-
Each civilization that you will study in this unit madeimportant
contributions to history.
• The Mesopotamians developed the world’s first law codes.•
Egyptians built the pyramids and invented papyrus—the
world’s first paper.• Israelite scripture influenced religions
in Europe and Asia.
8000 B.C. 5000 B.C. 2000 B.C.8000 B.C. 5000 B.C. 2000 B.C.
Hammurabi stands before a god
Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Israel
FirstCivilizations
FirstCivilizations
Cha p ter 1
AncientEgypt & Kush
Ancient Egypt & Kush
Chap ter 2
AncientIsraelitesAncient
IsraelitesChap ter 3
c. 1790 B.C.Hammurabi intro-duces code of laws
c. 5000 B.C.Hunter-gatherers settleNile River valley
c. 2540 B.C.Egyptians complete building of GreatPyramid
c. 1500 B.C.QueenHatshepsutbecomes pharaoh
c. 1800 B.C.Abraham enters Canaan
Pyramids at Giza, Egyptc. 2540 B.C.
c. 8000 B.C.Farming begins insouthwest Asia
Abraham leadsIsraelites to Canaan
c. 3200 B.C.Sumerians inMesopotamiadevelop writing
114
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1000 B.C. 750 B.C. 500 B.C. 250 B.C. A.D. 11000 B.C. 750 B.C.
500 B.C. 250 B.C. A.D. 1
N
S
W E
1,000 km0Mercator projection
1,000 mi.0 60°E30°E0° 90°E
30°N
EQUATOR
RedSea
PersianGulf
Black Sea
INDIANOCEAN
Caspian Sea
Indus R.
Nil
eR.
Euphrates R.
TigrisR
.
A F R I C A
A S I A
Chapter 2Chapter 2
Chapter 3Chapter 3Chapter 1Chapter 1
c. 1000 B.C.King David rules Israel
c. 612 B.C.Chaldeans captureAssyrian capital
c. 1000 B.C.Kush breaks free of Egypt
728 B.C.KushconquersEgypt
168 B.C.Maccabean revolt
A.D. 70Romansdestroy templein Jerusalem
Solomon’s temple,built c. 950 B.C.
Kushite king Taharqa c. 680 B.C.
Chapter 1Chapter 2Chapter 3
Ancient Jerusalem
c. 744 B.C.Assyria expandsinto Babylon
115
Hanging Gardens ofBabylon c. 600 B.C.
586 B.C.ChaldeanscaptureJerusalem
(tl)B
rook
lyn
Mus
eum
of
Art
, N
ew Y
ork/
Cha
rles
Ed
win
Wilb
our
Fund
/Brid
gem
an A
rt L
ibra
ry,
(bl)E
rich
Less
ing/
Art
Res
ourc
e, N
Y, (o
ther
s)S
uper
Sto
ck
114-117 UO1-868874 7/8/05 4:41 PM Page 115
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116
Ruled c. 1792–1750 B.C.Babylonian kingChapter 1, page 138
Ruled c. 1473–1458 B.C.Egyptian pharaoh
Chapter 2, page 182
c. 3300 B.C.Iceman found in
the Alps Chapter 1, page 129
AFRICAAFRICA
RedSea
Mediterranean SeaIshtar Gate1
See First CivilizationsChapter 1
Sumerian figures2
See First CivilizationsChapter 1
5
3
4
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117
Ruled c. 1279–1213 B.C.Egyptian ruler
Chapter 2, page 185
Ruled c. 1000–970 B.C.King of Israel
Chapter 3, page 208
c. 1100 B.C.Israelite womenChapter 3, page 219
ASIAASIA
CaspianSea
PersianGulf
3 Egyptian sphinx
See Ancient Egypt and Kush Chapter 2
4 Kushite pyramids
See Ancient Egypt and Kush Chapter 2
5 Western Wall
See Ancient IsraelitesChapter 3
21
(t to b)Sylvain Grandadam/Getty Images, Timothy Kendall/Museum
of Fine Arts, Boston, Gary Cralle/Getty Images, (l to r)O. Louis
Mazzatenta/National Geographic Society Image Collection,
SuperStock,Bettmann/CORBIS
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c. 3000 B.C.Bronze Agebegins
c. 1792 B.C.HammurabirulesMesopotamia
612 B.C.Nineveh captured;Assyrian Empirecrumbles
3000 B.C. 2000 B.C. 1000 B.C.3000 B.C. 2000 B.C. 1000 B.C.
Ruins of a ziggurat in Iraq
The First Civilizations
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Chapter OverviewVisit ca.hss.glencoe.com for a preview of
Chapter 1.
Early HumansStudying the past helps to understand the present.
Scientists who
study the past have learned that the earliest humans
huntedanimals and gathered plants for food. When farming
developed,people settled in villages and towns.
Mesopotamian CivilizationReligion shapes how culture develops,
just as culture shapes how
religion develops. In early Mesopotamian civilizations, religion
andgovernment were closely linked. Kings created strict laws
togovern people.
New EmpiresConflict often brings about great change. New empires
arose in
Mesopotamia around 900 B.C. These civilizations included
theAssyrians and the Chaldeans. They used powerful armies and
ironweapons to conquer the region.
View the Chapter 1 video in the Glencoe Video Program.
Compare and Contrast Make this foldable to help you compare and
contrast the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia.
Reading and WritingAs you read the chapter,write notes under
eachappropriate tab of yourfoldable. Keep in mindthat you are
trying tocompare thesecivilizations.
Step 1 Fold a sheet of paperin half from side to side.
Fold it so the leftedge lies about inch from the
right edge.
12
This will makethree tabs.
The First Civilizations
EarlyHumans
Mesopo-tamia
NewEmpires
Step 2 Turn the paper andfold it into thirds.
Step 3 Unfold and cutthe top layer only alongboth folds.
Step 4 Label as shown.
119
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http://ca.hss.glencoe.com
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Before you read, take time to preview the chapter. This will
giveyou a head start on what you are about to learn. Follow the
stepsbelow to help you quickly read, or skim, Section 1 on page
123.
Previewing
As you skim, also l
ook
at pictures, maps, a
nd
charts.
Early HumansPaleolithic people adapted to
their environment and invented many toolsto help them
survive.Reading Connection What do you view as thegreatest human
achievement—sending people tothe moon, perhaps, or inventing the
computer?Read to learn about the accomplishments ofpeople during
the Paleolithic Age.
History is the story of humans . . .
Tools of Discovery
1–Read the mainheadings in large redtype. Theyshow themain
topicscovered inthe sectionor chapter.
4–Under each mainhead, read the sub-heads in blue type.Subheads
break downeach main topic intosmaller topics.
3–The ReadingConnection helpsyou to link whatyou might
alreadyknow to what youare about to read.
2–The under each mainhead tells you themain point ofwhat you
areabout to read.
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Use each main head, the main ideas, and thesubheads in Section 2
of this chapter to createa study outline.
Read to Write
121
Skim Section 2 on your own. Writeone thing in your notebook that
youwant to learn by reading this chapter.
Skim all of the main heads and main ideas in Section 3starting
on page 142. Then, in small groups, discussthe answers to these
questions.• Which part of this section do you think will be
most
interesting to you?• What do you think will be covered in
Section 3
that was not covered in Section 2?• Are there any words in the
Main Ideas
that you do not know how to pronounce?• Choose one of the
Reading
Connection questions to discuss in your group.
New Empires
Hanging Gardensof Babylon
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Early Humans
Looking Back, Looking AheadToday people live in towns and
cities of various sizes. Early humanslived by moving from place
to place,forming settlements, and exploringdifferent ways to
provide forthemselves and their families.
Focusing on the • Paleolithic people adapted to their
environment and invented many toolsto help them survive.(page
123)
• In the Neolithic Age, people startedfarming, building
communities,producing goods, and trading.(page 127)
Locating PlacesJericho (JEHR• ih•KOH)Çatal Hüyük
(chah•TAHL hoo•YOOK)
Content Vocabularyanthropologist
(AN•thruh•PAH• luh• jihst)archaeologist
(AHR•kee•AH• luh• jihst)artifact (AHR•tih•FAKT)fossil
(FAH•suhl)nomad (NOH•MAD)technology (tehk•NAH• luh• jee)domesticate
(duh•MEHS•tih•KAYT)specialization
(SPEH•shuh• luh•ZAY•shuhn)
Academic Vocabularytask
revolution (REH•vuh•LOO•shuhn)
Reading StrategyDetermine Cause and Effect Draw a diagram like
the one below. Use it to explain how early humans adaptedto their
environment.
Effect:
Effect:
Cause:
Cause:
c. 8000 B.C.Jerichofounded
c. 6700 B.C.Çatal Hüyüksettled
c. 3000 B.C.Bronze Agebegins
8000 B.C. 6000 B.C. 4000 B.C. 2000 B.C.8000 B.C. 6000 B.C. 4000
B.C. 2000 B.C.
Jericho
¸CatalH¨uy¨uk
122 CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations
HistorySocial ScienceStandardsWH6.1 Studentsdescribe what is
knownthrough archaeologicalstudies of the earlyphysical and
culturaldevelopment ofhumankind from thePaleolithic era to
theagricultural revolution.
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WH6.1 Students describe what is known through archaeological
studies of the early physical and cultural development of
humankindfrom the Paleolithic era to the agricultural revolution.
WH6.1.1 Describe the hunter-gatherer societies, including the
development oftools and the use of fire. WH6.1.2 Identify the
locations of human communities that populated the major regions of
the world anddescribe how humans adapted to a variety of
environments. WH6.2.9 Trace the evolution of language and its
written forms.
Early HumansPaleolithic people adapted to their
environment and invented many tools to help themsurvive.Reading
Connection What do you view as the great-est human
achievement—sending people to the moon, perhaps, or inventing the
computer? Read to learnabout the accomplishments of people during
thePaleolithic Age.
History is the story of humans in thepast. It tells what people
did and what hap-pened to them. Historians are people whostudy and
write about the human past.They define history as the period of
timethat began after people learned to write,about 5,500 years ago.
But the story of peo-ple really begins in prehistory—the timebefore
people developed writing.
Tools of Discovery What we know aboutthe earliest people comes
from the thingsthey left behind. Scientists have worked to uncover
clues about early human life.Anthropologists (AN • thruh • PAH •
luh • jihsts)focus on human society. They study howhumans developed
and how they related to one another. Archaeologists (AHR • kee •AH
• luh • jihsts) hunt for evidence buried inthe ground where
settlements might oncehave been. They dig up and study
artifacts(AHR • tih • FAKTS)—weapons, tools, and otherthings made
by humans. They also look forfossils (FAH • suhls)—traces of plants
or ani-mals that have been preserved in rock.
British archaeologists Louis and MaryLeakey and their son
Richard are probablythe most-famous fossil hunters. Their find-ings
convinced many scientists and anthro-pologists that the ancestors
of humanbeings first appeared somewhere in EastAfrica millions of
years ago.
In the 1930s, Louis and Mary Leakeybegan digging for fossils in
the OlduvaiGorge in Tanzania. Archaeologists knowthat in certain
areas of the world, layers ofdirt and rock have been piled up
slowlyover time by the action of wind and water.If you dig in those
places, the deeper youfind things, the older they are, because
theywere buried further back in time. TheOlduvai Gorge is very
deep, and along itswalls are layers of dirt from as far back as
2million years ago. This made it a very goodlocation to look for
fossils.
In the 1940s and 1950s, Louis and Maryfound many fossils of
hominids. Hominidsare creatures that walk on two legs. Humanbeings
are the only type of hominid stillalive today. All the others are
extinct.Anthropologists think that human beingsdeveloped from
earlier types of hominids.
In 1959 Mary Leakey discovered theskull of a creature nearly 2
million yearsold. This showed that hominids lived atleast that long
ago. In 1974 Donald
CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 123
Dr. Donald Johanson is shown here in 1982 with the skeletal
remains of Lucy,a 3-million-year-old hominid
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hominids had begun walking on two legswhile living in Africa’s
rain forests, beforethey moved out onto Africa’s plains.
Based on the work of these and otheranthropologists, many
scientists today thinkthat the first human beings developed inEast
Africa. Slowly, over thousands of years,human beings spread out of
Africa, probablyin search of food and new places to live astheir
population increased. Gradually, theysettled throughout the
world.
Who Were the Hunter-Gatherers?Historians call the prehistoric
period ofhuman history the Stone Age. The namecomes from the fact
that people during thistime used stone to make tools and
weapons.The earliest part of the period is thePaleolithic or Old
Stone Age. Paleolithic
Johanson, an American anthropologist fromChicago, made an even
more amazing dis-covery. He unearthed nearly an entire skele-ton of
a female hominid in Ethiopia. Thehominid was nicknamed Lucy and
wasnearly 3 million years old.
Before Lucy was found, anthropologiststhought hominids lived in
the open onAfrica’s plains and used tools to hunt otheranimals.
They thought hominids had begunwalking on two legs so they could
carrytheir tools while they hunted. Lucy’sremains showed that
hominids began walk-ing on two legs long before they used
tools.
Scientists’ ideas about hominids werechanged again in 1992. That
year TimWhite, an anthropologist from California,uncovered a
hominid that was 4.4 millionyears old. Its teeth and bones showed
that
PRESERVINGArchaeologists may use plaster to make a form or an
imprint of
something they have found.BELOW THE SURFACE
Layers of soil are deposited one on
top of another. In gen-eral, the further the
layer is below the sur-face, the older its soil
and artifacts are.
CLEANINGArtifacts must be handled and
cleaned carefully, often with soft brushes or other
instruments.
LOOKING FOR FRAGMENTSThis scientist uses a wire mesh
screen to sift the soil to discover small fragments
of artifacts.
GRIDSGrids like these help archaeologistsrecord and map any
artifacts found.
Archaeological DigArchaeological DigArchaeologists use special
techniques and tools when carryingout a dig. Artifacts are
photographed or sketched, and their locations are mapped and noted.
Soil is passed through a meshscreen to collect small fragments of
tools or bone. What typesof artifacts do archaeologists look
for?
Michael Holford
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means “old stone” in the Greek language.Paleolithic times began
roughly 2.5 millionyears ago and lasted until around 8000 B.C.
Try to imagine the world during theStone Age, long before any
roadways, farms,or villages existed. Early humans spent mostof
their time searching for food. They huntedanimals, caught fish, ate
insects, and gath-ered nuts, berries, fruits, grains, and
plants.
Because they hunted and gathered food,Paleolithic people were
always on themove. They were nomads (NOH • MADS), orpeople who
regularly move from place toplace without fixed homes. They
traveled inbands or groups of 30 or so membersbecause it was safer
and made the searchfor food easier.
Men and women did different taskswithin the group. Women stayed
close to thecampsite, which was typically near a streamor other
water source. They cared for thechildren and searched nearby woods
andmeadows for berries, nuts, and grains.
Men hunted animals—an activity thatsometimes took them far from
camp. Theyhad to learn the habits of animals and maketools for
hunting. At first, they used clubsor drove the animals off cliffs.
Over time,Paleolithic people invented spears, traps,and bows and
arrows.
Adapting to the Environment The waythat Paleolithic people lived
depended onwhere they lived. Those in warm climatesneeded little
clothing or shelter. People incold climates sought protection from
theweather in caves. Over time, Paleolithicpeople created new kinds
of shelter. Themost common was probably made of ani-mal hides held
up by wooden poles.
Paleolithic people made a life-changingdiscovery when they
learned to tame fire.Fire gave warmth to those gathered aroundit.
It lit the darkness and scared away wild
CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 125
Paleolithic Cave Paintings
The oldest examples of Paleolithic art arecave paintings found
in Spain and France.Most of the paintings are of animals. The
paintings show that Paleolithic artistsoften used several colors
and techniques.They sometimes used the uneven surface ofthe rock to
create a three-dimensional effect.
Why do you think Paleolithic artistspainted what they did?
Painting of bison in Spanish cave
animals. Food cooked over the fire tastedbetter and was easier
to digest. In addition,cooked meat could be kept longer.
Archaeologists believe that early humansstarted fires by rubbing
two pieces of woodtogether. Paleolithic people later made
drill-like wooden tools to start fires.
What Were the Ice Ages? Paleolithic peo-ple needed fire in order
to survive the IceAges. These were long periods of extremecold. The
last Ice Age began about 100,000B.C. From then until about 8000
B.C., thickice sheets covered parts of Europe, Asia,and North
America.
Am
eric
an M
useu
m o
f N
atur
al H
isto
ry
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The Ice Age was a threat to human life.People risked death from
the cold and alsofrom hunger. Early humans had to adapt by changing
their diet, building sturdiershelters, and using animal furs to
makewarm clothing. The mastery of fire helpedpeople live in this
environment.
Language, Art, and Religion Anotheradvance during Paleolithic
times was thedevelopment of spoken language. Languagemade it far
easier for people to worktogether and to pass on knowledge.
Early people expressed themselves notonly in words but in art.
They crushed yel-low, black, and red rocks to make powdersfor
paint. Then they dabbed this on cavewalls, creating scenes of
lions, oxen, pan-thers, and other animals. Historians are notsure
why cave paintings were created. Theymay have had religious meaning
or beenused to explain people’s role in the uni-
Tools One of the most importantadvances of prehistoric people
wasthe creation of stone tools. Toolsmade hunting, gathering,
buildingshelter, and making clothing mucheasier.
The first tools were made ofstones. Early humans quickly
verse. Early people also might havethought that painting an
animal wouldbring good luck in the hunt.
The Invention of Tools Paleolithic peoplewere the first to use
technology (tehk• NAH•luh • jee)—tools and methods that helphumans
perform tasks. People often used astone called flint to make tools.
By hittingflint with a hard stone, they could make itflake into
pieces with very sharp edges. Tomake hand axes or hunting spears,
theytied wooden poles to pieces of flint thatwere the right shape
for the tool.
Over time, early people grew moreskilled at making tools. They
crafted smallerand sharper tools, such as fishhooks andneedles made
from animal bones. Theyused needles to make nets and baskets andto
sew animal hides together for clothing.
Contrast What is the dif-ference between a fossil and an
artifact?
learned that grinding, breaking, andshaping stones to create
sharp edgesmade them more useful.
As technology advanced, people beganmaking specific tools such
as foodchoppers, meat scrapers, and spear points.In time, people
learned that hitting a stonein a particular way would produce a
flake—a long, sharp chip. Flakes were similar toknives in the way
they were used.
Connecting to the Past1. Why do you think early people chose
stones to
make their first tools?
2. How were flakes created?
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WH6.1.2 Identify the locations of human communities that
populated the major regions of the world and describe how humans
adapted to a variety of environments.
WH6.1.3 Discuss the climatic changes and human modifications of
the physical environment that gave rise to the domestication of
plants and animals and new sources of clothing and shelter.
The Agricultural RevolutionIn the Neolithic Age, people
started
farming, building communities, producing goods,and
trading.Reading Connection Did you know that, today, morethan a
third of the world’s people work in agriculture?Read to learn how
farming began and how it changedthe world.
After the last Ice Age ended, peopleentered the Mesolithic Age.
Mesolithicmeans “middle stone” in Greek. At thistime, people
changed from hunting to herd-ing animals. They began to domesticate
(duh• MEHS• tih• KAYT), or tame animals for humanuse. Animals
provided meat, milk, andwool. They also carried goods and peopleand
pulled carts. Even so, most Mesolithicpeople remained nomadic. They
movedfrom place to place in search of grass to feed
their herds. They also continued to gatherseeds, fruits, and
vegetables to eat.
The Mesolithic Age came to an endwhen people made another
important dis-covery. They realized that they could plantseeds and
grow their own food. They mayhave learned this from the seeds they
hadstored in dirt pits. Some of the seeds mighthave sprouted and
shown people that ifthey put seeds in dirt and waited longenough,
they could grow plants.
With this new knowledge, people couldstay in one place and grow
grains and veg-etables. Gradually, farming began toreplace hunting
and gathering for manypeople. They began to build villages andclaim
land for their farms. This changed theway people lived and marked
the begin-ning of the Neolithic Age, or New StoneAge, which began
about 8000 B.C. andlasted until about 4000 B.C.
Why Was Farming Important?Historians call the changes in
theNeolithic Age the agricultural rev-olution. The word
revolutionrefers to changes that greatly affectmany areas of life.
Some his-torians consider the farming revo-lution the most
important event inhuman history.
Farming did not begin in oneregion and spread. People in
differ-ent parts of the world discoveredhow to grow crops at about
thesame time. In Asia, people grewwheat, barley, rice, soybeans,
and agrain called millet. In Mexico, farmers grew corn, squash,
andpotatoes. In Africa, they grew mil-let and a grain called
sorghum.
Farming greatly increased thenumber of calories that could
be
Flaking tools froma larger stone
Stonetools
127
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Mercator projection2,000 km0
2,000 mi.0
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
TROPIC OF CANCER
EQUATOR
90°W 30°W 30°E 90°E 150°E
0°
30°S
60°S
30°N
60°N
PACIFICOCEAN
PACIFICOCEAN
ATLANTICOCEAN
INDIAN OCEAN
N
S
W E
NORTHAMERICA
SOUTHAMERICA
AFRICA
ASIAEUROPE
AUSTRALIA
OATS RY
E
1. Human/Environment Interaction According tothe map, what crops
were grown in NorthAmerica?
2. Region What are the major regions of theworld where farming
communities appeared?
Find NGS online map resources @
www.nationalgeographic.com/maps
Barley
Beans
Cocoa
Coffee
Cotton
Emmer
Flax
Maize
Millet
Oats
Olives
Onions
Peanuts
Peppers
Potatoes
Rice
Rye
Soybeans
Squash
Sugarcane
Sunflowers
Sweet potatoes
Tea
Tomatoes
Vanilla
Wheat
Yams
KEY
OATS RY
E
The Rise of Farming Communities 7000–2000 B.C.
128 CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations
produced from an area of land. This made itpossible to feed more
people and led to anincrease in the world’s population.
Farmingregions also had a higher population den-sity. People lived
closer together and didnot have to spread out as much as they
usedto when they hunted and gathered food.
Farming also changed the kind of food peo-ple ate. Instead of a
diet rich in meat and veg-etables, people now ate a lot of
grain—usuallyin the form of bread. Anthropologists think thatpeople
in the early days of farming were not ashealthy as hunter-gatherers
because they didnot have enough variety in their diet.
Farming required people to stay in oneplace for a long time.
This made it easier fordiseases to spread and infect many
people.Because people stayed in one place, theyalso tended to
pollute their environment.Their water became dirty, and they
left
garbage near their farms. This too helpedthe spread of
disease.
People had to work harder and for muchlonger hours when farming.
People had totill the soil in order to plant seeds. They hadto weed
the fields by hand. Then they had togather the crops by hand when
they wereready. There were no machines to make thework quick and
easy. People had to walkthrough their fields, often bent over at
thewaist, gathering the crops they had grown.
Despite the problems of diet and diseaseand the hard work people
had to do, thefarming revolution greatly improved thelives of most
people. Fewer people starvedto death, and more children lived to
adult-hood. Settling in one place to farm also ledto a much more
organized society andmade possible the world’s first towns
andcities.
(tr)Giansanti Gianni/CORBIS Sygma, (bl)Kenneth Garrett
122-131 C1S1-868874 1/5/05 3:10 PM Page 128
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/maps
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6.4.6. Compare and contrast life in Athensand Sparta, with
emphasis on their rules inthe Persian and Peloponnesian Wars.
ÖTZI THE ICEMANc. 3300 B.C.How do archaeologists and historians
know so
much about how people lived in the Stone Age? Inaddition to
studying fossils, they have had the chanceto study an actual person
from the Neolithic Age andhis tools. In A.D. 1991 two hikers
discovered the frozenbody of a man near the border between Austria
and Italy.The man was called “Ötzi” after the Ötztal Alps,
themountains where he was found. Scientists studiedÖtzi’s body, his
clothes, and the items found with himand learned that he lived
5,300 years ago, during theNeolithic Age.
Ötzi was dressed warmly because of the coldclimate. He was
wearing a fur hat and a long grasscloak. Under the cloak was a
leather jacket that waswell-made but had been repaired several
times. To keephis feet warm, he had stuffed grass in the bottom of
hisleather shoes. Ötzi was carrying a bow and arrows, acopper ax,
and a backpack. Experts believe Ötzi was ashepherd who traveled
with his herd. He probably returned to his village only twice a
year.
From recent tests, scientists have learned more about the last
hours of Ötzi’s life.Shortly before he died, Ötzi ate a type of
flat bread that is similar to a cracker, an herb orother green
plant, and meat. Pollen found in Ötzi’s stomach showed that he ate
his lastmeal in the valley, south of where he was found. When Ötzi
finished eating, he headed upinto the mountains. Eight hours later,
he died. Scientists believe that Ötzi’s last hourswere violent
ones. When found, he had a knife clutched in his right hand. Wounds
on hisright hand suggest that he tried to fight off an attacker.
His left shoulder had been deeplypierced by an arrow. Some
scientists think Ötzi may have wandered into another
tribe’sterritory. Ötzi is now displayed at theSouth Tyrol Museum of
Archaeology in Bolzano, Italy.
129
If scientists 5,300 years from now discoveredthe remains of
someone from our time, whatmight they conclude about our
society?
WH6.1.2 Identify the locations of humancommunities that
populated the major regions ofthe world and describe how humans
adapted to avariety of environments.
WH6.1.3 Discuss the climatic changes andhuman modifications of
the physical environmentthat gave rise to the domestication of
plants andanimals and new sources of clothing and shelter.
Scientists created thisreproduction to show whatÖtzi may have
looked like.
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Paleolithic Age
People hunted animals and gathered nuts, berries, and
grains.
Neolithic Age
Description of Art and Crafts
How Humans Obtained Food
How Humans Adapted
Paleolithic people painted cave walls. They usually painted
animals.
People learned to make fire, created a language, and made simple
tools and shelters.
People began to farm in permanent villages. They continued to
raise and herd animals.
Neolithic people made pottery and carved objects out of wood.
They also built shelters and tombs.
People built mud-brick houses and places of worship. They
specialized in certain jobs and used copper and bronze to create
more useful tools.
Work of Women and Men
Women gathered food and cared for children. Men hunted.
Women cared for children and performed household tasks. Men
herded, farmed, and protected the village.
Comparing the Neolithic and Paleolithic AgesComparing the
Neolithic and Paleolithic Ages
130 CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations
Humans made great advances from thePaleolithic Age to the
Neolithic Age.1. How did the work of men change from the
Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age?2. Describe What advances
were made in
toolmaking between the Paleolithic andNeolithic Ages?
The Growth of Villages People whofarmed could settle in one
place. Herdersremained nomadic and drove their animalswherever they
could find grazing land.Farmers, however, had to stay close to
theirfields to water the plants, keep hungry ani-mals away, and
harvest their crops. Theybegan to live in villages, where they
builtpermanent homes.
During the Neolithic Age, villages werestarted in Europe, India,
Egypt, China, and
Mexico. Some of the earliest known commu-nities have been found
in the Middle East.One of the oldest is Jericho (JEHR• ih• KOH)
inthe West Bank between what are now Israeland Jordan. It dates
back to about 8000 B.C.
Another well-known Neolithic commu-nity is Çatal Hüyük (chah •
TAHL hoo •YOOK) in present-day Turkey. Little of thecommunity
remains, but it was home tosome 6,000 people between about 6700
B.C.and 5700 B.C. These people lived in simplemud-brick houses that
were packed tightlytogether and decorated inside with
wallpaintings. They used other buildings asplaces of worship. Along
with farming, thepeople hunted, raised sheep and goats, andate fish
and bird eggs from nearby marshes.
(l)Michael Holford, (r)Ron Sheridan/Ancient Art &
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CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 131
The Benefits of a Settled Life Neolithicpeople found greater
security by living insettled communities. Steady food suppliesled
to healthy, growing populations. Soonvillagers produced a food
surplus. That is,they grew more food than they needed.They were
able to trade their extra food forother goods made by people in
their com-munity or who lived nearby.
The food surplus made it possible forpeople to practice
specialization (SPEH•shuh•luh•ZAY•shuhn), or the development of
differ-ent kinds of jobs. Because not everyone wasneeded for
farming, some people had thetime to develop other types of skills.
Theymade pottery from clay to store their grainand other foods.
Others used plant fibers tomake mats and to weave cloth. This led
to anew type of clothing. Early humans hadworn only animal skins.
Now people could
use wool and other fabrics for clothes as well.These
craftspeople, like farmers, also tookpart in trade. They exchanged
the things theymade for goods they did not have.
In late Neolithic times, people contin-ued to make advances.
Toolmakers createdbetter farming tools, such as the sickle
forcutting grain. In some places, people beganto work with metals.
At first they used cop-per. They heated rocks to melt the
copperinside and then poured the melted copperinto molds for tools
and weapons.
After 4000 B.C., craftspeople in westernAsia mixed copper and
tin to form a metalcalled bronze. Bronze was harder andlonger
lasting than copper. It becamewidely used between 3000 B.C. and
1200B.C., the period known as the Bronze Age.
Compare How did thePaleolithic and Neolithic Ages differ?
Reading SummaryReview the
• Early humans were nomads whomoved around to hunt animalsand
gather food. They built shelters and used fire to survive.In time,
they developed languageand art.
• During the farming revolution,people began to grow crops and
domesticate animals,which allowed them to settle in villages.
1. Who are archaeologists, andwhat do they study?
2. How did domesticating animalshelp the Neolithic people?
Critical Thinking3. Determine Cause and
Effect Draw a diagram like theone below. List some of theeffects
that farming had onpeople’s lives.
4. How do changesin the Neolithic Age still affectpeople
today?
5. Compare Compare the tech-nology of the Paleolithic Agewith
that of the Neolithic Age.
6. Analyze Why was the abilityto make a fire so important?
7. PreviewingCreate a three-column chart.In the first column,
write whatyou knew about early humansbefore you read this
section.In the second column, writewhat you learned after
reading.In the third, write what youstill would like to know.
CA 6RC2.4
CA HI2.
CA CS1.
CA HI2.
CA HI2.
What Did You Learn?
Study Central Need help understanding the lives of early humans?
Visit ca.hss.glencoe.comand click on Study Central.
Cause:Farming begins
Effect:
Effect:
Effect:
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Looking Back, Looking AheadIn Section 1, you learned how
farming allowed people to settle inone place. Some people
settled in anarea called Mesopotamia.
Focusing on the • Civilization in Mesopotamia began
in the valleys of the Tigris andEuphrates Rivers. (page 133)
• Sumerians invented writing andmade other important
contributionsto later peoples. (page 136)
• Sumerian city-states lost powerwhen they were conquered
byoutsiders. (page 139)
Locating PlacesTigris River (TY•gruhs)Euphrates River
(yu•FRAY•teez)Mesopotamia
(MEH•suh•puh•TAY•mee•uh)Sumer (SOO•muhr)Babylon (BA•buh•
luhn)
Meeting PeopleSargon (SAHR•GAHN)Hammurabi (HA•muh•RAH•bee)
Content Vocabularycivilization
(SIH•vuh• luh•ZAY•shuhn)irrigation
(IHR•uh•GAY•shuhn)city-stateartisan (AHR•tuh•zuhn)cuneiform
(kyoo•NEE•uh•FAWRM)scribe (SKRYB)empire (EHM•PYR)
Academic Vocabularycomplex (kahm•PLEHKS)consist (kuhn•SIHST)code
(KOHD)
Reading StrategySequencing Information Use adiagram to show how
the first empirein Mesopotamia came about.
city-statesformed
3000 B.C.City-states arise in Sumer
c. 2340 B.C.Sargon conquersMesopotamia
c. 1792 B.C.Hammurabi rulesMesopotamia
3000 B.C. 2250 B.C. 1500 B.C.3000 B.C. 2250 B.C. 1500 B.C.
UrukBabylon
132 CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations
HistorySocial ScienceStandardsWH6.2 Studentsanalyze the
geographic,political, economic,religious, and socialstructures of
the earlycivilizations of Meso-potamia, Egypt, andKush.
Mesopotamian Civilization
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WH6.2.1 Locate and describe the major river systems and discuss
the physical settings that supported permanent settlement andearly
civilizations. WH6.2.2 Trace the development of agricultural
techniques that permitted the production of economic surplus andthe
emergence of cities as centers of culture and power. WH6.2.3
Understand the relationship between religion and the social
andpolitical order in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
500 km0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
500 mi.0
N
S
W E
30°N
40°N
30°E 40°E 50°E
Red
Sea
Mediterranean Sea
DeadSea Persian
Gulf
Tigris
R.
Nile
R.
Ca
spianSea
Jordan R.
AncientShoreline
EuphratesR
.
ASIA MINOR
SYRIANDESERT
NILEDELTA
A R A B I A ND E S E R T
EGYPT
MESOPOTAMIA
A S I A
Nineveh
Babylon
Ur
Susa
Eridu
Uruk
Jerusalem
Tyre
Giza
ByblosSidon
Ancient Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia’s CivilizationCivilization in Mesopotamia began
in
the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.Reading
Connection Do you live in a region thatreceives plenty of rain or
in a region that is dry? Thinkabout how that affects you as you
read how theSumerians’ environment affected them.
Over thousands of years, some of theearly farming villages
developed into civi-lizations. Civilizations (SIH • vuh • luh • ZAY
•shuhns) are complex societies. They havecities, organized
governments, art, religion,class divisions, and a writing
system.
Why Were River Valleys Important? Thefirst civilizations arose
in river valleysbecause good farming conditions made it
easy to feed large numbers of people. Therivers also provided
fish and freshwater todrink, and made it easy to get from one
placeto another and to trade. Trade enabledgoods and ideas to move
from place toplace. It was no accident, then, that citiesgrew up in
these valleys and became thecenters of civilizations.
As cities took shape, so did the need fororganization. Someone
had to make plansand decisions about matters of commonconcern.
People formed governments to dojust that. Their leaders took charge
of foodsupplies and building projects. They madelaws to keep order
and assembled armies todefend themselves from enemies.
With fewer worries about meeting theirbasic needs, people in the
river valleys hadmore time to think about other things. They
CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 133
1. Location Into what body of waterdo the Tigris and the
EuphratesRivers flow?
2. Place Why do you think the regionof Mesopotamia was so
wellsuited for the growth ofcivilization? Sculpture of chariot
from Mesopotamia
Fertile CrescentKEY
Hirmer Verlag
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-
placed emphasis, or special importance, onreligions and the
arts. They also inventedways of writing and created calendars
totell time.
Early civilizations shared another fea-ture—they had a class
structure. That is,people held different ranks in societydepending
on what work they did and howmuch wealth or power they had.
The Rise of Sumer The earliest-known civ-ilization arose in what
is now southern Iraq,on a flat plain bounded by the Tigris River(TY
• gruhs) and the Euphrates River (yu•FRAY•teez). Later, the Greeks
called this areaMesopotamia (MEH • suh • puh • TAY • mee •
uh),which means “the land between the rivers.”Mesopotamia lay in
the eastern part of theFertile Crescent, a curving strip of land
that
extends from the Mediterranean Sea to thePersian Gulf.
Mesopotamia had a hot, dry climate. In the spring, the rivers
often flooded, leaving behind rich soil for farming. Theproblem was
that the flooding was veryunpredictable. It might flood one year,
butnot the next. Every year, farmers worriedabout their crops.
Over time, the farmers learned to builddams and channels to
control the seasonalfloods. They also built walls, waterways,and
ditches to bring water to their fields. Thisway of watering crops
is called irrigation(IHR • uh • GAY • shuhn). Irrigation allowed
thefarmers to grow plenty of food and supporta large population. By
3000 B.C., many citieshad formed in southern Mesopotamia in aregion
known as Sumer (SOO • muhr).
134
Sumerian ZigguratSumerian Ziggurat
The top of the ziggurat was considered to be a holy place, and
the area aroundthe ziggurat contained palaces and royal
storehouses. The surrounding wallshad only one entrance because the
ziggurat also served as the city’s treasury.How did people reach
the upper levels of the ziggurat?
Statues of Sumerians
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CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 135
These ruins are from theSumerian city-state of Uruk.What was a
city-state?
What Were City-States? Geographyhelped to isolate Sumerian
cities from eachother. Beyond the areas of settlement laymudflats
and patches of scorching desert.This terrain made travel and
communica-tion difficult. Each Sumerian city and theland around it
became a separate city-state.Each city-state had its own government
andwas not part of any larger unit.
Sumerian city-states often went to warwith one another. They
fought to gain gloryand to control more territory. For protec-tion,
each city-state surrounded itself with awall. Because stone and
wood were in shortsupply, the Sumerians used river mud astheir main
building material. They mixedthe mud with crushed reeds, formed
bricks,and left them in the sun to dry. The hard
waterproof bricks were used for walls, aswell as homes, temples,
and other buildings.
Gods and Rulers The Sumerians believedin many gods. Each was
thought to havepower over a natural force or a human
activ-ity—flooding, for example, or basket weav-ing. The Sumerians
tried hard to please theirgods. Each city-state built a grand
templecalled a ziggurat (ZIH • guh • RAT) to its chiefgod. The word
ziggurat means “mountain ofgod” or “hill of heaven.”
With tiers like a giant square weddingcake, the ziggurat
dominated the city. Atthe top was a shrine, or special place
ofworship that only priests and priestessescould enter. The priests
and priestesseswere powerful and controlled much of theland. They
may even have ruled at one time.
A portion of the RoyalStandard of Ur, a deco-rated box that
showsscenes of Sumerian life
(l)Nik Wheeler/CORBIS, (r)Michael Holford
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A Skilled PeopleSumerians invented writing and made
other important contributions to later peoples.Reading
Connection Do you like to read? If so, youowe a debt to the
Sumerians, because they were the firstto invent writing. Read about
this achievement and others.
The Sumerians left a lasting mark onworld history. Their ideas
and inventionswere copied and improved upon by otherpeoples. As a
result, Mesopotamia has beencalled the “cradle of
civilization.”
Why Was Writing Important? The peopleof Sumer created many
things that still affectour lives today. Probably their
greatestinvention was writing. Writing is importantbecause it helps
people keep records andpass on their ideas to others.
People in Sumer developed writing tokeep track of business deals
and otherevents. Their writing was called cuneiform(kyoo • NEE • uh
• FAWRM). It consisted of hun-dreds of wedge-shaped marks cut into
dampclay tablets with a sharp-ended reed.Archaeologists have found
thousands ofthese cuneiform tablets, telling us muchabout
Mesopotamian life.
Only a few people—mostly boys fromwealthy families—learned how
to write.After years of training, they became scribes(SKRYBS), or
record keepers. Scribes heldhonored positions in society, often
going onto become judges and political leaders.
Sumerian Literature The Sumerians alsoproduced works of
literature. The world’soldest known story comes from Sumer. It
iscalled the Epic of Gilgamesh (GIHL • guh •MEHSH). An epic is a
long poem that tells thestory of a hero. The hero Gilgamesh is
aking who travels around the world with afriend and performs great
deeds. When hisfriend dies, Gilgamesh searches for a way to
Later, kings ran the government. They ledarmies and organized
building projects. Thefirst kings were probably war heroes.
Theirposition became hereditary, which meantthat after a king died,
his son took over.
What Was Life Like in Sumer? WhileSumerian kings lived in large
palaces, ordinary people lived in small mud-brickhouses. Most
people in Sumer farmed. Some,however, were artisans (AHR • tuh •
zuhns), orskilled workers who made metal products,cloth, or
pottery. Other people in Sumerworked as merchants or traders. They
trav-eled to other cities and towns and tradedtools, wheat, and
barley for copper, tin, andtimber—things that Sumer did not
have.
People in Sumer were divided into threesocial classes.
Generally, a person had to stayin the social class into which he or
she wasborn. Only rarely could someone move up.The upper class
included kings, priests, war-riors, and government officials. In
the middleclass were artisans, merchants, farmers, andfishers.
These people made up the largestgroup. The lower class were
enslaved peoplewho worked on farms or in the temples.
Enslaved people were forced to serveothers. Slaveholders thought
of them asproperty. Some slaves were prisoners ofwar. Others were
criminals. Still otherswere enslaved because they had to pay
offtheir debts. Debts are money or goodsowed to others.
In Sumer, women and men had separateroles. Men headed the
households. They alsocould decide whom their children wouldmarry.
Only males could go to school.Women, however, did have some
rights.They could buy and sell property and runbusinesses.
Explain How did Mesopo-tamian control of the Tigris and
Euphrates Riversbenefit their society?
136 CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations
WH6.2.2 Trace the development of agricultural techniques that
permitted the production of economic surplus and the emergence of
cities as centers of culture and power. WH6.2.3 Understand the
relationship between religion and the social and political order
inMesopotamia and Egypt. WH6.2.9 Trace the evolution of language
and its written forms.
Scala/Art Resource, NY
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live forever. He learns that this is possibleonly for the gods.
This epic poem is stillstudied today.
Advances in Science and Math TheMesopotamians’ creativity also
extended totechnology. You read earlier about Sumerianirrigation
systems. Sumerians also inventedthe wagon wheel to help carry
people andgoods from place to place. Another break-through was the
plow, which made farmingeasier. Still another invention was the
sail-boat, which replaced muscle power withwind power.
Sumerians developed many mathemati-cal ideas. They used geometry
to measurefields and put up buildings. They also created a number
system based on 60. Wehave them to thank for our 60-minute
hour,60-second minute, and 360-degree circle.
In addition, Sumerian people watchedthe skies to learn the best
times to plantcrops and to hold religious festivals. Theyrecorded
the positions of the planets andstars and developed a 12-month
calendarbased on the cycles of the moon.
Identify How did the useof mathematics benefit the
Sumerians?
Today, both boys and girls go to school. They study
reading,writing, mathematics, and many other
subjects. As students advance in theireducation, they have a
great number of
career choices and are able to choose thecareer that fits their
talents. In what way is
education different today than it was inMesopotamia?
Education
In ancient Mesopotamia, only boys fromwealthy and high-ranking
families went to theedubba, which means “tablet house.” At
theedubba—the world’s first school—boysstudied reading, writing,
and mathematicsand trained to be scribes. For hours everyday, they
copied the signs of thecuneiform script, trying to masterhundreds
of wordsand phrases.
Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet
Students today
CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 137(l)Mesopotamian Iraq
Museum, Baghdad, Iraq/Giraudon/Bridgeman Art Library, (r)Will
Hart/PhotoEdit
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HAMMURABIReigned c. 1792–1750 B.C.Hammurabi was a young man when
he succeeded
his father, Sinmuballit, as king of Babylon. WhenHammurabi
became king, Babylon was already a strongkingdom in Mesopotamia.
During his reign, however,Hammurabi transformed Babylon from a
small city-state into a large, powerful state. He also united
theother city-states of Mesopotamia under one rule.
Hammurabi was directly involved in the ruling ofhis kingdom. He
personally directed projects, such asbuilding city walls, restoring
temples, and digging andcleaning irrigation canals. A great deal of
planningwent into his projects. City streets, for example,
werearranged in straight lines and intersected at rightangles, much
like the way our cities are planned today.
One of Hammurabi’s goals was to control theEuphrates River
because it provided water forBabylon’s farms and trade routes for
cargo ships.He also needed to control the river’s annual floodingso
that villages and crops would not be washed away.Hammurabi did this
by issuing laws controlling the useof irrigation ditches. His laws
protected the area andhelped bring water to the fields. That was
one reason hedeveloped a strict law code, or collection of
laws:damaged irrigation channels could cause many peopleto be
injured or even killed.
Hammurabi fought for many years against hisenemies to control
the river. He even used water todefeat them. Sometimes he would dam
the river towithhold water needed for drinking and for crops, and
then release a sudden damaging flood. Because of Hammurabi’s
efforts, the center of power in Mesopotamia shifted from Sumer in
the south to Babylon in the north where it remained for the next
1,000 years.
Find a copy of the Code of Hammurabi, either on-line or in a
reference book. Notice the kinds ofsituations and the punishments
that are described.How do these compare with current laws
andpunishments that exist in the United States?
WH6.2.2 Trace the development ofagricultural techniques that
permitted theproduction of economic surplus and theemergence of
cities as centers of culture andpower.
WH6.2.4 Know the significance ofHammurabi's Code.
Hammurabi
138138
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CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 139
Sargon and HammurabiSumerian city-states lost power when
they were conquered by outsiders.Reading Connection Have you
heard of the RomanEmpire, the Aztec Empire, or the British Empire?
Therise and fall of empires is an important part of history.Read on
to learn about the first empires in the world.
Over time, conflicts weakened Sumer’scity-states. They became
vulnerable to attacksby outside groups such as the Akkadians
(uh•KAY • dee • uhnz) of northern Mesopotamia.
The king of the Akkadians was namedSargon (SAHR • GAHN). In
about 2340 B.C.,Sargon conquered all of Mesopotamia creat-ing the
world’s first empire. An empire (EHM•PYR) is a group of many
different lands underone ruler. Sargon’s empire lasted for morethan
200 years before falling to invaders.
In the 1800s B.C., a new group of peoplebecame powerful in
Mesopotamia. Theybuilt the city of Babylon (BA • buh • luhn) bythe
Euphrates River. It quickly became acenter of trade. Beginning in
1792 B.C., theBabylonian king, Hammurabi (HA• muh• RAH•bee), began
conquering cities to the north andsouth and created the Babylonian
Empire.
Hammurabi is best known for his lawcode, or collection of laws.
(See pages 140and 141.) The code covered crimes, farmingand
business activities, and marriage and thefamily—almost every area
of life. Before thelaw code, rulers could treat others nearly
anyway they wanted. The code forced all peopleto follow the law in
how they treated others.Hammurabi’s code influenced later lawcodes,
including those of Greece and Rome.
Explain Why was Sargon’sempire important?
Study Central Need help understanding theSumerian civilization?
Visit ca.hss.glencoe.comand click on Study Central.
Reading SummaryReview the • In time, farming villages devel-
oped into civilizations with governments, art, religion,
writ-ing, and social class divisions.The first city-states
developed in Mesopotamia.
• Many important ideas and inven-tions, including writing, the
wheel,the plow, and a number systembased on 60, were developed
inthe region of Mesopotamia.
• Several empires, including theBabylonian Empire, took
controlof Mesopotamia.
1. What is a civilization?
2. What was the Code ofHammurabi?
Critical Thinking3. Summarize Information
Draw a chart like the one below.Use it to list the
achievementsof Mesopotamians that helpedimprove their
civilization’seconomy.
4. Geography Skills How didthe geography of Mesopotamiashape the
growth of population and creation of a civilization?
5. How did theSumerian religion affectSumerian society?
6. Persuasive Writing Imagineyou are living in a city-state in
ancient Sumer. Write a letterto a friend describing
whichMesopotamian idea or inventionyou believe will be the
mostimportant to humanity.
CA 6WS1.2
CA HI2.
CA CS3.
CA HI6.
What Did You Learn?
Achievements ofMesopotamian Civilization
WH6.2 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic,
religious, and social structures of the early civilizations of
Mesopotamia,Egypt, and Kush.
WH6.2.4 Know the significance of Hammurabi's Code.
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http://ca.hss.glencoe.com
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140
Hammurabi’s Laws:Fair or Cruel?
Around 1750 B.C., King Hamm
urabi
wrote 282 laws to govern the
people of
Babylon. Historians and schola
rs agree
that these ancient laws were th
e first to
cover almost all aspects of
society.
However, historians and scholar
s do not
agree whether Hammurabi’s law
s were
fair or cruel.
Those who see the laws as just
and
fair give the following reason
s. They
say the laws
• stated what all people needed
to
know about the rules of their
society
• brought order and justice to so
ciety
• regulated many different activ
ities,
from business contracts to crime.
King Hammurabi wrote an intr
o-
duction to his list of laws. In
that
introduction, he says that the
laws
were written to be fair. His inten
tion
was “to bring about the ru
le of
righteousness in the land, to
destroy
the wicked and evil-doers, s
o that
the strong should not har
m the
weak. . . .”
Some of the laws reflect t
hat
fairness.• Law 5: If a jud
ge makes an error
through his own fault when tryin
g
a case, he must pay a fine, be
removed from the judge’s bench
,
and never judge another case.
• Law 122: If someone gives som
e-
thing to someone else for safe-
keeping, the transaction should
be witnessed and a contract
made between the two parties.
• Law 233: If a contractor
builds a house for
someone and the
walls start to fall,
then the builder
must use his
own money
and labor to
make the
walls secure.
Fair
140
Stone monument showing Hammurabi (standing) and his code
WH6.2.4 Know thesignificance of Hammurabi'sCode.
Réu
nion
des
Mus
ées
Nat
iona
ux/A
rt R
esou
rce,
NY
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141
CruelSome historians and
scholars think
Hammurabi’s laws were cruel and
unjust. They say the laws
• called for violent punishments, often
death, for nonviolent crimes
• required different punishments for
accused persons of different social
classes
• allowed no explanation from an
accused person.
Some of the laws reflect this cruelty.
• Law 3: If someone falsely accuses
someone else of certain crimes, then
he shall be put to death.
• Law 22: If someone is caught in the
act of robbery, then he shall be put
to death.
• Law 195: If a son strikes his father,
the son’s hands shall be cut off.
• Law 202: If someone strikes a man
of higher rank, then he shall be
whipped 60 times in public.
141
Cuneiform tablet with the text of theintroduction to the Code of
Hammurabi
Document-Based Questions
1. Why do some people thinkHammurabi’s laws were fair?
2. Why do others think the lawswere cruel?
3. Were the laws fair or cruel? Takethe role of a historian.
Write abrief essay that explains how you view Hammurabi’s laws.Be
sure to use facts to supportyour position. You can
compareHammurabi’s laws to our modern laws to support yourargument.
CA 6RC2.7CA HR5.
CA HR5.
CA HR5.
Louv
re,
Par
is/B
ridge
man
Art
Lib
rary
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New EmpiresLooking Back, Looking Ahead
In Section 2, you learned about theempires of Sargon and
Hammurabi.Later empires—those of the Assyriansand the
Chaldeans—used theirmilitary power in new ways.
Focusing on the • Assyria’s military power and well-
organized government helped it build a vast empire in
Mesopotamiaby 650 B.C. (page 143)
• The Chaldean Empire built importantlandmarks in Babylon and
developedthe first calendar with a seven-dayweek. (page 145)
Locating PlacesAssyria (uh•SIHR•ee•uh)Persian Gulf
(PUHR•zhuhn)Nineveh (NIH•nuh•vuh)Hanging Gardens
Meeting PeopleNebuchadnezzar
(NEH•byuh•kuhd•NEH•zuhr)
Content Vocabularyprovince (PRAH•vuhns)caravan
(KAR•uh•VAN)astronomer
(uh•STRAH•nuh•muhr)
Academic Vocabularycore (KOHR)interval (IHN•tuhr•vuhl)route
(ROWT)
Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast Complete a Venn diagram
like the one belowlisting the similarities and differencesbetween
the Assyrian Empire and theChaldean Empire.
Assyrians Chaldeans
c. 900 B.C.Assyrians controlMesopotamia
612 B.C.Nineveh captured;Assyrian Empirecrumbles
539 B.C.Persians conquerChaldeans
900 B.C. 700 B.C. 500 B.C.900 B.C. 700 B.C. 500 B.C.Nineveh
Babylon
HistorySocial ScienceStandardsWH6.2 Studentsanalyze the
geographic,political, economic,religious, and socialstructures of
the earlycivilizations of Mesopo-tamia, Egypt, and Kush.
142 CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations
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WH6.2 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic,
religious, and social structures of the early civilizations of
Mesopotamia,Egypt, and Kush.
The Assyrians Assyria’s military power and well-
organized government helped it build a vast empirein Mesopotamia
by 650 B.C.Reading Connection Today, many countries havearmed
forces to protect their interests. Read to dis-cover how the
Assyrians built an army strong enough toconquer all of
Mesopotamia.
About 1,000 years after Hammurabi, anew empire arose in
Mesopotamia. It wasfounded by a people called the Assyrians(uh
•SIHR •ee •uhns), who lived in the northnear the Tigris River.
Assyria (uh•SIHR•ee•uh) had fertile valleys that attracted
outsideinvaders. To defend their land, the Assyriansbuilt a large
army. Around 900 B.C., theybegan taking over the rest of
Mesopotamia.
Why Were the Assyrians So Strong? TheAssyrian military was well
organized. At itscore were groups of foot soldiers armedwith spears
and daggers. Other soldierswere experts at using bows and arrows.
Thearmy also had chariot riders and soldierswho fought on
horseback.
This fearsome and mighty force was thefirst large army to use
iron weapons. Forcenturies, iron had been used for tools, butit was
too soft to serve as a material forweapons. Then a people called
the Hittites(HIH•TYTZ), who lived northwest of Assyria,developed a
way of making iron stronger.They heated iron ore, hammered it,
andrapidly cooled it. The Assyrians learnedthis technique from the
Hittites. They pro-duced iron weapons that were strongerthan those
made of copper or tin.
The Assyrians at WarThe Assyrians at War
When attacking a walled city, the Assyrians used massive war
machines.The wheeled battering ram was powered by soldiers. It was
covered to protect the soldiers inside, but it had slits so they
could shoot arrows out.What other methods did Assyrian soldiers use
to attack cities?
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144 CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations
Assyrian kings divided the empire intoprovinces (PRAH • vuhn •
suhs), or politicaldistricts. They chose officials to govern
eachprovince. The job of these officials was tocollect taxes and
enforce the king’s laws.
Assyrian kings built roads to join allparts of their empire.
Government soldierswere posted at stations along the way toprotect
traders from bandits. Messengers ongovernment business used the
stations torest and change horses.
Life in Assyria The Assyrians lived muchlike other
Mesopotamians. Their writing wasbased on Babylonian writing, and
they wor-shiped many of the same gods. Their lawswere similar, but
lawbreakers often facedmore brutal and cruel punishments
inAssyria.
As builders, the Assyrians showed greatskill. They erected large
temples and palacesthat they filled with wall carvings and
stat-ues. The Assyrians also produced and col-lected literature.
One of the world’s firstlibraries was in Nineveh. It held
25,000tablets of stories and songs to the gods.Modern historians
have learned much aboutancient civilizations from this library.
Explain Why were theAssyrian soldiers considered brutal and
cruel?
40°E40°N 300 km0
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
300 mi.0
N
S
W E
Nile
R.
Tig ris
R .
Euph rate s R.
MediterraneanSea
RedSea
A R A B I A ND E S E R T
MESOPOTAMIA
ASIAMINOR
EGYPT
TyreJerusalem
Thebes
Nineveh
Babylon
1. Location What major rivers werepart of the Assyrian
Empire?
2. Human/Environment InteractionWhat geographical features
mayhave kept the Assyrians fromexpanding their empire to thenorth
and south?
Assyrian Empire
Assyrianwinged bullstatues stoodas guardians atcity gates.
Assyrian EmpireKEY
The Assyrians were ferocious warriors.To attack cities, they
tunneled under wallsor climbed over them on ladders. Theyloaded
tree trunks onto movable platformsand used them as battering rams
to knockdown city gates. Once a city was captured,the Assyrians set
fire to its buildings. Theyalso carried away its people and
goods.
Anyone who resisted Assyrian rule waspunished. The Assyrians
drove people fromtheir lands and moved them into foreignterritory.
Then they brought in new settlersand forced them to pay heavy
taxes.
A Well-Organized Government Assyriankings had to be strong to
rule their largeempire. By about 650 B.C., the empire stretchedfrom
the Persian Gulf (PUHR • zhuhn) in theeast to Egypt’s Nile River in
the west. Thecapital was at Nineveh (NIH • nuh • vuh) onthe Tigris
River.
Boltin Picture Library
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WH6.2 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic,
religious, and social structures of the early civilizations of
Mesopotamia,Egypt, and Kush.
The ChaldeansThe Chaldean Empire built important
landmarks in Babylon and developed the first calen-dar with a
seven-day week.Reading Connection What landmarks exist in yourtown
or the nearest city? Read to learn some of the spe-cial landmarks
that made the Chaldean capital ofBabylon famous.
Assyria’s cruel treatment of people ledto many rebellions. About
650 B.C., theAssyrians began fighting each other overwho would be
their next king. Because theAssyrians were not united, a group of
peo-ple called the Chaldeans (kahl•DEE•uhns)were able to rebel.
The Chaldean people had moved fromthe Arabian Peninsula into
southernMesopotamia about 1000 B.C. Their smallkingdom was quickly
conquered by theAssyrians but the Chaldeans hated theirnew rulers.
With the Assyrians busy fight-ing each other, King Nabopolassar of
the
Web Activity Visit ca.hss.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter
1—Student Web Activity tolearn more about the first
civilizations.
Chaldeans decided the time had come tofight back.
In 627 B.C. Nabopolassar led his peoplein rebellion against the
Assyrians. TheChaldeans joined with the Medes, anotherpeople in the
region who wanted to breakfree from the Assyrians. Together
theChaldeans and Medes defeated Assyria’sarmy. In 612 B.C. they
captured the Assyriancapital of Nineveh and finally put an end
tothe hated Assyrian empire.
Nabopolassar and his son, the famousKing Nebuchadnezzar
(NEH•byuh•khud•NEH • zuhr), then went on to build theirown empire.
By 605 B.C., the Chaldeans had
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were considered one of the Seven
Wonders of the Ancient World. A complex irrigation system brought
water from the EuphratesRiver to the top of the gardens. From
there,the water flowed down to each of the lower levels of the
gardens. What othersights made Babylon a grand city?
Ruins of the Hanging Gardens
Hanging GardensHanging Gardens
Gia
nni D
agli
Ort
i/CO
RB
IS
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146 CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations
These terraced gardens showcased largetrees, masses of flowering
vines, and otherbeautiful plants. A pump brought in waterfrom a
nearby river. Nebuchadnezzar builtthe gardens to please his wife,
who missedthe mountains and plants of her homelandin the
northwest.
One Greek historian in the 400s B.C.described the beauty of
Babylon. He wrote,“In magnificence, there is no other city
thatapproaches it.” Outside the center ofBabylon stood houses and
marketplaces.There, artisans made pottery, cloth, baskets,and
jewelry. They sold their wares to pass-ing caravans (KAR • uh •
VANZ), or groups oftraveling merchants. Because Babylon waslocated
on the major trade route betweenthe Persian Gulf and the
MediterraneanSea, it became rich from trade.
conquered nearly all of the lands theAssyrians had ruled. They
made Babylonthe capital of their empire, and because ofthis, the
Chaldean Empire is sometimescalled the New Babylonian Empire.
The City of Babylon The Chaldeans rebuiltthe city of Babylon as
the glorious center oftheir empire. The city became the
world’slargest and richest city. It was surrounded bya brick wall
so wide that two chariots couldpass on the road on top of it. Built
into thewall at 100-yard (91.4-m) intervals weretowers where
soldiers kept watch.
Large palaces and temples stood in thecity’s center. A huge
ziggurat reached morethan 300 feet (91.4 m) into the sky.
Anothermarvel, visible from any point in Babylon,was an immense
staircase of greenery: theHanging Gardens at the king’s palace.
40°E
50°E
30°E
40°N
35°N
200 km0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
200 mi.0
N
S
W E
Tigris
R.Euphrates R.
MediterraneanSea
PersianGulf
CaspianSea
SYRIA
JUDAH
EGYPT
CHA LDEANS
P ER S I AN SA R A B I A N D E S E R T
MEDE SASSYRIAMESO
POTAM
IA
Tyre
Jerusalem
DamascusByblos
Nineveh
SusaBabylon
Chaldean Empire c. 605 B.C.
Original Chaldean settlementFarthest extent of Chaldean
Empire
KEY
1. Location How far apart are thecities of Susa and
Damascus?
2. Region How were thegeographical locations of theoriginal
Chaldean settlement andJudah similar?
S. Fiore/SuperStock
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Babylon was also a center of science.Like earlier people in
Mesopotamia, theChaldeans believed that changes in the sky revealed
the plans of the gods. Theirastronomers (uh • STRAH • nuh •
muhrs)—peo-ple who study the heavenly bodies—mapped the stars, the
planets, and thephases of the moon. The Chaldeans madeone of the
first sundials and were the first todevelop a seven-day week.
Why Did the Empire Fall? A number ofweak leaders, along with
poor harvests anddecreased trade, caused the Chaldeans tolose their
power. In 539 B.C. Persians fromthe northeast captured Babylon and
madeMesopotamia part of the new PersianEmpire.
Identify What were theHanging Gardens of Babylon?
CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 147
The Ishtar Gate was at the main entrance to ancient Babylon.
Describe the wall that surrounded Babylon.
Reading SummaryReview the • Using cavalry and foot soldiers
armed with iron weapons, theAssyrians created a large empirethat
included all of Mesopotamia and extended into Egypt.
• The Chaldeans built a largeempire in Mesopotamia thatincluded
Babylon, the largest andrichest city in the world at thattime.
Study Central Need help understanding theAssyrians and
Chaldeans? Visit ca.hss.glencoe.com and click on Study Central.
1. Why was the Assyrian army a powerful fighting force?
2. What were some of theaccomplishments of
Chaldeanastronomers?
Critical Thinking3. Summarize Information
Draw a chart like the onebelow. Use it to describe the city of
Babylon and why itbecame powerful.
4. Analyze How did theAssyrians set up a well-organized
government?
5. Why do youthink the Assyrians took con-quered peoples from
theirlands and moved them toother places?
6. Explain Why did theChaldeans join with the Medesto fight the
Assyrians?
7. Science Link What differenttypes of knowledge and skillswould
the Babylonians need to build the Hanging Gardens?
8. PosingQuestions Write four ques-tions about the Chaldeans
youwould like answered. Use thelibrary and Internet to researchand
write answers to yourquestions. CA HR1.
CA 6RC2.3
CA HI1.
CA CS3.
CA 6RC2.0
CA HI2.
Babylon Under Chaldeans
What Did You Learn?
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Cave PaintingOne of the earliest forms of communicationwas
through art. Beginning around 30,000 B.C.,people began to crush
rocks to make powderfor painting on cave walls. The images
theypainted include animals, hunting scenes, andpeople engaged in
various activities. Thesepaintings may have had a religious
meaningor may have been intended to record events.
Ancient Forms of Communication
Long before the rise of civilization, early people expressed
themselvesthrough paintings. People may have used these images to
explain the universe.Later, people in Mesopotamia began using
writing not only to express theirideas, but also to record
important events and tell stories. These include epicstories of
heroes, proverbs about how to live properly, and law codes.
Study the painting and the passages that follow, and then answer
the ques-tions on page 149.
old ones: the elders or leaders of thecity
Enkidu (ehn•KEE•doo): Gilgamesh’sfriend and traveling
companion
Reader’s Dictionary
148 CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations
Sculpture ofchariot fromMesopotamia
This cave painting is in Lascaux, France.The cave is filled with
images drawn orcarved by people during the PaleolithicAge, about
15,000 years ago. Theimages show animals and people, andtell
stories about Paleolithic life.
WH6.2.9 Trace theevolution of languageand its written forms.
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Advice for GilgameshThe Epic of Gilgamesh is a legend about
thetravels of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk in Babylonia.It was written
about 2000 B.C. In the followingpassage, Gilgamesh is warned about
going on adangerous adventure alone.The old ones shaped their
mouths and spoke,
saying to Gilgamesh,“Do not trust all that strength of
yours,
Gilgamesh.Make sure your eyes are wide, your blow cer-
tain.
The one who walks in front guards his friend;the one who knows
the way safeguards his
companion.
Let Enkidu go before you as you march;he knows the way of the
forest, to the cedars.He has seen battle, understands
warfare.Enkidu will watch over the friend, make the
way safe for his companion.”
—Gilgamesh, John Gardner and John Maier, trans.
The Code of HammurabiThe following is law seven from the Code
ofHammurabi. He ruled Babylon from around 1792 B.C. to 1750
B.C.
7. If any one buy from the son or the slave ofanother man,
without witnesses or a con-tract, silver or gold, a male or female
slave,an ox or a sheep, an ass or anything, or if hetake it in
charge, he is considered a thief andshall be put to death.
—“Code of Hammurabi,” L.W. King, trans.
Cave Painting1. What kind of animals are shown?
2. Why do you think this image was painted?
Advice for Gilgamesh3. What do the old ones tell Gilgamesh to
do
instead of relying on his strength? Why?
4. Why do the old ones think it is a good ideafor Enkidu to
accompany Gilgamesh?
The Code of Hammurabi5. What is the punishment for making a
deal
without a witness or a contract?
6. Do you think the punishment would be thesame if there were a
witness or a contract?Why?
Read to Write7. How do you think the author of the Epic of
Gilgamesh would have used words to expressthe image of the cave
painting?
8. Based on the primary sources, explain whatvalues you think
were important to people inancient Mesopotamia. How do these
valuescompare to ours today? CA HI2.; HR4.
CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 149
Stone monument showing Hammurabi(standing)
Scala/Art Resource, NY
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Standards WH6.1 & WH6.2
150 CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations
Review Content Vocabulary1. Write a brief paragraph that
describes and
compares the following terms. archaeologist artifact
fossil anthropologist
Indicate which of the following statements aretrue. Replace the
word in italics to make anyfalse statements true.
___ 2. An artisan kept records in cuneiform.___ 3. Assyrian
kings divided their empire
into political districts called provinces.___ 4. A civilization
is a group of many differ-
ent lands under one ruler.
Review the Section 1 • Early Humans
5. How did Paleolithic people adapt to theirenvironment?
6. What were the major differences betweenpeople who lived in
the Paleolithic periodand those who lived in the
Neolithicperiod?
Section 2 • Mesopotamian Civilization7. Where were the first
civilizations in
Mesopotamia?8. What kinds of contributions did
Sumerians make?9. How did Sumerian city-states lose power?
Section 3 • New Empires10. What helped Assyria build an empire
in
Mesopotamia?11. What scientific advancement did the
Chaldeans make?
Critical Thinking12. Explain Why do you think Mesopotamia
is sometimes called the “cradle of civilization”?
13. Analyze Why was the development offarming called a
revolution? CA HI3.
CA 6RC2.3
Mercator projection2,000 km0
2,000 mi.0
EQUATOR
30°E 90°E 150°E
0°
30°S
30°N
60°N
150,000–200,000years ago
50,000years ago
25,000years ago
100,000years ago
40,000years ago
N
S
W E
AFRICA
ASIAEUROPE
AUSTRALIA
Spread of Early Humans
Movement ofearly humans
KEY
14. Describe What rights did women have inthe city-states of
Sumer?
15. Predict How successful do you think theAssyrian army would
have been if it hadnot learned how to strengthen iron?
Geography SkillsStudy the map below and answer the follow-ing
questions.16. Location On what continent was the
earliest fossil evidence of humans found?
17. Movement Based on fossil evidence,where did early humans go
first, Europe or Australia?
18. Analyze Which three continents are notshown on this map? How
do you thinkearly humans reached those continents?
CA CS3.
CA CS3.
CA CS3.
CA HI4.
CA 6RC2.0
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-
Select the best answer for eachof the following questions.
Which of these was a purposeof the ziggurat in
ancientMesopotamia?
A weapon storageB schoolhouseC office for recording votesD
temple for worship
The importance of ancientpoems such as the Epic ofGilgamesh is
that they continueto provide people with
A historically accurate descriptions of events.
B fantastic adventures with greatheroes.
C a deeper understanding offuture events.
D stories about real, historic people.
27
26
CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 151
Read to Write19. Expository Writing Most of
what we know about early humanscomes from scientific
discoveries. Writetwo to three paragraphs explaining howthese
scientists help historians gatherinformation about the past.
20. Using Your Use your Chapter 1foldable to create an
illustrated time line.Your time line should extend from the date
Jericho was founded to the fall of the Chaldean Empire. Create
drawings orphotocopy maps, artifacts, or architectureto illustrate
your time line.
Using Academic Vocabulary21. Use the words listed below as you
write a
two- to three-paragraph summary ofChapter 1. Make sure that you
cover all ofthe important events and cultures thatappear in the
chapter.
task coderevolution corecomplex intervalconsist route
Economics Connection22. Persuasive Writing Suppose you are a
merchant in Çatal Hüyük. A new group ofpeople wants to trade
with your village.Write a short speech to persuade your vil-lage
that there are economic benefits totrading with other people.
Linking Past and Present23. Analyzing Information Imagine you
are
a nomad who travels from place to placeto hunt and gather food.
What thingswould you carry with you to help you sur-vive? Make a
list of items and discuss itwith your classmates.
Reviewing Skills24. Previewing Imagine that a
friend has to read Section 3. Write a fewparagraphs telling him
or her how topreview the section. CA 6RC2.4
CA 6RC2.4
CA HI6.
CA HI1.
CA 6WS1.3
CA 6WA2.2
Self-Check Quiz To help you prepare forthe Chapter Test, visit
ca.hss.glencoe.com
25. Researching Many impor-tant scientific discoveries, such as
Lucy in1974, changed the way that scientistsunderstand early human
history. Use yourlocal library to research the discovery
byanthropologist Tim White in 1992. Whatkind of new information did
this discoveryprovide about early hominids? Write aresearch paper
describing the importanceof this discovery. CA HI5.
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Discovering Our Past: Ancient CivilizationsTable of ContentsA
Guide to California Content StandardsCorrelation to the California
StandardsPreviewing Your TextbookScavenger HuntReading Skills
HandbookNational Geographic Reference AtlasWorld: PoliticalWorld:
PhysicalEurope: PoliticalEurope: PhysicalMiddle East:
Physical/PoliticalAfrica: PoliticalAfrica: PhysicalAsia:
PoliticalAsia: PhysicalNorth America: PoliticalNorth America:
PhysicalMiddle America: Physical/PoliticalSouth America:
PoliticalSouth America: PhysicalPacific Rim:
Physical/PoliticalWorld's PeopleWorld: Land UsePolar Regions
National Geographic Geography HandbookHow Do I Study
Geography?How Do I Use Maps and Globes?Understanding Latitude and
LongitudeFrom Globes to MapsCommon Map ProjectionsParts of
MapsTypes of MapsUsing Graphs, Charts, and DiagramsGeographic
Dictionary
Tools of the HistorianMeasuring TimeOrganizing TimeHistory and
GeographyWhat Is a Historical Atlas?How Does a Historian
Work?Making Sense of the PastLinks Across Time
Unit 1: Mesopotamia, Egypt, and IsraelChapter 1: The First
CivilizationsReading Skill: Previewing Section 1: Early
HumansSection 2: Mesopotamian CivilizationSection 3: New
EmpiresChapter 1 Assessment
Chapter 2: Ancient Egypt and KushReading Skill:
SummarizingSection 1: The Nile ValleySection 2: Egypt's Old
KingdomSection 3: The Egyptian EmpireSection 4: The Civilization of
KushChapter 2 Assessment
Chapter 3: The Ancient IsraelitesReading Skill: Making
ConnectionsSection 1: The First IsraelitesSection 2: The Kingdom of
IsraelSection 3: The Growth of JudaismChapter 3 Assessment
Unit 1 Review
Unit 2: India, China, and the AmericasChapter 4: Early
IndiaReading Skill: QuestioningSection 1: India's First
CivilizationsSection 2: Hinduism and BuddhismSection 3: India's
First EmpiresChapter 4 Assessment
Chapter 5: Early ChinaReading Skill: MonitoringSection 1:
China's First CivilizationsSection 2: Life in Ancient ChinaSection
3: The Qin and Han DynastiesChapter 5 Assessment
Chapter 6: The Ancient AmericasReading Skill: Taking
NotesSection 1: The First AmericansSection 2: The Mayan
PeopleChapter 6 Assessment
Unit 2 Review
Unit 3: The Greeks and RomansChapter 7: The Ancient
GreeksReading Skill: Comparing and ContrastingSection 1: The Early
GreeksSection 2: Sparta and AthensSection 3: Persia Attacks the
GreeksSection 4: The Age of PericlesChapter 7 Assessment
Chapter 8: Greek CivilizationReading Skill: VisualizingSection
1: The Culture of Ancient GreeceSection 2: Greek Philosophy and
HistorySection 3: Alexander the GreatSection 4: The Spread of Greek
CultureChapter 8 Assessment
Chapter 9: The Rise of RomeReading Skill: Making
InferencesSection 1: Rome's BeginningsSection 2: The Roman
RepublicSection 3: The Fall of the RepublicSection 4: The Early
EmpireChapter 9 Assessment
Chapter 10: Roman CivilizationReading Skill: Making
PredictionsSection 1: Life in Ancient RomeSection 2: The Fall of
RomeSection 3: The Byzantine EmpireChapter 10 Assessment
Chapter 11: The Rise of Christianity Reading Skill: Identifying
Cause and EffectSection 1: The First ChristiansSection 2: The
Christian ChurchSection 3: The Spread of Christian IdeasChapter 11
Assessment
Unit 3 Review
AppendixWhat Is an Appendix?SkillBuilder HandbookCalifornia
Standards HandbookGlossarySpanish
GlossaryGazetteerIndexAcknowledgements and Photo Credits
Feature ContentsPrimary SourceAnalyzing Primary SourcesWorld
LiteratureBiographySkillBuilder HandbookNational Geographic:
History MakersLinking Past & PresentNational Geographic: The
Way It WasYou Decide . . .Primary Source QuotesMaps, Charts,
Graphs, and Diagrams
Internet LinkPrevious DocumentSearch - DocumentSearch - FullPage
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