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• Early healers depended on superstition and magic
• Followed by observations of injuries, wound healing and dead bodies
• This evolved into experimentation and creation of new terminology for anatomy & physiology
• Finally, study of corpses and cadaver dissection brought new knowledge of human body
1.1: Origins of Medical Science
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• Anatomy: The study of the structure/morphology of the human body and its parts; derived from Greek for “a cutting up”
• Physiology: The study of the functions of the human body and its parts; derived from Greek for “relationship to nature”
• The structure of organs and parts of the human body determines the function.
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1.2: Anatomy & Physiology
All materials, living or non-living, are composed of chemicals, which consist of atoms.
• Subatomic Particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up cells
• Atom: tiny particles that make up chemicals (hydrogen, carbon)
• Molecule: particles consisting of atoms (water, glucose)
• Macromolecule: large particles consisting of molecules (DNA, protein)
• Organelle: functional part of a cell (mitochondrion, lysosome)
• Cell: basic unit of structure and functions (muscle, nerve, or blood cell)
• Tissue: layer or mass of cells with specific function (adipose tissue)
• Organ: group of different tissues with a function (heart, kidney, stomach)
• Organ System: group of organs with common function (digestive system)
• Organism: composed of organ systems interacting (human)
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1.3: Levels of Organization
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Levels of Organization
Clinical Application 1.1
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Noninvasive procedures that provide images of internal structures:
• Ultrasound (US): High-frequency sound waves that provide images of soft internal structures; used to obtain sonogram of fetus in the uterus
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Magnetic field changes alignment and spin of certain types of atoms; provides high-resolution images of internal structures, such as the brain
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Ultrasound and MRI
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The events inside the body which obtain, release, and utilize energy are the main part of metabolism (all of the chemical reactions in an organism that support life).
1.4: Characteristics of Life
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Life requires / depends on 5 environmental factors:
• Water:- most abundant substance in body- environment for metabolic processes- required for transport of substances- regulation of body temperature
• Food:- provides necessary nutrients- supplies energy- supplies raw materials for building living tissue
1.5: Maintenance of Life
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• Oxygen (gas):- one-fifth of air- used to release energy from nutrients
• Heat:- helps maintain body temperature - partly controls rate of metabolic reactions
• Pressure:- application of force on an object- atmospheric pressure – important for breathing- hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood flowing
Requirements of Organisms
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Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal environment
Homeostatic Mechanisms: Self-regulating systems that monitor aspects of the internal environment and correct them as needed.
There are 3 parts of a homeostatic mechanism:• Receptor: detects and provides information about the
stimuli• Control Center: decision-maker that maintains the set
point• Effector: muscle or gland that responds to the control
center, and causes the necessary change in the internal environment
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Homeostasis
Homeostatic Mechanisms
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Example of a homeostatic mechanism for the regulation of body temperature
Homeostatic Mechanisms
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Negative feedback:
• Most common type of homeostatic mechanism
• Effectors return conditions toward normal range, and the deviation from set point lessens
• Called “negative” because the response to the change moves the variable in the opposite direction of the deviation from the set point
• Prevents sudden, severe changes in the body
• Examples: negative feedback controls body temperature, blood pressure & glucose level in the blood
Homeostatic Mechanisms
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Positive feedback:
• Uncommon in the body
• The change/deviation is intensified, instead of reversed
• Activity of effector is increased initially, instead of decreasing
• Short-lived
• Produce unstable conditions, that seem like they will not lead to homeostasis, but they will.
• Examples: blood clotting and the uterine contractions of childbirth
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Homeostatic Mechanisms
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Human body consists of 2 main portions:Axial portion: head, neck, and trunkAppendicular portion: upper and lower limbs
Major cavities of the axial portion of the body:• Cranial cavity: houses brain• Vertebral canal (spinal cavity): contains spinal cord• Thoracic cavity: houses lungs and thoracic viscera• Abdominopelvic cavity: contains abdominal and pelvic
viscera
1.6: Organization of the Human Body
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1.6: Organization of the Human Body
Cranial Cavity
Vertebral Canal
1.6: Organization of the Human BodyThoracic Cavity
• Diaphragm: muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
• Mediastinum: region between lungs in thoracic cavity, which contains heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus gland
• Abdominopelvic cavity contains 2 portions:a. Abdominal cavity: extends from diaphragm to top of
pelvis, and contains stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys small intestine, most of large intestine
b. Pelvic cavity: enclosed by pelvic bones, and contains end of large intestine, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs
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Major Body Cavities
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Major Body Cavities
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Small cavities of the head:
• Oral cavity
• Nasal cavity
• Orbital cavities
• Middle ear cavities
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Small Cavities of the Head
The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are lined by double-layered serous membranes, which secrete serous fluid (slippery fluid that prevents friction between layers).
Serous membranes consist of 2 layers:• Visceral layer: inner layer, which covers an organ• Parietal layer: outer layer, which lines wall of cavity
Examples of serous membranes:• Visceral and parietal pleura (around lungs in thorax)• Visceral and parietal pericardium (around heart in thorax)• Visceral and parietal peritoneum (around abdominopelvic
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Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes
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Serous membranes of thethoracic cavity
Serous membranes of theabdominal cavity
Serous Membranes
Pleural Membranes
Visceral pleura Parietal pleura
Pleural cavity
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Pericardium
Visceral pericardium
Pericardial cavity
Parietal pericardium
Peritoneum
Visceral peritoneum
Parietal peritoneum
Peritonealcavity
Lesseromentum
Mesenteryof small intestine
Greateromentum
Peritoneum
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Organ Systems
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Integumentary system:Protection, body temperature regulation, sensory reception,production of Vitamin D
Skeletal system:Framework, protection,attachment sites, storage of inorganic salts, production of blood cells, support and movement
Muscular system:Movement, main source of body heat, maintenance of posture.
Integumentary System
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Skeletal System
Muscular System
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Organ Systems
Nervous andEndocrine systems:
Integration and coordination of organfunction throughnerve impulses or hormones
Nervous System
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Endocrine System
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Organ Systems
Cardiovascular system:Transportation of gases, nutrients, blood cells and wastes
Lymphatic system:Transportation of fluids, lymphocyte production, body defense
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Cardiovascular System
Lymphatic System
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Organ Systems
Digestive system:Receives food, breaks down food, excretes waste