106849590 4 B Sc I I JOURNEL Ilovepdf Compressed 2

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ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 03002568922 & 03416623062

1


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Name:_________________________________________

Class: _____________ Section:__________

Roll No: ________ Group:_______________________


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Certified that Miss. / Mr._______________________________

Of class ____________ has carried out the necessary practical

work as prescribed by the Board of Intermediate Education /

University of Karachi for the year _____________________

__________________________________ ______________________________

Head of the department In charge

Date:__________________ Date:______________


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4

S.No Date

P.No Initial

1To determine the unknown resistance byusing a neon flash lamp and a capacitor. 01

2To convert the given galvanometer in to anammeter up to the range [ 01 ] ampere. 05

3To convert the given galvanometer in to anvoltmeter up to the range [ 01 ] volt. 10

4To calibrate a voltmeter by using apotentiometer. 15

5To calibrate an ammeter by using apotentiometer. 18

6To calibrate an ammeter and a voltmeter byusing a potentiometer. 21

7To determine the low resistance of the givencoil by Carey foster bridge. 25

8To determine the value of two unknownresistances by using a potentiometer andverify the law of combination of resistancesin series or parallel.

31

9

To determine the work function of a metal by

using a sodium light.

36

10To determine the ionization potential ofmercury. 40

11To set up half and full wave rectifier andstudy their waveforms on an oscilloscope. 44

12To study the characteristics of an RLC seriesacceptor circuit by plotting a response curve. 52

13To study the characteristics of an RLCrejecter circuit by plotting a response curve. 57

14To plot the characteristics curve of a semiconductor diode. Determine the forward andreverse impedances [Resistances].

62

15To study the static characteristics of a giventransistor in common emitter mode. 65

16To determine the Planks constant by using aspectrometer and hydrogen discharge tube. 70


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5

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

PRACTICAL [ III ]

To determine the unknown resistance by using aneon flash lamp and a capacitor.

To convert the given galvanometer in to an

ammeter up to the range [ 01 ] ampere.

To convert the given galvanometer in to anvoltmeter up to the range [ 01 ] volt.

To calibrate a voltmeter by using apotentiometer.

To calibrate an ammeter by using apotentiometer.

To calibrate an ammeter and a voltmeter byusing a potentiometer.

To determine the low resistance of the given coil

by Carey foster bridge.

To determine the value of two unknownresistances by using a potentiometer and verify

the law of combination of resistances in series

or parallel.


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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

PRACTICAL [ IV ]

To determine the work function of a metal byusing a sodium light.

To determine the ionization potential of mercury.

To study the characteristics of an RLC series or

acceptor circuit by plotting a response curve.Determine the resonant frequency , band width

and Q factor of the circuit

To study the characteristics of an RLC parallel orrejector circuit by plotting a response curve.

Determine the resonant frequency , band width

and Q factor of the circuit

To plot the characteristics curve of a semiconductor diode. Determine the forward and

reverse impedances [Resistances].

To study the static characteristics of a giventransistor in common emitter mode.

To set up half and full wave rectifier and studytheir waveforms on an oscilloscope. Also study

the effect of smoothing circuit ( filter circuit ) on

ripple voltage.

To determine the Planks constant by using aspectrometer and hydrogen discharge tube.


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EXPERIMENT NO . 1

OBJECT:To determine the unknown resistance by using a neon

flash lamp and a capacitor.APPARATUS: Neon flash lamp , Capacitor , Unknown resistance,D.C main supply , Stop watch.

THEORY: The capacitor C is charged through the resistance Runtil the potential difference across capacitor attains the strikingvoltage VS of the neon bulb. At this voltage the neon gas in thebulb ionizes and begins to emit light. The capacitor then begins todischarge through the neon bulb until its potential difference is

reduced to the value of Ve known as the extinction voltage atwhich the ionization and emission of light from the neon bulb isstop. This gives rise to a flash of light. and we get flashes of lightone after other. The time between two consecutive flashes isknown as flashing time.Let t1be the time for the capacitor to charge up to VSvolt and t 2be the time for the capacitor to charge up to Ve. Since the relationbetween the voltage V across the capacitor after t seconds and theapplied voltage V0is V = V0 [ 1e 1 / CR ]

]

sV

eV

0V

[logCR1t

, ]

sV

eV

0V

[logCR2

t

]

sV

eV

eV

0V

[logCR]2

t-1t[TPeriodFlashing


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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of stop watch = 0 . 01 sec

S.No.

ResistanceR

Time for 10 flashes MeanTime

FlashingPeriod

T = t / 101 2 3

Ohms Sec Sec Sec Sec Sec

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.


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GRAPH BETWEENRESISTANCE & FLASHING TIME

Along XaxisOne small division = ________ Ohms

Along YaxisOne small division = ________ min


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CALCULATIONS:FROM GRAPH

Value of A = R 1 =____________ Ohms

Value of B = R 2 = ____________ Ohms

RESULT:

The value of unknown resistances from graph [ using a neonflash lamp ] are found to be

Value of A = R 1 =____________ Ohms Value of B = R 2 = ____________ Ohms The theoretical value of A + B = __________ Ohms The value of A + B from graph = __________ Ohms

The theoretical value of B1

A

1

= ____ Ohms

The value of A + B from graphB

1

A

1

= ___ Ohms

Teachers signature

2R

1

1R

1

R

1

2R

1R

2R

1R

R

R

R = _____________ Ohms

FROM GRAPH

R = B

1

A

1 = ____ Ohms

R = R 1 + R 2

R = +

R = _____________ Ohms

FROM GRAPH

R = A + B = _____ Ohms


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PRECAUTION: Least count of stop watch should be noted and graduation on

stopwatch should be studied carefully before starting theexperiment.

The applied voltage should be kept constant through out theexperiment. The capacitance of the capacitor should be selected so as to

get a measureable rate of flashing with the unknownresistance.

In order to avoid error due to photo electric effect theexperiment should be performed in a dark room or the neonbulb may be enclosed in a box with a small sighting hole.

The DC mains voltage should be greater than the striking

voltage for the lamp. Reading for time and striking voltage should be noted at atthe instant when the lamp just glows.

The stop watch should be started at the same time when DCmains is switched on.

SOURCES OF ERROR :Inaccuracy of stopwatch.Loose connectionsVoltage flections. Necked wire should not be touched when the switch is on. Before starting the experiment get the circuit checked by

your teacher


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EXPERIMENT NO . 2

OBJECT:To convert the given galvanometer in to an ammeter up

to the range [ 01 ] ampere.APPARATUS: Galvanometer, Voltmeter, Ammeter, ResistanceBox , Rheostat , Screw Gauge , 0ne way Key , Connecting Wires ,Shunt Wire and Battery.

THEORY: A galvanometer having a resistance Rg gives a fullscale deflection when a current Ig is passed through it.. It can beconverted in to an ammeter up to the range [ 0 1 ] ampere byconnecting a small suitable resistance RSin parallel to it. The valueof the shunt resistance RS is such that when this parallelcombination of galvanometer and shunt resistance S is connectedin series with a circuit carrying a current I , it allows a current Ig topass through the galvanometer and the rest of the current [ IIg ]through the attached shunt resistances. The Rg ( The resistance ofgalvanometer ) and Ig ( Current for full scale deflection ) can becalculated by the following formulas.

SR_HR

SR

HR

g

R

]gRR[

V

g

I

The value of the shunt resistance RScan be calculated by equatingthe potential differences across the two branches of the circuit. LetRg and RS be the resistances of galvanometer and shuntresistance respectively ans let Ig and IS be the current passingthrough them. Then

I = Ig + Is _________ [ 1 ]

Is = [ I Ig ] _________ [ 2 ]

Since Rgand RS are in parallel then by Ohms law we have


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IsRS = Ig Rg _________ [ 3 ]

From Equation [ 2 ] and Equation [ 3 ] we get

RS [ I Ig ] = Ig Rg

]gII[

gR

gI

S

R

If the shunt wire has specific resistance and a radius r then itsrequired length L is given by

2rS

L

WORKING FORMULA:

1.

SR_

HR

SR

HR

gR

2.

]g

RH

R[

V

gI

3. ]gII[

gR

gI

SR

3.

2rSL

WhereRgis the resistance of the given galvanometerRHis thehigh ResistanceRSis theshunt Resistance Ig is the current for full scale deflection flowing through the

galvanometerV is therange of ammeter up to which the galvanometer is to

be convertedRSis the shunt resistance connected in parallel.L is the length of wire having the resistance RS .

is theratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter[ It is amathematical constant whose value is 3.142 ]

r is theradius of the wire.is the specific resistance of the material of the wire
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratio


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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

HighResistance

RH

FullDeflection

HalfDeflection

ShuntResistance

RSS

R_H

R

SR

HR

g

R

Ohms Divisions Divisions Ohms Ohms

1. Least count of standard ammeter = ____________ Amp

__________Divisions of galvanometer = _________ AmpOne division of galvanometer = = ________ Amp

2. Least count of converted ammeter = ____________ Amp

VERIFICATION:

S.No.

StandardAmmeterReading

Reading of the shuntedgalvanometer

Difference

Galvanometer

Divisions

Converted

Ammeter

Amperes Divisions Amperes Amperes

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.


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CALCULATIONS:

SR_

HR

SR

HR

gR

_gR

Ohms

]g

RH

R[

V

gI

p AmgI

]gII[

gRgIS

R

OhmsS

R

2rSL

cm2][142.3L

RESULT: The given galvanometer has been converted in to an

ammeter up to the range [ 01 ] ampere.

Teachers signature


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16

PRECAUTION:

All connections should be neat and tight. Short and thick connecting wires should be used.

The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps. While finding the current IG for full scale deflection do not

close the circuit with out introducing a high resistance by theresistance box.

No portion of calculated length of the wire should be underthe binding screw s of the galvanometer.

When comparing the readings of standard ammeter and theshunted galvanometer pass large currents to produce largedeflection, thus reducing error in reading the deflection.

Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.SOURCES OF ERROR :

Loose connections Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more

resistance in the circuit. For finding full scale deflection if the circuit is closed with out

introducing a high resistance by the resistance box. The portion of calculated length of the wire should out of the

binding screw of the galvanometer. A small amount of current may cause the error in the

deflection of the galvanometer. Loose plugs in the resistance box. Fluctuation of current in the circuit.


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EXPERIMENT NO . 3

OBJECT:To convert the given galvanometer in to an voltmeter up

to the range [ 01 ] volt.APPARATUS: Galvanometer , Voltmeter , Ammeter ,Resistance Box , Rheostat , 0ne way Key , Connecting Wiresand a Battery.

THEORY: A galvanometer having a resistance Rg gives a fullscale deflection when a current Ig is passed through it.. It can beconverted in to a voltmeter up to the range [ 0 1 ] volt byconnecting a suitable resistance RX in series with it. The value ofthe series resistance RX is such that it allows a current Ig to passthrough the combination of galvanometer and series resistance RXwhen potential difference V is applied across it. By applying Ohmslaw the value of RX is given by

]g

RX

R[

V

gI

SR_

HR

SR

HR

gR

To convert a moving coil galvanometer in to a voltmeter up to amaximum voltage EXit is necessary to connect a high resistance inseries with the galvanometer coil of the resistance Rg Most of thepotential drop will then occur across the resistance RX The valueof the series resistance RXshould be so adjusted that the voltage

E produces across the galvanometer coil and the series resistanceRX a current Ig sufficient to produce full scale deflection in thegalvanometer movement . Then by Ohms law

V = Ig [ R X + Rg ]

Ig R X + IgRg = V

Ig R X = VIgRg


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gI

gR

gI-V

XR

gI

gR

gI

gIV

XR

gR-

gI

V

X

R

WORKING FORMULA:

1. SR_HR

SR

HR

gR

2. ]gRR[

V

gI

3.g

R-

gI

V

XR

WhereRgis the resistance of the given galvanometerRHis the high Resistance

RSis the shunt Resistance Ig is the current for full scale deflection flowing through thegalvanometer

V is the range of voltmeter up to which the galvanometer isto be converted

RXis the high Resistance connected in series.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

OBSERVATIONS:


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HighResistance

RH

FullDeflection

HalfDeflection

ShuntResistance

RSS

R_H

R

SR

HR

g

R

Ohms Divisions Divisions Ohms Ohms

1. Least count of standard voltmeter = ___________ Amp

_________Divisions of galvanometer = __________ Volts

One divisions of galvanometer = = ________ Volts

2. Least count of converted ammeter = ____________ Volts

VERIFICATION:

S.No.

StandardVoltmeterReading

Reading of the shuntedgalvanometer

Difference

GalvanometerDivisions

ConvertedVoltmeter

Volts Divisions Volts Volts1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

CALCULATIONS:

SR_

HR

SR

HR

gR

_gR

Ohms


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20

]g

RH

R[

V

gI

p AmgI

gR-

gI

V

XR

Ohms--X

R --

RESULT:

The given galvanometer has been converted in to avoltmeter up to the range [ 01 ] volts.

Teachers signature


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21

PRECAUTION:


The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps. While finding the current IG for full scale deflection do not

close the circuit with out introducing a high resistance by theresistance box.

No portion of calculated length of the wire should be underthe binding screw s of the galvanometer.

When comparing the readings of standard ammeter and theshunted galvanometer pass large currents to produce largedeflection, thus reducing error in reading the deflection.

The rheostat used as potential divider should not be of lowresistance. Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Loose connections Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more

resistance in the circuit. For finding full scale deflection if the circuit is closed with out

introducing a high resistance by the resistance box. The portion of calculated length of the wire should out of the

binding screw of the galvanometer. A small amount of current may cause the error in the

deflection of the galvanometer. A low resistance rheostat as potential divider may be used. Loose plugs in the resistance box. Fluctuation of current in the circuit.


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EXPERIMENT NO . 4

OBJECT:To calibrate a voltmeter by using a potentiometer.

APPARATUS: Potentiometer , Jockey , Two Rheostat , TwoBattery ,Two 0ne way Key , Galvanometer , Two way key ,Voltmeter , Standard cell and Connecting Wires.

THEORY: A potential drop is established across a potentiometerby connecting a battery across it. The potential drop per unit lengthof its wire is measured in terms of EMF of a standard cell. Arheostat is set up as a potential divider. The potential difference forits different setting is measured by a voltmeter and by thepotentiometer using the value of potential drop per unit length ofthe potentiometer wire as already found because of the standardcell and the inherent accuracy of potentiometric voltagemeasurement , the potential read by potentiometer is the truereading of the potential . This is compared with the reading of thevoltmeter and in this way the calibration of voltmeter is checked .

WORKING FORMULA: ]

1L

2

L[

SE

SV

WhereVSis thecalculated voltageESis the E.M.F of standard cellL1is thebalancing length for Standard cell is in circuitL2is thebalancing length for R 2is in circuit

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


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OBSERVATIONS:

3. Least count of standard voltmeter = _____________ Volts

4. E .M . F of standard cell = E S = _______________ Volts5. Balancing length when Standard cell is in circuit L1 = __ cm.

S.No

Balancinglength when

R 2is incircuit

L2

Calculated Voltage

]

1L

2

L[

SE

SV

VoltmeterReading

V

Difference[ VS V ]

cm volts volts volts1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

CALCULATIONS: ]

1

L

2

L[

SE

SV

]

1L

2

L[

SE

SV

V S = _________ Volts

]

1L

2

L[

SE

SV

]

1L

2

L[

SE

SV

V S = _________ Volts

]

1L

2

L[

SE

SV


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RESULT:

The given voltmeter has been calibrated a by using apotentiometer

Teachers signature

PRECAUTION: All connections should be neat and tight. Short and thick connecting wires should be used. The jockey must have sharp edge. Avoid the sliding of jockey on the wire rather it should be

gently tapped over it. The current through the potentiometer should be passed

while taking readings.. The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps. Positive terminal of the batteries B1& B2and standard EScell

should be connected to the same end of the potentiometerwire.

Emf of the battery B1should be greater than emf of thebattery B2or the standard cell.

The rheostat R 1once set should not be changed through outthe experiment.

Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.SOURCES OF ERROR :Loose connections Error due to the sliding of jockey on the wire. Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more

resistance in the circuit. Loose plugs in the resistance box. Jockey may not be of sharp edge.

Fluctuation of current in the circuit.

]

1L

2

L[

SE

SV


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EXPERIMENT NO . 5

OBJECT:To calibrate an ammeter by using a potentiometer.

APPARATUS: Potentiometer , Jockey , Two Rheostat , TwoBattery ,Two 0ne way Key , Galvanometer , Two way key ,Ammeter , Standard cell , Resistance box and Connecting Wires.

THEORY: A potential drop is established across a potentiometerby connecting a battery across it. The potential drop per unit lengthof its wire is measured in terms of EMF of a standard cell. Aresistance RS an ammeter and A and a rheostat R2are connectedin series with a battery B2 ( as in figure ). Let the current flowingthrough the circuit as read by the ammeter be I . This current setup a potential drops VS across the standard resistance RS Thisvalue of VS is measured by the potentiometer using the value ofpotential drop per unit length of potentiometer wire. Because of thestandard cell and the inherent accuracy of potentiometric voltagemeasurement, the value of VS is very accurate. The currentflowing through the standard resistance RSis thus IS = VS X RS .This is the true value of current flowing through the circuit. It iscompared with the reading of the ammeter A and in this way the

calibration of ammeter is checked .

WORKING FORMULA: ]

1L

2

L

SR

SE

[SI

WhereVSis thecalculated voltageESis the E.M.F of standard cellRSis the standard resistance.

VSis the calculated currentL1 is the balancing length for Standard cell is in circuitL2 is the balancing length for R 2is in circuit


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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

6. Least count of standard ammeter = ___________ Amp

7. E .M . F of standard cell = E S = ______________ Volts

8. Value of standard resistance = RS = ____________ Ohms

9. Balancing length when Standard cell is in circuit L1 ___ cm

S.No

Balancinglength when

R Sis in circuit

L2

Calculated Current

]

1

L

2

L

S

R

SE

[SI

AmmeterReading

I

Difference[ IS I ]

cms amp amp amp

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.


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27

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT: The given ammeter has been calibrated a by using a

potentiometer

Teachers signature

]

1L

2

L

SR

SE

[SI

IS =

]

1L

2

L

SR

SE

[SI

IS =

]1L

2

L

S

R

SE

[SI

IS =

]1L

2

L

S

R

SE

[SI

IS =

]

1L

2L

SR

SE[SI

IS =

]

1L

2L

SR

SE[SI

IS =


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28

PRECAUTION: All connections should be neat and tight. Short and thick connecting wires should be used. The jockey must have sharp edge.

Avoid the sliding of jockey on the wire rather it should begently tapped over it. The current through the potentiometer should be passed



Emf of the battery B1should be greater than emf of the

battery B2or the standard cell.The rheostat R 1once set should not be changed through outthe experiment.

Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.

SOURCES OF ERROR :Loose connections Error due to the sliding of jockey on the wire. Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more

resistance in the circuit. Loose plugs in the resistance box. Jockey may not be of sharp edge. Fluctuation of current in the circuit.


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29

EXPERIMENT NO . 6

OBJECT: To calibrate an ammeter and a voltmeter by using a

potentiometer.APPARATUS: Potentiometer , Jockey , Two Rheostat , TwoBattery ,Two 0ne way Key , Galvanometer , Two way key ,Ammeter , Voltmeter , Standard cell , Resistance box andConnecting Wires.

WORKING FORMULA:

]

1L

2

L[SESV , ]

1L

2

L

SR

SE

[SI

WhereVSis the calculated voltageESis the E.M.F of standard cellRSis the standard resistance.L1is the balancing length for Standard cell is in circuitL2is the balancing length for R 2is in circuit

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


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30

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Least count of standard ammeter = ______ Amp

2. Least count of standard voltmeter =_________ Volts3. E .M . F of standard cell = E S = __________ Volts

4. Value of standard resistance = RS = _______ Ohms.

5. Balancing length when Standard cell is in circuit L1 = ___ cm

CALCULATIONS:

S.No

BalancingLength

whenR Sis incircuit

L2

Voltage

VSVoltmeterReading

V

Current

ISAmmeterReading

I

Difference

[ VSV ]

Difference

[ IS I ]

cm volts volts amps amps volts amps

1.

2.

3.

4.5.

]

1L

2

L[

SE

SV

VS =

VS = _________ volts

]

1L

2

L

SR

SE

[SI

IS =


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31

RESULT:

The given ammeter and voltmeter have been calibrateda by using a potentiometer

Teachers signature

]

1L

2

L[

SE

SV

VS =

VS = _________ volts

]

1L

2

L

SR

SE

[SI

IS =

]

1L

2

L[

SE

SV

VS =

VS = _________ volts


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32

PRECAUTION: All connections should be neat and tight. Short and thick connecting wires should be used. The jockey must have sharp edge.

Avoid the sliding of jockey on the wire rather it should begently tapped over it. The current through the potentiometer should be passed



Emf of the battery B1should be greater than emf of the

battery B2or the standard cell.The rheostat R 1once set should not be changed through outthe experiment.

Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.

SOURCES OF ERROR :Loose connections Error due to the sliding of jockey on the wire. Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more

resistance in the circuit. Loose plugs in the resistance box . Jockey may not be of sharp edge . Fluctuation of current in the circuit.


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33

EXPERIMENT NO . 7

OBJECT:To determine the low resistance of the given coil by

Carey foster bridge.APPARATUS: Meter bridge, Galvanometer, Two resistanceboxes, Given coil , Fractional resistance box , Cell, One way keyand Connecting wires.

THEORY: Carey foster bridge is a modified form of meter bridgehaving four gaps across which resistances X , P , Q , and Y areconnected. P and Q are two equal resistances X is the unknownlow resistance and Y is the known resistance.If the balance point C is obtained at a point L1 cm from the end A ,then

]i-[-----------]

1L100[Y

1

LX

Q

P

Where is the resistance per cm length of the wire and and are the end resistance at A and B respectively.If X and Y are interchanged and the balance point is obtained atpoint L2 from the end A then

]ii-[-----------]

2L100[X

2

LY

Q

P

From equation [ I ] and equation [ ii ]

100YX

2

LY

100YX

1

LX

QP

P

As the denominator s are equal therefore

X + L 1 + = Y + L 2 +

XY = L 1 + [ L 2 + ]

XY = L 1 + L 2

XY = [ L 1 L 2 ]

X = Y + [ L 1 L 2 ] -------------------- [ iii ]


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34

Thus X can be determined if L 1 , L 2 and are knownFor finding the resistance per cm of the wire , make X = 0 byclosing gap NO 1 by a copper shorting strip and balance point isobtained at L 1. Now copper strip X and Y are interchanged and

the balance point is obtained at L 2 then equation [ iii ] can bewritten as

0 = Y + [ L 1 L 2 ]

[ L 1 L 2 ] = Y]

2L

1L[

Y

WORKING FORMULA:

]2

L1

L[

Y

, X = Y + [ L 2L 1]

Whereis the resistance per cm length of the given wireXis theunknown low resistance.Yis the known resistance.L 1is thebalance point from end AL2 is thebalance point from end A when X and Y are

interchanged

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


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OBSERVATIONS: FOR DETERMINATION OF [ The resistance per cm of the wire ]

Resistance P = _____ Ohms , Resistance P = ______ Ohms

S.NO Y Distance of balancing pointfrom A with shorting strip in]

2L

1L[

Y

Mean

L1 L2

Ohm cm cm Ohm / cm Ohm /cm

1.

2.

3.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

FOR DETERMINATION OF UNKNOWN LOW RESISTANCE

Resistance P = _____ Ohms , Resistance P = _____ Ohms

S.NO Y Distance of balancing pointfrom end A X = Y + [ L

2L 1 ]

L1 L2Ohm cm cm Ohm

1.

2.

3.


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36

CALCULATIONS:

]

2

L

1

L[

Y

Ohms / cm

]

2

L

1

L[

Y

Ohms / cm

]2

L1

L[

Y

Ohms / cm

MEAN

3

Ohms / cm

X = Y + [ L 2L 1]

= + [ ]

= +

= +

= ____________ Ohms

X = Y + [ L 2L 1]

= + [ ]

= +

= +

= ____________ Ohms


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37

Actual Value = 0 . 3 Ohms

100ValueActual

ValueCalculatedValueActualErrorOfPercentage

100

3

rrorfercentage

Percentage of error = ________________ %

RESULT:

The unknown low resistance of the given coil by Careyfoster bridge is calculated to be ____________ Ohms.


Teachers signature

X = Y + [ L 2L 1]

= + [ ]

= +

= +

= ____________ Ohms

MEAN

X

3

= ____________ Ohms


38/80

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38

PRECAUTION:


The jockey must have sharp edge. Avoid the sliding of jockey on the wire rather it should begently tapped over it.

The current through the bridge should be disconnected whilereversing the key.

The current through the potentiometer should be passedwhile taking readings..

The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps. Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Loose connections Error due to the sliding of jockey on the wire. Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more



39/80

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39

EXPERIMENT NO . 8

OBJECT: To determine the value of two unknown resistances by

using a potentiometer and verify the law of combination ofresistances in series or parallel.

APPARATUS: Potentiometer , Jockey , Two Rheostat , Battery,Two 0ne way Keys , Galvanometer , Two way key , Resistancebox , Two unknown resistances , Two cells and Connecting Wires.

WORKING FORMULA:

1L

]1

L2

L[Rr

Where r is theunknown resistance.R is the known resistance.L1is thebalancing length for R.L2is thebalancing length for (R + r ).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


40/80

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40

OBSERVATIONS:

KnownResistance

R

Un knownResistance

r

Balancinglength for

RL1

balancinglength for

( R + r )L2

Un knownResistance

r

1

L

]1

L2

L[R

MeanUn knownResistance

r

Ohms Ohms Cm Cm Ohms Ohmsr 1

r 2

r 1 + r 2

2r

1

1r

1

CALCULATIONS:

FOR [ r1 ]

1L

]1

L2

L[Rr

r = ____________ Ohms

FOR [ r1 ]

1L

]1

L2

L[Rr

r = ____________ Ohms

2

rrrMean

2

rMean

Mean r = ____________ Ohms


41/80

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41

FOR [ r2 ]

1L

]1

L2

L[Rr

r = ____________ Ohms

FOR [ r2 ]

1L

]1

L2

L[Rr

r = ____________ Ohms

2rrrMean

2

rMean

Mean r = ____________ Ohms

FOR [ r1 + r2]

1L

]1

L2

L[Rr

r = ____________ Ohms

FOR [ r1 + r2]

1L

]1

L2

L[Rr

r = ____________ Ohms

2

rrrMean

2

rMean

Mean r = ____________ Ohms


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42

FOR [2

r

1

1r

1

]

1L

]1

L2

L[Rr

r = ____________ Ohms

FOR [2

r

1

1r

1

]

1L

]1

L2

L[Rr

r = ____________ Ohms

2

rrrMean

2

rMean

Mean r = ____________ Ohms

Verification of seriescombination Put[ r1 & r2]

from known resistance

[ r1 + r2]

er

re = ___________ Ohms

Verification of parallelcombination Put[ r1 & r2]

from known resistance

2r

1r

2r

1r

e

r

er

er

re = ___________


43/80

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43

RESULT:

Un known resistance r 1 = ____________ OhmsUn known resistance r 2 = ____________ Ohms

For series combination

Observed value [ r 1 + r 2] = ____________ OhmsCalculated value [ r 1 + r 2] = ____________ Ohms

For parallel combination

Observed value [2r

1

1r

1 ] = ____________ Ohms

Calculated value [2

r

1

1r

1 ] = ____________ Ohms

Teachers signature

PRECAUTION: All connections should be neat and tight. Short and thick connecting wires should be used.The positive terminal of the battery and that of cell must be

connected to the terminal on zero side of the potentiometer. The emf of the main battery E1 should be greater than E 2

used.Never insert K1& K2simultaneously. The current should remain constant for each set of

observation. The current should be passed only for the duration it is

necessary otherwise the balance point will keep onchanging.

The jockey must have sharp edge. Avoid the sliding of jockey on the wire rather it should be

gently tapped over it. Care should be taken in handling the apparatus. The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps.

SOURCES OF ERROR :Loose connections. Error due to the sliding of jockey on the wire. Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more



44/80

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44

EXPERIMENT NO . 9

OBJECT:To determine the work function of a metal by using a

sodium light.APPARATUS: Photo electric cell , Sodium light , Battery ,Rheostat , One Way key , Four way key or Reversing key , Microammeter , Voltmeter and Connecting wires.

WORKING FORMULA:

e

0

V

c

unc t iono rk ,

Whereis the function of the given metal.his thePlanks Constantc is the velocity of lightis the wavelength of sodium lightV0 is thestopping potentiale is the charge on an electron.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


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45

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of voltmeter = ________________________ volts.

Least count of micro ammeter = ____________________ amp.

Planks Constant = h = 6.625 10 34joulessec

Velocity of light = c = 3 10 8 m / sec. or 3 10 10 cm / sec.

Wavelength of sodium light = = 5893 = 5893 10 10 m

Charge on an electron = e = 1.6 1019 Coulomb.

S.NO

Distance of sodium lamp fromPhoto cell _____________cm

Voltmeterreading

Volts

Micro ammeterreadingDivisions

1.

2.

3.

4.5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

CALCULATIONS:

Stopping Potential from graph V 0 = ___________ Volts

e

0

V

c

unct iono rk

19

0

10

0893

8

0

4

10.625

Work Function = ___________________


46/80

Dated : _______________


46

GRAPH BETWEENPHOTO CURRENT & APPLIED

VOLTAGE

Along Xaxis

One small division = ________ Volts

Along YaxisOne small division = ________ Amp


47/80

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47

RESULT:

The work function of a metal by using a sodium light iscalculated to be _______________________ Electron volts.

Teachers signature

PRECAUTION:

All the connections should be tight and clean. Distance between the source and the photo-cell should be

kept unchanged for one set of observations. The applied voltage should be changed in small and regular

steps. A V.T.V.M. if available, should be used in place of voltmeter. To increase the life of the photo-cell, its window should be

closed, when it is not in use.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Loose connections

Change of distance between the source and the photocell

during the experiment.

Voltage flections

Use of a simple voltmeter.


48/80

Dated : _______________


48

EXPERIMENT NO . 10

OBJECT:To determine the ionization potential of mercury.

APPARATUS: A mercury diode with base, Voltmeter, Microammeter, Rheostat , One Way key , Power supply and Connectingwires.

THEORY: Thebreaking of an atom in an electron and positivelycharged ions is called ionization. Ionization can be brought aboutby bombarding an atom by fast moving particles such as electrons.The electron must be accelerated to certain definite energy forgiven type of atoms. It will be seen that electron having sufficientlyenergy can break off the loosely leave outermost electrons of thetarget atom. This will correspond to a sudden increase in platecurrent. The ionization potential is therefore defined as themaximum accelerating potential which is required to accelerate theelectrons so that they can ionize the target.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of voltmeter = ________________________ volts.

Least count of micro ammeter = ____________________ amp.


49/80

Dated : _______________


49

S.NO

Anode Voltage[ Plate Voltage ]

Volts

Anode Current[ Plate Current ]

Amp1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

CALCULATIONS:

Actual Value = 13 Volts

100ValueActual


100

13

3

rrorfercentage


RESULT:

The ionization potential of mercury is calculated to be_______________________ Volts.


50/80

Dated : _______________


50

GRAPH BETWEENAPPLIED VOLTAGE & CURRENT

Along XaxisOne small division = _______ Volts

Along YaxisOne small division = _______ Amps


51/80

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51

PRECAUTION:

The connections should be tight and clean. The current passed through the filament should not be morethan its related value.

A high resistance voltmeter should be preferred. If the anode current is larger, use a milli ameter in place of

micro ammeter.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Loose connections

Use of low resistance voltmeter.

Voltage flections


52/80

Dated : _______________


52

EXPERIMENT NO . 11

OBJECT: To set up half and full wave rectifier and study their

waveforms on an oscilloscope. Also study the effect of smoothingcircuit ( filter circuit ) on ripple voltage.

APPARATUS: Four point contact diodes , 6V step downtransformer , A high resistance of 10 Kilo Ohms , Capacitor ,Inductors, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

THEORY : The conversion of an alternating current in to directcurrent is called rectification. This is very conveniently achieved bydiodes. A circuit which is used for rectification is called a rectifier.To make the out put waveform from a study voltage we use asuitable combination of capacitor and inductor in the circuit whichare known as filters. The equation for ripple factor is given

RCrf34

1F.RFactoeRipple ---------------------- [ 1 ]

3006-10100012034

1F.RFactoeRipple

31234

1F.RFactoeRipple

004.0F.RFactoeRipple

12)c.dI

rmsI

(F.RFactoeRipple -------------------- [ 2 ]

Where I r m s= Root mean square value of A.C currentI d.c = Value of D.C current

For full wave rectification Integrating equation [ 2 ] we get

T

0 2

0I

dt2irms

I and T

0

0I2

dtid.cI

For half wave rectification the values of I r m s and I d .c are given

as under2

0I

rmsI and

0I

d.cI


53/80

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53

FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

Now putting the values of I r m s and I d .c in equation [ 2 ] weget

12)

0I

0I

(F.RFactoeRipple 2

12)2

(F.RFactoeRipple

4680.1F.RFactoeRipple R . F = 1 . 211FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

Now putting the values of I r m s and I d .c in equation [ 2 ] weget

12)

0I22

0I

(F.RFactoeRipple

12)22

(F.RFactoeRipple

2340.0F.RFactoeRipple R . F = 0 . 483

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


54/80

Dated : _______________


54

OBSERVATIONS:

FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

SHAPE OF WAVE FORM

In Put Waveform Out Put Waveform Un filtered

Peak value = E0= _____ Volts Peak value = E0= _____ Volts

SHAPE OF WAVE FORM WHEN DIODE IS INVERTED




In Put Waveform Out Put Waveform Filtered

Peak value = F0= _____ Volts Peak value = F0= _____ Volts


55/80

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55

d.c out put = F0= _____ Volts d.c out put = F0= _____ Volts

FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

SHAPE OF WAVE FORM







In Put Waveform Out Put Waveform Filtered

Peak value = F0= _____ Volts Peak value = F0= _____ Volts

d.c out put = F0= _____ Volts d.c out put = F0= _____ Volts


56/80

Dated : _______________


56

GRAPH BETWEENVOLTAGE & CURRENT

Along Xaxis

One small division = _______ Volts


FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

After changing the polarity


57/80

Dated : _______________


57

GRAPH BETWEENVOLTAGE & CURRENT

Along Xaxis



FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

After changing the polarity


58/80

Dated : _______________


58

RESULT :

The waveforms of half and full wave rectifier on anoscilloscope have been studied.

Also studied the effect of smoothing circuit ( filter circuit ) onripple voltage.

Teachers signature

PRECAUTION:

Care should be taken in connecting the diodes whose N-typeends is marked with red spot or arrow.

V.T.V.M. and C.R.O. must be earthed properly. While observing input waveform crystal diodes must be

disconnected.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Loose connections

The Ntype ends of diodes are not marked properly

Voltage flections


59/80

Dated : _______________


59

EXPERIMENT NO . 12OBJECT: To study the characteristics of an RLC series oracceptor circuit by plotting a response curve. Determine the

resonant frequency , band width and Q factor of the circuitAPPARATUS: Voltmeter, Micro ammeter, Rheostat , One Waykey , Power supply and Connecting wires.

WORKING FORMULA:

CL2

1

rfFrequencyResonant

1f

2ff WidthBand

frf

WidthBand

FrequencyResonantfactorQFactorQuality

Where f r is the resonant frequency.

Lis the inductance.C is the capacitance.f is the band width. f 1& f 2are the frequencies where the response falls to

0.707 of its maximum value.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


60/80

Dated : _______________


60

OBSERVATIONS:

Resistance R = _______ Ohms.

Inductance L =________ m Henry =________ Henry

Capacitance C = ______ f. = ___________ Farad.

S.NO

Frequency ( f ) Current in the circuit Logf

CPS or HZAmp

01.02.

03.04.

05.06.07.08.09.10.

CALCULATIONS:

Actual Value =

CL2

1

rf

142.32

1

rf

142.321

rf

1

rf

Hertzrf

1f

2ff

f

f Hertz

f

rf

factorQ

factorQ

factorQ


61/80

Dated : _______________


61

100ValueActual


100rrorfercentage


RESULT:

The characteristics of an acceptor circuit have been studied. It is seen that we get maximum output when the resonant

frequency is applied across the series combination of L , C

and R.The resonant frequency fris calculated to be _______ hertz. The calculated value of resonant frequency is near about the

observed value. The value of inductance L in the circuit is calculated to be

__________Henry.Band width f = ____ hertz and Qfactor = _________

Teachers signature


62/80

Dated : _______________


62

GRAPH BETWEENLOG f & CURRENT I

Along XaxisOne small division = _______ Hertz



63/80

Dated : _______________


63

PRECAUTION:

Suitable set of inductance (L) and capacitance (C) should beselected and their values should be known.

The connection should be tight and clean. The AVO meter should be adjusted for suitable range beforeswitching on the circuit.

The selected range of the AVO meter should not be changedfor the whole set of observations.

Frequency from the oscillator should be changed in regularsmall steps.

The naked wires should not be touched, when the circuit ison.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Loose connectionsVoltage flections. Necked wire should not be touched when the switch is on. Before starting the experiment get the circuit checked by

your teacher


64/80

Dated : _______________


64

EXPERIMENT NO . 13

OBJECT: To study the characteristics of an RLC parallel or

rejector circuit by plotting a response curve. Determine theresonant frequency , band width and Q factor of the circuit

APPARATUS: Voltmeter, Micro ammeter, Rheostat , One Waykey , Power supply and Connecting wires.

WORKING FORMULA:

CL2

1rfFrequencyResonant

1f

2ff WidthBand

frf

WidthBand

FrequencyResonantfactorQFactorQuality

Where f r is the resonant frequency.Lis the inductance.C is the capacitance.f is the band width. f 1& f 2are the frequencies where the current rises to 1.414

times of the minimum current

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


65/80

Dated : _______________


65

OBSERVATIONS:Resistance R = _______ Ohms.

Inductance L =________ m Henry =________ Henry

Capacitance C = ______ f. = ___________ Farad.

S.NO

Frequency ( f ) Current in the circuit Logf

CPS or HZAmp

01.

02.

03.

04.

05.

06.

07.

08.

09.

10.

CALCULATIONS:

Actual Value =

CL2

1

rf

142.32

1

rf

142.32

1

rf

1

rf

Hertzrf

1f

2ff

f

f Hertz

frf

factorQ

factorQ

factorQ


66/80

Dated : _______________


66

100ValueActual


100rrorfercentage


RESULT:

The characteristics of an rejecter circuit have been studied. It is seen that we get minimum output when the resonant

frequency is applied across the parallel combination of L , C

and R.The resonant frequency fris calculated to be _______ hertz. The calculated value of resonant frequency is near about the

observed value. The value of inductance L in the circuit is calculated to be

__________Henry.

Band width f = ____ hertz and Qfactor = _________

Teachers signature


67/80

Dated : _______________


67

GRAPH BETWEENLOG f & CURRENT I

Along XaxisOne small division = _______ Hertz



68/80

Dated : _______________


68

PRECAUTION:

Suitable set of inductance (L) and capacitance (C) should beselected and their values should be known.

The connection should be tight and clean. The AVO meter should be adjusted for suitable range beforeswitching on the circuit.

The selected range of the AVO meter should not be changedfor the whole set of observations.

Frequency from the oscillator should be changed in regularsmall steps.

The naked wires should not be touched, when the circuit ison.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Loose connectionsVoltage flections. Necked wire should not be touched when the switch is on. Before starting the experiment get the circuit checked by

your teacher


69/80

Dated : _______________


69

EXPERIMENT NO . 14

OBJECT: To plot the characteristics curve of a semi conductordiode. Determine the forward and reverse impedances[Resistances].

APPARATUS: Voltmeter, Micro ammeter, Rheostat , One Waykey , Power supply and Connecting wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of voltmeter = ______________________ volts.

Least count of micro ammeter = __________________ amp.

Least count of milli ammeter = ___________________ m amp.

S.NO

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Voltage Current Voltage Voltage

Volt Milli ampere Volt Microampere01.

02.

03.

04.

05.

06.

07.

08.


70/80

Dated : _______________


70

GRAPH BETWEENVOLTAGE V & CURRENT I

Along XaxisOne small division = _______ Volts


0


71/80

Dated : _______________


71

RESULT:

The characteristic curves for a ( p n ) junction ( both forforward bias and reverse bias ) have been drawn.

It is seen that when the junction is forward biased with asmall potential difference it allows large current (in milliamperes ) but when it is reverse biased with a large potentialdifference small current ( in micro amperes ) passed throughit

Teachers signature

PRECAUTION:

The connections should be neat clean and tight.The AVO meter should be adjusted for suitable range before

switching on the circuit. The applied voltage never exceed the rated value of the semi

conductor diode. Care should be taken in connecting the diode whose N

type end is marked with red spot or arrow. Voltage should be changed in small and regular steps.The naked wires should not be touched, when the circuit is

on.SOURCES OF ERROR :

Loose connectionsVoltage flections. The applied voltage exceed the rated value of the semi

conductor diode. Necked wire should not be touched when the switch is on. Before starting the experiment get the circuit checked by

your teacher


72/80

Dated : _______________


72

EXPERIMENT NO . 15

OBJECT:To study the static characteristics of a given transistor in

common emitter mode.APPARATUS: Given transistor ( provided with base resistance ,also called biasing resistance ), Micro ammeter, Milli ammeter , Asmall Power supply, Two Way key and Voltmeter

THEORY: A transistor consists of germanium or silicon crystal inwhich a layer of Ntype germanium is sand witched between twolayers of P type germanium. This is forming as P N Ptransistor. Similarly a transistor in which a layer of P typegermanium is sad witched between the two layers of N typegermanium is called NPN transistor. A transistor consists ofthree parts which are emitter , base and collector. The transistorcan be connected in the circuits normally in three ways.

Common Emitter configurationCommon Base configurationCommon Collector configuration

First one is forward biased junction. The second is reverse biasjunction. A junction is said to be forward biased if the positiveterminal of the battery is connected to the P type region and thenegative terminal is connected to the Ntype region of transistor.Similarly if the positive terminal of the battery is connected to theN type region and the negative terminal is connected to thePtype region of transistor is called reverse biased junction.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


73/80

Dated : _______________


73

OBSERVATIONS:

[ FOR INPUT CHARACTERISTICS ]

KEEPING COLLECTOR TO AMMETER VOLTAGE VCE ISCONCTANT

S.NO

VCE = 0 Volt VCE = 4 Volt VCE = 8 Volt

VBE IB VBE IB VBE IB

VoltAmp Volt Amp Volt Amp

01.

02.03.

04.

05.

[ FOR OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS ]

[ KEEPING BASE CURRENT I B IS CONCTANT ]

S.NO

I B = 0 A I B= 20 A I B= 40 A I B= 60 A

VCE IC VCE IC VCE IC VCE IC

Volt m A Volt m A Volt m A Volt mA01.

02.

03.

04.

05.


74/80

Dated : _______________


74

GRAPH BETWEENCollector To Emitter Voltage V CE

&Collector Current IC

Along Xaxis




75/80

Dated : _______________


75

GRAPH BETWEENBase Current IB

&Collector To Emitter Voltage V CE

Along Xaxis




76/80

Dated : _______________


76

RESULT:

The input characteristic curves ( between VBEand IBkeepingVCE is constant ) and output characteristic curves ( between

VCEand ICkeepingIBis constant ) have been drawn. It is seen from these curves that a small change in base

current produces a large change in collector current IC.

Teachers signature

PRECAUTION:

Do not apply base more than 3 volts and collector voltagemore than 12 volts.

Carefully observed the polarities of the power supplies andterminals of the transistor.

Avoid rough handling the transistor otherwise it may be

damaged. While making or breaking any connections both the power

supplies should be disconnected. Before connecting a transistor in to a circuit one should

carefully identify the base ,emitter and collector terminals.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Loose connections.

Voltage fluctuation. Un correct connection of a transistor in the circuit. Base voltage may be more than 3 volts. Collector voltage may be bore than 12 volts. Necked wire should not be touched when the switch is on. Before starting the experiment get the circuit checked by

your teacher


77/80

Dated : _______________


77

EXPERIMENT NO . 16

OBJECT: To determine the Planks constant by using a

spectrometer and hydrogen discharge tube.APPARATUS: Spectrometer ,Diffraction grating , Hydrogendischarge tube and Sprit level.

WORKING FORMULA: Planks constant can be calculatedas

31])

2n

1

22

1(

C

2k4em22[hConstantsPlank'

N

Sind

Where

h is the Planks constantm is the mass of the electrone is the charge of the electronk is the Coulombs constant for electrostatic forceis the wave length of lightn is the color of the spectral linedis the grating elementis the angle of diffractionNis the order of image

OBSERVATIONS:1. Least count of stop watch = 1 minute.

2. Number of lines ruled on the grating = ________lines /inch.

3. Grating element = ][

cm2.54

linesofno

inch1d =______cm

4. Mass of an electron = m = 9.1072 10 31 Kg.

5. Charge on an electron = e = 1.6 10 19 coul.

6. Coulombs constant for electrostatic force =k = 9 10 9

Nm 2/coul 2

7. Speed of light = c = 3 108

m / sec. or 3 1010


78/80

Dated : _______________


78

cm / sec.FOR RED SPECTRAL LINE

S

NO

Order

OfImage

Lines

Diffractionreading on

Difference

OfReadings

2= AB

Angle of

diffraction

Wave

length

Rightside[ A ]

Leftside[ B ]

deg deg deg deg cm

1. I D1

2. I I

D2

FOR BLUE SPECTRAL LINES

NOOrder

OfImage

LinesDiffractionreading on

DifferenceOf

Readings

2= AB

Angle ofdiffraction

Wavelength

Rightside[ A ]

Leftside[ B ]

deg deg deg deg cm

1. I D1

2. I I D2

FOR VIOLET SPECTRAL LINE

SNO

OrderOf

Image

LinesDiffractionreading on

DifferenceOf

Readings

2= AB

Angle ofdiffraction

Wavelength

Rightside[ A ]

Leftside[ B ]

deg deg deg deg cm

1. I D1

2. I I D2


79/80

Dated : _______________


79

CALCULATIONS:

Planks constant for red spectral line [ n = 3 ]31

])23

1

22

1

(Cr

2k4em22

[hConstantsPlank'

Planks constant for red spectral line [ n = 4 ]

31])

24

1

22

1(

Cb


Planks constant for red spectral line [ n = 5 ]31])

25

1

22

1(

Cv


Actual Value = h = 6.625 10 34 Js.

100ValueActual


RESULT: The Planks constant by using a spectrometer and hydrogen

discharge tube is calculated to be ____________ Js.

Teachers signature

PRECAUTION:

All adjustment of the spectrometer must be correctly made. The grating should be adjusted in the vertical plane and the

rulings on it should also be made vertical. In measuring the angle, the left of the image should coincide

with the vertical cross-wire for positions of telescope on

either side of the central image. The light should be incident on that side of the grating onwhich there is no rulings. This is done to obtain no refractionafter deflection has taken place.


80/80

Dated : _______________SOURCES OF ERROR :

Slit may mot sharp. Spectrometer may not be properly adjusted.

Turn table may not be properly adjusted.

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