(11.2) Chapter 18, Iran: From Secularism to Islamic Revolution The ‘ulama’ and the state under the Qajars and the Pahlavis. The Islamic revolution and.

(11.2)Chapter 18, Iran: From Secularism

to Islamic Revolution

The ‘ulama’ and the state

under the Qajars and the Pahlavis.

The Islamic revolution and its aftermath.

Map of Iran

Population of Iran in millions1800 under 6 (est)1900 10 (est)1932 13 (est)1960 21.51980 39.11990 54.42008 72.0

1510-1736 Savafid dynasty: ‘ulamā’ weak at first, later stronger.

1736-1779 Nadir Shah, Karim Khan Zand; Uṣūlīs prevail over Akhbārīs

1779-1925 Qajar dynasty: “dual agency” with ‘ulamā’1894-85Loss of territory to Russians1891-2 Tobacco Protest1906-9 Constitutional Revolution1907 Anglo-Russian Convention: spheres of

influence1921-5 Reza Khan comes to power1925-79Pahlavi dynasty: secularist reforms, ‘ulamā’

marginalized1941-53Active Political movements; National Front,

Tudeh etc; Mossedegh period, 1951-31978-9 Islamic Revolution; Islamic Republic1979-89Khomeini leader; ‘ulama’ dominance1989 Revised Islamic constitution

Safavids: Comments on “The Shah is God’s representative on earth and the

Prophet’s in guiding the people; and . . . the . . . ‘ulamā’ must not interfere in the government or politics.”

“Our kings being iniquitous and unjust men, their domination is a tyranny to which God has subjected us to punish us, after having withdrawn from the world the legitimate successor of His Prophet. The supreme Throne of the universe belongs only to a mujtahid, . . . [although] . . . there must be a king who carries a sword for the exercise of justice; but he must only be like his minister, and dependent upon him.”

(Both Recorded in the 17th century by a French traveler; wording modifed)

Qajar: an evaluation

"Thus the Qajars were Shadows of the Almighty whose writ often did not extend beyond the capital; monarchs who considered themselves to be God's representatives on earth but were viewed by the main religious leaders to be usurpers of God's authority; . . . shahanshahs who ruled not other kings, as they claimed, but through, and so with the kind permission of, "minor kings", such as tribal chiefs, local notables, and religious leaders. In theory the shahs were omnipotent; in practice, they were politically impotent." (Abrahamian 41)

‘Ulama’ under Qajars

Dual agency: ‘Ulama’ are general agents of Twelfth Imam Shah is Twelfth Imam’s deputy for government

Development of system of marja‘-i taqlid Local authority: power brokers, landowners,

traders Alliance with Bazaaris (from c 1870) Opposition to European imperialism

Encouraged jihad vs Russia 1826 Opposed Reuter concession 1872 Opposed tobacco monopoly 1890-1

Ayatollahs

"It is not easy to describe persons who fill no office, receive no appointment, who have no specific duties, but who are called - from their superior learning, piety and virtue - by the silent but unanimous suffrage of the inhabitants . . . to be their guides in religion and their protectors against the violence and oppression of their rulers, and who receive from those by whose feeling they are elevated a respect and duty." (Sir John Malcolm, c 1810?, British Ambassador, Wright 72 fn)

Movements based on mystical and eschatological aspects of Shi‘ism

 Shaykhis: Twelfth Imam is in hurqulya; Perfect Shi‘a is in contact with himBabis: Sayyid Ali Muhammad Shirazi claimed to be Bab

(gate) to the Imam; New dispensation; revolt; killed (1850).Baha’is: Mirza Husayn Ali claims to be figure promised by

Bab Title Baha’ullah, Seen as new prophet founding new religion

Tobacco protests of 1891-2 “In the name of God, the Merciful the Forgiving.

Today the use of tanbaku and tobacco in any form is reckoned as war against the Imam of the Age ( may God hasten His glad advent).” Ayatollah Mirza Hasan Shirizi’s fatwa against tobacco. (Keddie 95-6)

Universally obeyed Shah forced to bow to popular will (a

precedent for the future)

Constitutional Revolution Alliance including bazaaris, ‘ulamā’, intelligentsia

(rawshafekran), with considerable popular support 1905-6 Demonstrations over price rises occasioned by

government financial problems lead to political demands

1906 Majles called; constitution promulgated1907 Supplementary Law1907- Struggle/civil war between pro- and anti-

constitutionalists; Issue re constitution: mashruteh or mashru‘eh?1911 Anglo-Russian interference prevents financial

reforms1912 New secular penal code accepted by mujtahids1914 First World War leads to political chaos 

From the Constitution of 1906-7 “At no time may the enactments of the sacred National

Consultative Assembly, which has been constituted with the aid and favor of His Holiness in Imam of the Age (Twelfth Imam) may God hasten his appearance, the support of his Imperial majesty, may God immortalize his reign, and under the supervision of the learned doctors of theology, may God increase their number, and by the whole Iranian people, be at variance with the sacred precepts of Islam . . . .” (Supplementary Law of 1907)

“The powers of the state are derived from the nation . . .”

“Sovereignty is a trust confided, as a divine gift, to the person of the shah by the nation.”

Reza Shah Pahlavi, 1925-1941  Early moves to please ‘ulamā’; did not declare a republic,

made pilgrimage to Qom; banned gambling & sale of alcohol, promised to enforce moral conduct, etc.

Capitulations abolished (1928) Renegotiated Anglo-Persian oil concession (1932-3). Secular education expanded. Some government control of madrasa curriculum and

exams New Penal & Civil Codes, mixture of French & Shari‘a law

(1928) Judges must hold Western style degree or pass test (1936) Registration of documents only in secular courts (1932) Greater government control of awqaf (1934) Attempt to force abandonment of chador (1936) Attempt to prohibit ta‘ziya Glorified pre-Islamic Iran in nationalist ideology Changed name of country to Iran (associated with Aryan)

Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, 1941-1979Period of Active Party Politics Nationalist parties, liberal and extreme. Front Tudeh (Communist), Mujahidin-i Islam (Ayatollah Kashani) Fedayan-i Islam (assassinations, contact with Muslim

Brothers) National Front & Mossadegh government (1951-3); crisis. Period of Strong Royal Rule ‘Ulama' quiescent, Burujerdi sole marja‘ "White Revolution"(“Shah and People Revolution”, 1963-)

Land Reform Literacy, Health, Religion etc. corps ("Mullahs of

Modernization") Demonstrations against these measures, led by Khomeini Family Protection Acts (1967, 1975) Celebration of 2500 years of Iranian monarchy (1972)

Statements by Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi:"The myth of kingship here, together with my own

education, my nature - for instance, what I felt about the peasants who form the majority of this country - I think made me knowingly or unknowingly adopt the attitude that a king and his people cannot be separate . . . this view is the reason for my strength." (Bayne 70)

"Iran needs religion, but we should modernize it with more schools and regularized salaries. The mullahs should wear uniform clothing and be recognized as clergy. They must no longer be dependent upon the casual contributions of shopkeepers or be subject to their wishes." (Bayne 53)

"The position of the ‘ulama' seems bound to continue in general to decline as literacy, secular schools and scientific education spread; as Islamic practices regarding the relations of the sexes and other matters are increasingly ignored, and insofar as some of the ‘ulamā’ can be identified with a self-seeking opposition to reform." (Keddie, 1971)

Development of Islamically Oriented Opposition

1961 Freedom Movement founded Bazargan and Taleghani

1963-4 Protests and exile of Khomeini; he criticizes regime.

c1965-73 Ali Shariati lectures at Husayniyyah-i Irshad

1970 Khomeini lectures on Islamic Government (Vilayat-i Faqih)

1971 Mujahidin-i Khalq begins armed operations

1977 Temporary relaxation of government control allows open protests by liberals

Some oppositional figures and one group (mostly “lay” Islamic orientation)

(Ideological labels are suggestive only)

Mehdi Bazargan (1907-1995) “modernist”, liberal orientation

Sayyid Mahmud Taleghani (1910-79) “socialist”Morteza Mutahhari (1920-79)Jalal Al-i Ahmad (1923-1969); secularist, coined

“Westoxication” (gharbzadegi)Ali Shariati (1933-77) “third world populist”,

influenced by Marx, Sartre and others.Mujahidin-i Khalq (People’s Freedom Fighters):

“Islamic Marxists”, “Tawhidi” society

Quotations from writings/lectures of Ali Shariati

"In the tradition of Abu Dharr, . . . whose ideals, wants and rage I emulate, I begin my talk in the name of the oppressed (mustad‘ifin)" (WSWB 1)

"Whenever in the Qur’an social matters are mentioned, Allah and al-nas (the people) are virtually synonymous . . . ‘Rule belongs to God’ [means] rule belongs to the people . . . " (Soc 116)

". . . not the democracy of heads, not irresponsible and directionless liberalism . . . rather . . . 'purity of leadership' (not the leader, for that would be fascism) committed and revolutionary leadership, responsible for the movement and growth of society . . . This is the true meaning of imamate!" (Soc 119-20)

Ayatollah Khomeini, Lectures on Islamic Government

Core argument:

Islam is comprehensive; more Qur’anic verses on society than on ritual

Must not only be taught but implemented (vs Shi‘i quietism)

This must be done, in the absence of a prophet, . . . not by kings. "Islam proclaims monarchy and heriditary

succession wrong and invalid” (vs Dual Agency) But by the ‘ulamā’, individually or collectively, who have

knowledge and justice. "If a worthy individual possessing these two qualities

arises and establishes a government, he will possess the same authority as the Most Noble Messenger . . . in the administration of society . . . “

The ‘ulamā’ are therefore obligated to establish Islamic government

Islamic Revolution1978 Jan. 7 Article derogatory of Khomeini provokes

demonstrations in which a number are killed, leading to a cycle of further demonstrations and government repression through

the year.1978 Oct. 6. Khomeini forced to leave Iraq, goes to Paris.1978 Dec. 10-11. Major demonstrations on the occasion of

Tasu‘a and Ashura (9-10 Muharram).1979 Jan. 16. Shah leaves Iran for “holiday”.1979 Feb. 1. Khomeini returns to Iran, appoints Mehdi

Bazargan as prime minister.1979 Apr. 1. Khomeini declares the Islamic Republic

following a referendum on March 30-31.1979 Feb.-Nov. and later. Vocal criticisms of the regime,

clashes and demonstrations by various groups.1979 Nov. 4. U.S. embassy occupied, Bazargan resigns.1979 Dec. 4. Constitution proclaimed after referendum on

Dec. 2-3.

Islamic Revolution ctd.

1980 Jan. 25. Abolhasan Bani Sadr elected president.1980 Mar. 14 and May 9. Two stage election of Majles; Islamic

Republican Party dominates.1980 Sept. 21. Iraq invades Iran.1981 June Bani-Sadr is declared incompetent by the

Majles and removed from office by Khomeini.1981 June 28. Bomb at IRP headquarters kills 72 (?) leaders1981 July 24. Raja’i, new president, and Bahonar, prime

minister, are killed. Mujahidin-i Khalq claims responsibility.

1981 Oct. 2. Khamanei elected president.1982 Mass arrests of Tudeh and others.1982 Aug 25, 28. Criminal code based on Shari‘a and

amendments to Civil Code approved.

Khomeini as idol breaker [disclaimer re copyright]

Islamic Repubic of Iran

1986 IRP disbanded because of factionalism1988 Jan 6, Khomeini's letter on Vilayat-i Faqih-i Mutlaq1988 More non-mullahs elected to majles (27% mullahs

in contrast to c. 45% in the previous two majles). More women stood, 3 elected.

1988 Spring End of war with Iraq.1989 June 3. Death of Khomeini. Khamanei to succeeds

him as leader. 1989 July 28. New constitution approved in referendum.1989, 1993 Rafsanjani elected president1997, 2002 Election of Mohammad Khatami as president.2005, 2008 Election of Mahmud Ahmadinejad as

president.2008 Demonstrations protesting election irregularities.

Sign on the outside of a Tehran hotel in 1984 reads, “Oh God, Oh God, preserve Khomeini until the revolution of the Mahdi.” A comparable sign in 1999 read, “Oh God, Oh God, protect this movement of Khomeini until the revolution of the Mahdi.”

From Khomeini's spiritual testament: “I say with confidence now that the Iranian

nation and the multi-million masses in this country today are better than the people of Hijaz at the time of God's Messenger (SAW), and the people of Kufa and Iraq during the era of Imam Ali (AS) and Imam Hussein (AS).” (i.e. because those people often disobeyed and resisted the prophet and Imams, while the Iranian people enthusiastically support the war with Iraq.)

Some (interesting) effects of the revolution Central government strengthened More technological development in the

provinces Increased government bureaucracy ‘Ulamā’ less independent of state; some

factions empowered Low rate of mosque attendance in comparison

with some other countries

Inside the Mausoleum of Khomeini in Tehran, 1999. Sermon is being given by Khomeini's grandson. Large pictures are of Khomeini and Khamane'i, the current leader.