12-2: Adolescent Cognitive Development Finish Middle Childhood Social and Emotional Development Parenting Style Divorce and Parent absence Siblings relations.

12-2: Adolescent Cognitive Development Finish Middle Childhood Social and Emotional Development Parenting Style Divorce and Parent absence Siblings relations School Biological Changes in Adolescences

Norms Hormones Appearance Neurological Changes Body image/social relationships

Thinking in Adolescence Piaget’s Theory

Pendulum Problem, All possible combinations, Inertia

How pervasive is Formal Operations Other approaches to Adolescent cognition Adolescent egocentrism Moral Reasoning Reminder about Piaget’s theory Kohlber’s theory GiliganCopyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or

display.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Family

Parent-child relationships change markedly during this time.

Parents give children more responsibilities.

Parents no longer explicitly, continuously direct children.

The hallmark of effective parenting is keeping track of children’s whereabouts and providing supervision & direction when needed.

Parents influence by how they supervise.

Parenting Styles

Baumrind Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive

Maccoby and Martin Frequency of conflict over goals Balance of resolution



Parenting Styles & Child Development

Authoritative parents rely on discipline techniques based on reasoning.

Their children score higher on agency.

Girls high on agency tend to have argumentative interactions with parents, especially fathers.

Argumentative interactions are not associated with increased agency for boys.

Authoritative parents rely on discipline techniques based on reasoning.

Their children score higher on agency.

Girls high on agency tend to have argumentative interactions with parents, especially fathers.

Argumentative interactions are not associated with increased agency for boys.

Agency:The tendency to take initiative, rise to challenges, and try to influence events.

Agency:The tendency to take initiative, rise to challenges, and try to influence events.


Several factors encourage harmonious parent-child relationships:

understanding legitimacy of parents’ authority

grasping that parents have more experience grasping parents’ decisions are usually

intended for children’s own good empathy shown by caring, responsive

parents


Family Violence, Conflict, & Divorce

Factors that promote good outcomes for children after divorce:

ongoing contact with both parents an end to parental conflict cooperation between parents

regarding child care custodial parent’s emotional well-

being good relationships in any

stepfamilies


Sibling Relationships

Sibling and peer relationships differ in important ways: There is usually a greater age

disparity between friends. One of the siblings tends to get

more power and privileges. In middle childhood, friendships

rarely cross gender boundaries.



Emotional Qualities of Sibling Relationships

Competition for parents’ attention and approval is common.

Sibling strife based on social comparison intensifies after about age 8.

Rate of conflict is higher with siblings than with peers.

Younger siblings see older ones as controllers and facilitators.



Factors influencing quality of sibling relationships: closeness in age gender composition stress personalities preferential treatment by parents



Emotional ambivalence common among siblings offers important learning: When siblings fight, they cannot

simply end their relationship. They can provide mutual support. Older siblings may be assigned the

role of caring for younger siblings. Adopting role of boss may help older

siblings practice leadership skills.


The School

School provides important context for socialization in cultural values.

Family & school factors affect school achievement & adjustment.

School achievement & adjustment predict later mental health.

After-care arrangements are important, with impact depending to some extent on socioeconomic status.

Adolescence



Early adolescence

from beginning of puberty to about age 13

most of the major physical changes of adolescence and accompanying changes in relationships with parents and peers

Middleadolescence

ages 14-16

increasing independence, preparation for adult occupations or further education

Late adolescence

17 to early adulthood

continued preparation for adulthood, often in college or other educational settings

BiologicalChanges During

Adolescence


Puberty: Norms & Individual Differences

Puberty:The period during which a child changes

from a sexually immature person to one who is capable of reproduction.

Puberty:The period during which a child changes

from a sexually immature person to one who is capable of reproduction.

Menarche:The onset of menstruation.

Menarche:The onset of menstruation.

Spermarche:The first ejaculation of mobile sperm.

Spermarche:The first ejaculation of mobile sperm.


In the U.S. & Europe, average age of menarche is 12.5 years.

Ovulation does not usually begin until several months after menarche.

Most boys in the U.S. reach spermarche by age 14.

Puberty is not a single event, but a more extended period when sexual organs & other characteristics develop rapidly.



Onset of puberty is influenced by: heredity nutrition stress family conflict exercise disease



Hormonal Control of Puberty

Pituitary gland

A small gland at the base of the brain that plays a major role in regulating other glands’ hormonal output.

Hypothalamus

Part of the brain that regulates many body functions, including production of pituitary hormones.

Gonadotropins

Pituitary hormones that affect hormone output by the gonads.

Gonads The sex glands: Testes in men and ovaries in women.


Changes in Appearance at Puberty

Secondary sex characteristics:Physical features that differentiate

adult males from adult females but are not directly involved in reproduction.

Secondary sex characteristics:Physical features that differentiate

adult males from adult females but are not directly involved in reproduction.

Pheromones:Chemical scents used by members

of the same species to communicate a message, such as readiness to mate.

Pheromones:Chemical scents used by members

of the same species to communicate a message, such as readiness to mate.


Stages of Puberty

1 Elevation of papilla (nipple) only.

2 Breast buds appear.

3 Breast & areola continue to enlarge.

4 Areola & papilla elevate above the mound of the breast to form a secondary mound.

5 Papilla continues to project, but areola recesses to general contour of the breast.

Female Breast Development


Stages of Puberty

1 Penis, scrotum, & testes stay in same proportion as early childhood.

2 Scrotum & testes enlarge; scrotum darkens.

3 Penis grows, primarily in length.

4 Growth of penis includes width & enlargement of glans.

5 Genitals attain adult size & shape.

Male Genital Development


Neurological Changes at Puberty

Between childhood and adulthood, the brain shows two major changes:

1. decline in plasticity2. increase in efficiency

Between childhood and adulthood, the brain shows two major changes:

1. decline in plasticity2. increase in efficiency

Plasticity:Ability of brain regions to take on new functions.

Plasticity:Ability of brain regions to take on new functions.


Neurological Changes at Puberty

Changes that may contribute to loss of plasticity:

1. hemispheric specialization2. decrease in number of synapses

Changes that may contribute to loss of plasticity:

1. hemispheric specialization2. decrease in number of synapses

Hemispheric specialization:Process by which certain brain functions become localized in either the right or left side of the brain.

Hemispheric specialization:Process by which certain brain functions become localized in either the right or left side of the brain.


Impacts of Puberty Change

Puberty and Body Image Boys who are more physically mature

have more positive body image perceive themselves as more attractive have athletic advantage

Girls who are more physically mature have poorer body image and tend to think themselves too heavy because of increase & redistribution of fat



Puberty and Social Relationships increased interest in opposite sex increased likelihood of dating & sex conflicts with mothers often

increase increasing feelings of autonomy

from their parents



Puberty and Problem BehaviorsVarious problem behaviors become

more common at puberty, especially for early-maturing girls, who show more:

truancy academic trouble drug and alcohol use running away shoplifting

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Timing of Puberty andOverall Adjustment

Early-maturing girls tend to have lower self-esteem.

Long-term effects of early maturation for girls are not completely clear.

Late-maturing boys tend to be less popular and less self-confident.

Early-maturing boys are often viewed as more competent, poised, & successful.


Direct and IndirectEffects of Puberty

Puberty produces both unseen internal and visible external physical changes.

Through hormones, internal changes directly affect: feelings behaviors sexual desire

External changes affect these too, through their impact on body image and reactions they trigger in others.


Changes inThinking During

Adolescence


Major cognitive changes:

1. Applying logical thinking to the possible (what might exist), not just to the real (what does exist).

2. Ability to think about relationships among mentally constructed concepts.

3. More logical & systematic thinking.

Hypothetico-deductive thinking:Ability to think of hypothetical solutions to a problem and to formulate a systematic plan for deducing which of these solutions is correct.

Hypothetico-deductive thinking:Ability to think of hypothetical solutions to a problem and to formulate a systematic plan for deducing which of these solutions is correct.

Cognitive Development in adolescence Piaget’s approach Alternatives to Piaget

Adolescent egocentrism Moral development

Piaget’s approach Kohlbergs approach Critiques of Kohlberg



Piaget’s Theory of Formal Operations

Propositional logic (formal operations) involves combining individual statements (propositions) to reach logical conclusions.

Formal operations allow them to think more abstractly and systematically.

They are able to think about logical implications in a problem, whether grounded in reality or not.Formal operations:In Piaget’s theory, a set of principles of formal logic on which the cognitive advances of adolescence are based.

Formal operations:In Piaget’s theory, a set of principles of formal logic on which the cognitive advances of adolescence are based.


Piaget’s Experiments

Piaget had youngsters of different ages conduct science experiment with an apparatus or set of materials to test their reasoning abilities.

The Law of Floating Bodies Study The Pendulum Study The All Possible Combinations

Study Discovering inertia by negations


Is Piaget’s View Correct?

Contrary to Piaget’s expectations, training in formal operations is effective under some circumstances, perhaps because it encourages the display of already existing competencies rather than teaching entirely new skills.


Other Approaches toAdolescent Cognition

Research on adolescents’ information-processing abilities indicates continuing improvement in attention and memory skills, due to:

increased capacity improved cognitive strategies automatization of basic mental

processes expanded knowledge base


Selective attention

Focusing attention on relevant information despite distractions.

Divided attention

Paying attention to two tasks at the same time.

Automatization

Tendency for basic cognitive processes to become less effortful and more automatic with practice.

Cognitive socialization

The influence of social environment on development of cognitive skills.


Social CognitiveChanges of

Adolescence


Adolescent egocentrism

Teenagers’ assumption they are the focus of everyone’s attention and that their experiences, thoughts, & feelings are unique.

Imaginary audience

Teenagers’ unjustified concern they are the focus of others’ attention.

Personal fable

Teenagers’ exaggerated belief in their own uniqueness.


Piaget’s Model1. Amoral stage, until about age 7.2. Moral realism, treating morality as absolute

and moral constraints as unalterable.3. Autonomous morality, seeing morality as

relative to the situation, usually attained in late childhood or early adolescence.

Moral reasoning:Thinking & making judgments about the morally right course of action in a given situation.

Moral reasoning:Thinking & making judgments about the morally right course of action in a given situation.

Moral Reasoning


Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg’s Model

Preconventional morality1. Obedience & punishment orientation2. Hedonistic & instrumental orientationConventional morality3. Good-boy, nice-girl orientation4. Authority or law-and-order orientationPostconventional (principled) morality5. Social contract orientation6. Hierarchy of principles orientation


Stage theories of moral reasoning have been criticized because of:

weak connection between moral thought & moral action

methods used to assess moral reasoning

possible gender biases possible cultural biases

weak connection between moral thought & moral action

Hartshorne & May (1928)Prentice, Moral development and delinquencyFollow up on individuals who dropped out of the Milgram experimentFroming, Moral Development and conformity


Methods used to assess moral reasoning Kurtines & Grief (1974) reliability James Rest—

Changes in the scoring manual Objective Test of Moral Reasoning

Gender Differences -- Carol Giligan (1982) claimed women focus

more on caring and men more on justice.Wark & Krebs (1996) found the opposite from

Giligan—that women were more advanced

Cuture—traditional cultures score lowerCopyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or

display.


OverviewMajor cognitive advances of adolescence

include: Logical thinking is now applied to the possible, not just the real.

Ability to think about relationships among concepts emerges.

Adolescents’ thinking become even more logical and systematic.

Photo copyright © 2003 Travis Langley, Henderson State University

12-2: Adolescent Cognitive Development Finish Middle Childhood Social and Emotional Development Parenting Style Divorce and Parent absence Siblings relations.

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