500] ! , , -, , , . , -, , ! , , -, , ![2, p.50]

There are such lines: The bonniest lad that eer I saw/Bonnie laddie, Highland laddie and Trumpets sound, and cannons roar/Bonnie lassie, Lawland lassie. In translation done by Mykola Lukash / and /, -. Three main geographical and geological areas make up the mainland in Scotland: from north to south, the generally mountainous Highlands, the Central Lowlands and the hilly Southern Uplands. [3, p.96] Thus, Highlands is a region in Scotland and Highland laddie is a youngster who lives in Highlands. The translator substitutes it with the word-combination -. In Lukashs translations the dominant method of realia semantics reproduction is assimilation. Thus, we may find a large number of Ukrainian realia in the translations. The translator uses this method mainly in those cases, when in the Ukrainian language exists an equivalent to the foreign realia, which semantics contains information close to that expressed by the originals realia. [15, p.10] Robert Burns uses this opposition Highland laddie Lawland lessie everywhere. In our songs we have a pair and . That is why Mykola Oleksiyovych uses the phrases - and while translating. They make the translation more understandable and close to Ukrainian readers. However, the insertion of Ukrainian realia into the target text causes some Ukranization of the text, the loss of its specific national colouring. For instance, On his head a bonnet blue/Bonnie laddie, Highland laddie / -. According to Longman dictionary:

19 bonnet (bunnet in Scotland) [] b) formerly, a flat brimless cap worn by men; [20, p.139]

In Ballas dictionary:bonnet [] 3) ;[1, p. 139]

Thus, we may see that bonnet is a Scottish realia and Ukrainian is a specific Huzul headdress. Therefore, by replacing one realia with another, translation is deprived of its exclusive national coloring. Robert Burns uses not so many epithets in his songs and these are mainly fixed epithets. Thus, in translation there are also not many epithets. I would like to analyze several of them which we encounter in Robert Burns song Scots Wha Hae and its translation , !.SCOTS WHA HAE. Scots, wha hae wi Wallace bled, Scots, wham Bruce has aften led; Welcome to your gory bed, Or to victory! Nows the day, and nows the hour; See the front o battle lour; See approach proud Edwards power Chains and slavery! Wha will be a traitor knave? Wha can fill a cowards grave? Wha sae base as be a slave? Let him turn and flee! Wha for Scotlands king and law Freedoms sword will strongly draw, Freeman stand, or Freeman fa, Let him follow me! By oppressions woes and pains! By your sons in servile chains! We will drain our dearest veins, But they shall be free! Lay the proud usurpers low! Tyrants fall in every foe! Libertys in every blow! Let us do, or die! [22, p. 80] , ! , ! , ; , ! , , , : , . , , . , ! : , . . ![2, p. 69]

Let us look at several lines from this song, for instance Nows the day, and nows the hour/See the front o battle lour. In translation / ,

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! As we may see in the original there is no epithet but personification See the front o battle lour. According to Longman dictionary:lower also lour BrE v 1 when the sky or the weather lowers, it becomes dark because there is going to be a storm: lowering clouds 2 literary to look threatening or annoyed;[20, p.854]

In Ballas dictionary:lower II v 1) , ; 2) ; () .[1, p. 692]

The poet uses this phrase See the front o battle lour in the meaning that the battle will begin. Mykola Lukash translated the phrase also by personification including epithet . To my mind, this variant of translation is correct. It reflects the meaning of the original; it is semantically close to the original, besides it is very expressive, stressed and unstressed syllables which intensify the expression of the line in the original and translation coincide. Another example from this song is the following line Wha for Scotlands king and law/ Freedoms sword will strongly draw. In the translation: / . In the source text we have a metaphoric epithet based on possessive adjective Freedoms sword, in other words the sword of Freedom, meaning the sword that will fight for freedom. Besides, Robert Burns used alliteration to recreate the image of battle: consonants r,d,s create the sound of swords bangs. Mykola Oleksiyovych translated it like: . The repetition of such consonants as , in Ukrainian perfectly reproduce the image of battle. We do not know exactly whether the translator understood the phrase freedoms sword will strongly draw in the meaning of generously, to fight without regret, to spare no effort or it was a conscious translators decision to render it like ; because, despite the fact that this phrase corresponds with the whole spirit of the song, it fits the rhythm and meter; it is not exact. The poet calls to fight for freedom and the translator to spare no effort. Another interesting example of epithets we may encounter in the song Luckless Fortune. It is very interesting to look at the whole poem, its structure:LUCKLESS FORTUNE O raging fortunes withering blast Has laid my leaf full low, O! O raging fortunes withering blast Has laid my leaf full low, O! , , - , , -

21My stem was fair, my bud was green, My blossom sweet did blow, O; The dew fell fresh, the sun rose mild, And made my branches grow, O. But luckless fortunes northern storms Laid a my blossoms low, O; But luckless fortunes northern storms Laid a my blossoms low, O. [21, p.372] , , , , . [2, p.20]

As you may see this poem is a great metaphor. Robert Burns recollects his youth. The poet is described as a new tree; his fortunes declines are withering blast and northern storms. Let us look at the following lines: O raging fortunes withering blast/Has laid my leaf full low, O! In Mykola Lukashs translation: , , / -. According to Longman dictionary:blast (air/wind) a sudden strong movement of wind or air; [20,p.22]

In Ballas dictionary:blast 1. n 1) ; [1, p.128] to wither v if plants wither they become drier and smaller and start to die;[20, p.1645]

Thus, the poet used rather usual adjective for the word blast it can be withering, while Mykola Lukash chose a figurative epithet to describe the word . In such way he intensified the originals noun, because, as stated above the English word blast is not just a wind, it is a very strong wind. Moreover, the translator used apposition to characterize the image better -. According to Dictionary of Ukrainian Language:, -, . , ; [19, p.298].

Taking into account all these features, the translator, to my mind, managed to recreate the image of luckless fortune perfectly. One more song where Mykola Lukash created a wonderful epithet is The Rigs o Barley. This song contains such lines: I lockd her in my fond embrace! Her heart was beating rarely [] [21, p.378] In the translation done by Mykola Lukash: [] ( ) [2, p.26]

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In the original we may see a descriptive phrase which portrays the feelings of a lady, in the translation Mykola Oleksiyovych uses a transferred epithet to depict the lovers. In the original the description is calmer as in the translation, first of all it has not got so strongly pronounced stylistic device. Although, to my mind, the translator rendered the whole idea and spirit of the song correctly. In my view, the translation is very poetic and expresses depicted emotions. As stressed by V. Koptilov, the true subject of translation is not a word, word combination or a phrase from the text, but the structure of ideas and images of the source text. This structure is built up on the images, which are interconnected by the authors ideaThe defining elements of this structure, embodied in the language, may be located on different levels of the language hierarchyand consequently they need to be reproduced in translation on the corresponding levels. [6, p. 117-118] As it was mentioned in the first part of this research paper, one of Mykola Lukashs main peculiarities in translating the songs of Robert Burns is the closeness to Ukrainian folk songs. Thus, here are several examples in support of this statement. Let us examine the song O That I Had Neer Been Married. Just from the first glance it is clear that Mykola Lukash drew the original nearer to Ukrainian tradition of song creation by beginning his translation with an introduction usual for Ukrainian folk songs:O THAT I HAD NEER BEEN MARRIED O that I had neer been married, I wad never had nae care; Now Ive gotten wife and bairns, An they cry crowdie ever mair. Ance crowdie, twice crowdie, Three times crowdie in a day, Gin ye crowdie ony mair, Yell crowdie a y meal away. Waefu want and hunger fley me, Glowrin by the hallan en; Sair I fecht them at the door, But aye Im eerie they come ben. Ance crowdie, twice crowdie, Three times crowdie in a day; Gin ye crowdie ony mair, Yell crowdie a my meal away. [21, p.384 ] , ; . , , ! , , ; , . , , ![2, p.90]

The effect is intensified by the plurality of words, some of them are not conjugated. For instance, / . This example

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supports the idea that Mykola Lukash tried to show all the potential of the Ukrainian language by using different stylistic differentiations of the vocabulary. Nikolay Liubimov once said: I like colloquial language. I give the reins to this element where the author permits it. [9, p.126] Such form of nouns is widespread in our Ukrainian folk songs. One more interesting point concerning this poem is the personification of waefu want and hunger. Wae is a Scottish spelling of the word woe. [21, p.594] According to Longman dictionary woe means great sadness. [20, p.1646] In a translation dictionary in the entry under the head word woeful we find woeful want . [1, p.692] They are described as living beings: Sair I fecht them at the door/But aye Im eerie they come ben. Mykola Lukash perfectly reproduced this personification: / / . Here is one more example, in which one may see a traditional beginning of Ukrainian folk song. The song The Banks of Doon:THE BANKS OF DOON Ye banks and braes o bonnie Doon How can ye bloom sae fresh and fair; How can ye chant, ye little birds, And I sae weary, fu o care? Thoull break my heart, thou warbling bird, That wantons thro the flowering thorn: Thou minds me o departed joys, Departed never to return! Oft hae I rovd by bonnie Doon, To see the rose and woodbine twine; And ilka bird sang o its luve, And fondly sae did I o mine. Wi lightsome heart I pud a rose, Fu sweet upon its thorny tree; And my fause luver staw my rose, But, ah! he left the thorn wi me. [21, p.476] , , , , , . , , , , , , , . , , , , , : , , .[2, p.48]

Talking of the beginning of this song, we may notice that Lukash uses word combination (whereas in the original the river Doon is not quiet but bonnie [1, p.139]) most probably referring to the novel written by Mikhail Sholokhov (And Quiet Flows the Don). This novel was very popular at that time and everybody have either read or heard about it. Perhaps, Mykola Lukash used this word combination because it was known and close to the reader. Besides, the poet

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used alliteration in the following lines: Ye banks and braes o bonnie Doon/How can ye bloom sae fresh and fair. The repetition of consonants b, f along with long vowel o make the image of broad, long, slow-moving river. In translation it is reproduced correctly: , , / , . Stressed syllables with vowel in such words as , along with the repetition of : , , , also reproduce the image of river and of the heros dismal mood. The next example is the song Bannocks O Barley:BANNOCKS O BARLEY Bannocks o bear meal, Bannocks o barley; Here to the Highlandmans Bannocks o barley. Wha in a brulzie, Will first cry a parley? Never the lads wi The bannocks o barley! Bannocks o bear meal, Bannocks o barley; Heres to the Highlandmans Bannocks o barley! Wha in his wae-days Were loyal to Charlie? Wha but the lads wi The bannocks o barley? [21, p.502] , . , , . , , . , , . [2, p. 72]

Bannocks o barley is specific Scottish dish. It resembles dry biscuit. [11, p.151] In the Ukrainian translation: , / / / .Here the translator uses a dialectal word (), Mykola Oleksiyovych substitutes Scottish realia Highlandman (this kind of realia was discussed at the beginning of the second part of this research paper) with the word which is not realia but a hyperonimic notion for all people who live in mountains. Another Scottish realia bannocks o barley is substituted with Ukrainian . Folk style demands from a translator its specific, strictly sustained poetics and there are some limits. [11, p.151] Such substitution evokes in readers mind too Ukrainian associations and the text loses its specific national coloring. In the next republication the translator himself wanted to change for [Ibid].

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On the other hand, the very translator said that if a phrase from Ukrainian folklore fitted into the target text, he tried to use a half-quotation. It should be remembered that Robert Burs himself widely used figurative formulas-clich from folklore. Regarding this, let us examine Burns song The Lass That Made the Bed to Me. Mykola Lukash translated it like . When the poet decribes a female character in this song he tells that: Her hair was like the links o gowd, Her teeth were like the ivorie[] [21, p.495] , [] [2, p.83] Such description and metaphors are inherent to Ukrainian folk-songs poetics and it is clear that the translator took it from folklore. Thus, the translation is very poetic and, to my mind, these metaphors ( ; ) fit the originals description very well, even despite the fact that the author tells us not about ladys eyes ( ) but about teeth (her teeth were like the ivorie). Another example of the folklores influence on the translation, we may see in the song Montgomerys Peggy that was translated into Ukrainian as . There are the following lines: Yet happy, happy would I be, Had I my dear Montgomerys Peggy[] Id seek some dell, and in my arms Id shelter dear Montgomerys Peggy[] Then a twad gie o joy to me, The sharin t wi Montgomerys Peggy.[21, p.379] In Ukrainian text: , , -[] i , -[] , -! [2, p. 19]

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Here the translator uses a picturesque apposition to describe an attitude of the male character towards Montgomerys Peggy. Instead of originals rather simple adjective dear, in translation we may find -, -, . These lines resemble very much Ukrainian song , , . To my mind, they add melodiousness to the poem which was of paramount importance to the translator. One may state that Mykola Lukash coped very well with the translation. The next example to be considered here is the song The Cure For All Care and its translation :THE CURE FOR ALL CARE No churchman am I for to trail and to write, No statesman nor soldier to plot or to fight, No sly man of business contriving a snare For a big-bellyd bottles the whole of my care. The peer I dont envy, I give him his bow; I scorn not the peasant, tho ever so low; But a club of good fellows, like those that are here, And a bottle like this, are my glory and care. Here passes the squire on his brotherhis horse; There centum per centum, the cit with his purse; But see you the Crown, how it waves in the air! There a big-bellyd bottle still eases my care. The wife of my bosom, alas! She did die; For sweet consolation to church I did fly; I found that old Solomon proved it fair, That a big-bellyd bottles a cure for all care. I once was persuaded a venture to make; A letter informd me that all was to wreck; But the pursy old landlord just waddld upstairs, With a glorious bottle that ended my cares. Lifes cares they are comforts,a maxim laid down By the bard, what d ye call him, that wore the black gown; And faith, I agree with th old prig to air; For a big-bellyd bottles a heavn of a care. [21,p.397] , , -, -, . , , , , , - . , , , , . , , , ; - . , ; , , - . , , ! -, , .[2, p.24]

In English and German poetry there is such a colorful, powerful rhythmic and musical device as initial rhyme. [11, p.151] For Ukrainian or Russian listeners/readers the similarity of beginning is practically unnoticeable, no matter how you emphasize it. For us noticeable and vivid is rhyme (internal rhyme). Thus, the translator had to compensate

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such English peculiarity with rhyme. That is why an equivalent for a big-bellyd bottle in Ukrainian translation is -. In his translation, Mykola Lukash strictly and masterly rendered anaphora at the beginning of the song: No churchman am I for to rail and to write/No statesman nor soldier to plot or to fight/No sly man of business contriving a snare[]. , / -/ - [].Mykola Lukash adds many rhymed appositions and repetitions in his translation: -, -, -, -.They make his translation very poetic and melodious. To conclude, in my opinion, Mykola Lukash coped perfectly with the translation of the songs of Robert Burns. His persistency in recreating metaphors, similes, epithets, sound instrumenting, meter, rhyme, rhythm of the source text should inspire modern generation of translators to make even better translations of Robert Burns works. Every generation should have its own Robert Burns to enjoy reading his masterpieces.

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CONCLUSIONIn the paper, an attempt has been made to analyze the specific problems in the songs by Robert Burns and the Ukrainian translation (1959) by Mykola Lukash. The results drawn from the research are as follows: The analysis of theoretical works showed that lexical and stylistic devices used in Scottish and Ukrainian song genre very often coincide. One may find alliteration, epithets (mainly fixed), metaphors, personification employed in the text. On the whole, Mykola Lukash managed to render specific features of the songs accurately. He tends to stick to the original with rendering the meter, rhyme, preserving the number of lines and structure of the songs. A corpus consisting of 100 lexical and stylistic devices samples on the basis of Robert Burns songs was collected. The translator tries to make translations close to the original, although sometimes one may observe some Ukranization of the text. However, to the translation of such specific genre as song, especially songs by Robert Burns who drew inspiration from folklore, the translator has to apply special methods of translation and to deepen into his native folklore to find solutions for particular problems. Only by using linguo-stylistic peculiarities of Ukrainian folk songs translator can reproduce national character of Burns songs. Then a reader perceives the works of Robert Burns on the background of native folklore. On the whole, the translation is fairly accurate.

From this paper one may conclude that there are many convergent features between Scottish and Ukrainian folklore: common themes, characters, stylistic devices used, common structure of a song, for instance, specific word or rather

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exclamation for the beginning of Ukrainian folk song one may also encounter in Scottish folk songs but it is placed at the end of the line and very often is with an exclamation mark O!. Thus, Mykola Lukash managed to reproduce the peculiarities of the original in his translation. And the image of all the characters in Robert Burns songs in his version is no less evocative than those in the original.

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15. . .// . 1996. . 109. . 96-104. 16. . : . . . : 10.02.16/ ... , 2006. 20 . 17. . . ( . )// . 1997.. 110. . 124-130. 18. . . .: . , 1959. -- 315. 19. : 11 . / .: . . () .. .: . , 1970-1980. 20. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English/ Edited by D. Summers. Herts: Pearson Education Limited, 2000. 21. The Poetical Works of Robert Burns / Printed by T. and A. Constable London: Grant Richards, 1903. 607 p. 22. Representative Poems of Robert Burns with Carlyles Essay on Burns/ Edited by Charles L. Hanson. Boston: G. T. and A. Constable and Company, 1924. 88 p. 23. Verse translation: A Manual for Translation Studies Workshops. : / . .., .. : , 2005. 190. 24. Hofstadter D. Le Ton beau de Marot/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation 25 Jakobson R. On Linguistic Aspects of Translation / http ://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/ Translation 26. Venuti L. The Translators Invisibility/http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/monako/atk/glossary_d.shtml 27. On-line: http://www.electricscotland.com/burns/langsyne.html 28. On-line: http://www.robertburns.plus.com/Auldls.htm.