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Why People Cannot Be Envyless
Like the Universe? The Paradox and
Debate on Gravitism
B. Gal-Or with M. C. Fernandez
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or and M.C. Fernandez
1
ObservedExpanding
Voids
Fig, 1.1: Only60 million
galaxies arevisible here
Fig. 1.3 zoomson our
neighborhood
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The Prigogine Gal-Or Paradox and Debate
While Prigogine won the Noble Prize in chemistry for his formalism [18], he
did not really tell us how irreversible changes in living and non-living systems
emerge from the reversible mathematical equations of physics. In turn,Gravitism [12-17] is asserted to be superior for it draws the same formalism
[17, Lecture VI] from two reliable and independent sources:
The THEORETICAL: Einsteins Field Equations -- Gravity Physics
--accept no static cosmological solutions, namely, time itself, the arrow
of time and all irreversibilities in Nature, originates from Einsteins
General Relativity.
The EMPIRICAL: Measured dynamics of all energy-dissipation in
expanding Voids between superclusters [Figs. 1.1 and 1.2; References 1 to 11]cause the 2nd Law of non-living and living Systems Dynamics, as explained by
Fig. 1.2 depicted below.
Fig. 1.2: TheCrisis about the Origin of time, arrows of time, entropy
growth and all Irreversibilities in Nature is asserted to be resolved bycomprehending about the interconnections between the verifiable facts
depicted above. This is first done in Lecture I.
Diff
erent scales, in terms of Light Years [ly], are depicted in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2.
The 100 million lyscale is depicted in Fig. 1.1 is ten times larger than that
in Fig. 1.2. (Light year is the distance electromagnetic waves, including
2
SPACE-1
Space-3wrapsstars &
galaxies
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photons as light, travel during 100 million years at 300,000 km/sec speed.) The
figures 100 million and 10 million ly also mean enormous delay times that
must be accounted for in comprehending the large observable structure of the
universe shown here, which is only part of the total expanding universe.
Theimmediate and direct effect here-now of non-expanding cold Space-3 is due to
its connection to expanding Space-1 through non-expanding Space 2.
To
stay overnight without a warm accommodation, when others have it, is the first
ancient and present depriving-envy feeling of all mankind.
Fig. 1.3: Our non-expanding neighborhood is home to thousands of
galaxies. It is wrapped around by dark SPACE-3. Located in the Local
Group of about 30 galaxies [center], we feel its coldness each night. But
there is much more to say about this information. (Image Source NASA/Wikipedia)
FIR
ST, each of the shining galaxies shown is thought to contain a super massive
black hole 6 at its center, which thus acts as a matter-energy sink in the
immediate neighborhood around the black hole.
SE
CONDLY, black holes are not universal sinks. The large amount of radiation
3
VIRGO isour ZipCode in
SPACES 3,2 and 1
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energy poured out from all the shining galaxies shown is evenly dispersed in
all space directions and is always proceeding through Space-3 into Space-2.
Only a very small amount of this radiation energy reaches the galactic centers
that harbor a black hole, or two. Most of it proceeds outside the cosmic space
framed by this picture, reaching Space-2 and from there irreversibly
dissipatingin expanding Space-1.
THI
RDLY, and most important, without Space-1 expansion -- and possibly an
intermediate expansion rate of Space-2 -- the density of radiation energy in
Spaces 1, 2 and 3, would increase with time to reach the max temperatures
maintained by nuclear fusion in stellar cores, causing not only our roasting on
earth and disintegrations of the all structures but eventual equilibrium
throughout all space. So if we owe our life to the rules of physics, we
specifically owe it to Space-1 expansion.
FO
URTHLY, space-1 expansion is the most universal time for any observer,
the Master Arrow of Time, the origin of entropy growth on earth, the
source ofall observed irreversibilities in Nature and the ground on which
Gravitism stands.
But
to comprehend how socio-Gravitism is linked to the entire world outlook of
Gravitism one must delay judgment beyond reading Lecture 2. For themoment let us plunge into more details.
Ou
r LOCAL GROUP contains some 30 galaxies of different size and shape.
Each galaxy contains billions of active stars.
Su
perclusters Virgo include over 2,500 galaxies and is about 50,000,000 light
years away from us. It stretches about 20,000,000 light years in diameter.
On
ly Fig. 1.1 -- on a 10 times bigger scale shows our nearby Coma
Superclusters, which contain about 800 major galaxies. Also the nearby
superclusters Hydra are out of the picture.
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Fu
rther away are superclusters Hercules, which is about 50,000,000 light years
across -- the home of about 5,000,000 galaxies.
Ou
rMilky-Way galaxy is less than a spot in the large-scale portrait of our visibleuniverse. [Fig. 1.1]. While our galaxy harbors billions of sun-like stars, it is
only 0.1 million light years across. The distance from us to our sun is about 8
light minutes.
Fig. 1.4: Down-timing to the earliest measured world differentiation:
Shown is the large-scale portrait of the early universe, the early cause ofour cold night today. (Image Source NASA/Wikipedia)
The first-time emerging blue spots shown are the earliest colder
Voids as components of the earliest expanding SPACE-1 that wrap around
the yellow-green-red sources and irreversibly absorbs radiation poured into
the voids from the gravitationally-condensing, and, therefore, heated material
emitters.
Despite the first universal differentiation the entire process is
isotropic and homogeneous. This is evident from the distribution of voids andmaterial emitters -- qualities that have been approximately preserved as the
universe has further expanded into its much larger scale. [Fig. 1.1].
SP
ACE-I expansion is the earliest most universal clock. We define it the 1st
Cosmological Arrow of Time, or THE MASTER TIME ASYMMETRY of all
processes in the universe, including those of the living systems.
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Lecture1
Synopsis
Starting from this Lecture, we search for the earliest and most remoteorigins of time, arrows of time, irreversibilities, entropy growth, life and
social dynamics.
Socio-dynamics deals with the origin of the most private and collective
traits of humanity and civilization. Example: Why people dynamics cannot
be ruled under the objective dynamics that control the entire physical
universe? Is there a verifiable, large-scale, physico-chemical cause-and-effect
that has given rise to some destructive forces of humanity? What should be
the science that deals with this fundamental phenomenon during all historical
times?
The methodology employed is to detect interconnecting facts that supportthe optional world outlook provided by Gravitism, using minimal pre-
suppositions and imposed axioms. Though some fragments of these facts are
scattered throughout the literature on specific problems, there is yet no
dedicated professional framework to deal with the subject matter.
The subject matter has never before been presented as a unified field ofstudy, partially because it covers a relatively new field of integrated studies,
and partially because specialized fragments are scattered throughout the
literature on specific problems. As a result, different socio-proponents have
approached this subject from widely varying and sometimes misleading
viewpoints, employing disjointed concepts to what should be a unified
methodology.
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Consequently, these Lectures depart from traditional, isolated texts, inemphasizing the interconnectedness of updated facts in different and
apparently unrelated disciplines. Thus, in trying to develop a new
INTEGRATED METHODOLOGY, we refrain from repeating well-known
but isolated analyses, and, instead, stress the integrated consequences fromthe point of view of large-scale physics and bio-chemistry that, combined, are
termed Gravitism.
For the sake of unification and simplicity, the physico-chemical supportingfacts are first introduced in as simple a manner as possible, using illustrated
graphs, pictures and drawings that can lead to testable consequences.
Verified evidence cannot yet be admitted to a number of topics presentedhere. Therefore, if scientists are counted as moderate skeptics, as no doubt
they should, they must adopt the practice of suspend judgment. By this we
do not mean radical empiricism, or the denial of any rational addition to
sociology. Thus, we refrain from leaving the study of Gravitism in the various
domains of socio-dynamics to the sole care of disciplinary sociologists.
Gravitism: From Large to Small-Scale Systems Dynamics
Differences begin on the largest and earliest scales of the visible universe, asdemonstrated in Figs. 1.1 and 1.4. We first focus on the shining emitters vis--
vis the dark-cold cosmological Voids that absorb all the outpouring radiation,
as marked in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2.
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It is an undisputed evidence that the dark voids not only expand, but their
expansion is accelerated [1-5, 7, 9, 10, 20-52, 55]. This expansion, we assert
and discuss below, not only causes the 2nd Law ofthermodynamics of living
systems [12-16], but via the Einsteinian-Gravity-Based evolution of galaxies,
stars, planets and biophysics, has generated all life and its diversity. [17 and
below].
SUPPORTING FACTS:
1) The core pillar of modern astronomy is the HUBBLE LAW. It is based on
verified observations since first discovered it in the 1920s [1-4, 7, 9, 11, 52, 53,
55]1,2. This law is marked in Fig. 1.2 as Uo=Hor, where r is the distance from
earth to CLUSTER I, which represents superclusters or a cluster of galaxies
shown in Fig. 1.1. Here Ho is the Hubble Constant and Uo the recession
velocity, namely, how fast the observed astronomical object is receding away
from us, or how fast R(t) is increasing with time, or how fast SPACE-1 isincreasing with time.
2) SPACE -1 wraps all superclusters and clusters of galaxies.3 It contains all
expanding dark voids shown in Fig. 1, but not the emitters, the superclusters,
clusters, galaxies and active stars by the universal process called nuclear fusion
[17] SPACE-1 contains and in three dimensional spaces is interconnected with
non-expanding SPACES 2 and 3.
3) SPACE 2 wraps around but does not include the non-expanding
superclusters, while SPACE-3 wraps around but does not include the non-expanding earth, solar system, our galaxy, the Local Group of galaxies and the
clusters that form the superclusters shown in Fig. 1.1
4) Nuclear Fusion 4 in the cores of active stars generates all the chemical
elements in the universe beyond hydrogen and helium. It generates the stellar
radiation that is spread into Space-3, and from it to Space-2, and eventually
irreversibly dissipated in expanding SPACE-1. [17].
At this point one may wonderhow such remote processes can affect us here-
now? There are two points that are asserted in response:
FIRST, to deny today the central role of astronomy and astrophysics in physics,
is to deny the very methodology of science, and to a priori reject a large portionof its verified empirical evidence.
SECONDLY, we are linked here-now to what is going on far out there:
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COROLLARY I: If, by a thought experiment, SPACE-I stops expanding
now, the stellar radiation energy density marked in Fig. 1.2 would gradually
rise all over spaces 3, 2 and 1, eventually causing the entire universe to reach
equilibrium [uniform temperature/energy-density], whereby all processes in
the universe stop, including life on earth.
There is another link, envisioned first by Gammow and discovered in 1964:
The Cosmic Blackbody Microwave Background Radiation of the Early
Expanding Universe (discovered in 1964, Fig. 1.4), is the remnant left-over
radiation that has been expanded and cooled by SPACE-1-Expansion during
the 13.72 billion sun-earth years since creation. [The so-called Big Bang].
This radiation engulfs earth, but it has been cooled down from about 4,000-
3,000 K.
This radiation constitutes direct proof that SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink,the cause of the 2nd law] has been expanding and its lowest level of energy
density engulfs earth, our galaxy and any galaxy in the universe This
radiation is isotropic [the same in all directions] and homogeneous.
We next employ gravity-induced linguistics: Up, Down.
Up-Timing 1: Since Space-1 is expanding and its expansion being
accelerated, the universe is cooling down forever. The corollary is that
eventually all energy density gradients depicted in Fig, 1.2 would flat and all
processes in the universe would stop in what is called the cold death of the
universe.
Up-Timing 2: Since SPACE-1-expansion causes the observed large-scale
energy-density gradients in the universe, stellar evolution would stop if
SPACE-1 expansion stops, albeit after a long cosmic relaxation time [17].
Downscaling 1: Einsteinian gravity [general relativistic physics] at
relatively small gravitational systems is approximated by Newtonian Physics.
According to both theories all entities above the size of moons are structured
according to theirspecific gravity, the heaviest components in the core, and
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the lightest in the outer layers. We term this phenomenon gravitational
asymmetry or gravitational irreversibility or the most universal natural
selectivity [Lecture 2].
Downscaling 2: All cosmological voids are interconnected, namely they
expand via the Hubble rule. E.g., Void CapricornuswrapsaroundPvo-Indus
Supercluster and is linked with Void Sculptur through the one in between
them. [Fig. 1.1].
Downscaling 3: Supernovae 5 and Black holes 6 can only be formed if
SPACE-1-generated gradients exist. SPACE-1 expansion is therefore THE
MASTER BLACK SINKof all energy processes in the universe, including
bio-chemical energy processes. It is thus the sole cause ofall irreversibilities
in nature, all time asymmetries 10 and the 2nd law of thermodynamics
[17].
Downscaling 4: SPACE-3 [Fig. 1.2] wraps non-expanding moons, planets,
stars and galaxies and is integrated within non-expandingSPACE-2, which is
integrated withinexpandingSPACE-1.
Downscaling 5: Adiabatic envelopes 7 in homogeneous and isotropic universe
are always located between any pair of superclusters of galaxies.
Downscaling 6: SPACE-1 expansion affects any macroscopic structure
from superclusters and clusters of galaxies, galaxies, stars, astronomical
clouds, planets, moons, meteors, rocks, mountains, valleys, houses, sand
particles, biological cells, namely down the astronomical scales of 10,000,
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1000, 100, 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, 0.000,01, 0.000,001, 0.000,0001,
0.000,000,01, 0.000,000,001, 0.000,000,0001, 0.000,000,000,01
0.000,000,000,001million light years.8
We Here-Now vs. the Expanding Universe There-Past
A. The universal maximum speed of light is not violated when sectors of
the universe recede away from us [the Hubble expansion] at speeds higher
than the speed of light. Thus the expansion of the universe generates an
event horizon an observational limit of the universe; namely, the light
from such far away emitters [located at 16 billion light years or more away
from us], is redshifted until the sources totally disappear from our sights, for
ever. Therefore, we can only observe and study a portion of the universe
within our event horizon, and that portion is shrinking in time. For
example: At a given time in the future, all that one can observe is Fig. 1.1
with a much larger scale factor, namely, most of what see now in Fig. 1.1
would then become unobservable.
B. Einsteins General Relativity (EGR) is expressed by Einsteins field
equations [17]. Without the so-called cosmological constant [20-51] it
accepted no static cosmological solutions. Thus, according to Einstein, itpredicted the expansion of the universe before Hubble detected it. From this
point of view the new astrophysical school of thermodynamics is not just
empirical and due to the agreement with said Einsteinian view its origin is
theoretical and is rooted in EGR. If one accepts this link, the new thermo is
gravity-based thermo.
C. If one retains the cosmological constant in EGR, which Einstein had
rejected due to the Hubble discovery in the mid 1920s, it explains the role of
the speculated dark energy and matter that fill the universe and also
asserted to explain the cause of its accelerated expansion to a cold death
[20-51].D. These matters bring this Lecture I to a close.
F. String theories, black holes, gravity-based linguistics, Limitations of
Theories, dark matter and dark energy are treated in the next online
Lectures.
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FOOTNOTES to Lecture I
1. Einstein General Relativity (EGR) may also be referred toas Einsteins Gravity Physics.
Fundamental physics should the same for all observers, accelerating linearly,rotating, standing on a small astronomical body, like earth, or on a massive
star. This need provides the basis for using coordinate translators that we call
tensors.
EGR is expressed in terms of Einstein local metric tensor and its curvedspace-time mathematical derivatives [Volume I, Ref. 17].
Distances deduced theoretically can thus be determined locally between two
infinitesimally close points in curved space-time. It is, therefore, anunresolved issue to determine within the framework of each model, how to
evaluate large distances between two distant points.
The issue should not be confused with the fact that SPACE-1 [the Master
Black Sink] size increases with time. Yet, in debating the validity of each
proposed model, one must specify the space-time-curvature -- the curve-
path-of-light that connects two such cosmic-apart points. Unfortunately, for
the theoretician who wishes to gain support for his own specific model, that
determination depends onHIS OWNselected cosmological model.
In the Commoving Distance Model, for instance, commoving distances
cannot be fixed. In practice, the distance of distant objects are best measured
by their luminosity -- which is reduced by the square power of the distance to
the radiation source [17] and by the redshifts of their incoming
electromagnetic radiation.
2. The Expanding Universe and Hubble law.
Hubbles astronomical observations prove that all clusters and super-clusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.1] are moving away from each other with speeds
that are proportional to their distance from each other and , therefore, also
from earth.
Observations, including the 1964 discovery of the microwave black body
radiation, prove that the expansion ofSPACE-1 is the same in all directions(isotropic and homogeneous).
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Isotropic distribution across the sky of distant gamma-ray bursts and of
supernovae also support this general conclusion.
Our Net Motion in Space is about 400 km/sec. But this motion is not easyto comprehend. The direction of the earths net motion lies in the same plane
as its orbit around the sun and at angle of 61 degrees tilted upward
[northward] from the plane of the disk-like Milky Way. We travel around the
sun at about 30 km/sec.
These speeds should not be confused with the recession speed of clusters and
super-clusters of galaxies away from each other. [R(t) Fig. 1.2]. This is the
Hubble expansion. Our galaxy is deviating from this uniform expansion
motion by about 600 km/sec.
3. Superclusters of galaxies, galaxies and our Milky Way
The shapes of superclusters vary considerably; from that of Virgo, Coma and
Hercules to long filaments. [Figs. 1.1 and 1.3]. 9,11
Our Milky-Way Galaxy 8contains billions of gravity-compacted stars and
other entities. Most stars are formed in the dilute regions of the rotating
inter-stellar SPACE-3.
Our galaxy is almost 100,000 light-years in diameter at its disk-like longestspiral arms. It is in the form of an almost flat spiral disk with an average
thickness of about 1,000 light-years away from it center
All Superclusters are receding
away from us -- and from each
other -- at great speeds -- the
further away they are, the greater
is the observed speed. This fact is
termed the EXPANDING
UNIVERSE. The receding
superclusters follow the
observationally-based Hubble
Law [R(t) in Fig. 1.2].
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Fig. 1.5: The Fog visible around this galaxy is composed of millions
of stars like our sun a reminder of the scales we discuss [12-18].
Spaces 3, 2 and 1 contain the cosmic black-body remnant radiation,
stellar photons, neutrinos, antineutrinos, gas, dust, etc. Intra-galactic gas
may emit X-rays and other types of radiation.
Andromeda (M31) is a member of our Local Group of galaxies. It is
characterized by a spiral structure similar to ours, and is located about
2,200,000 light-years away. Andromedaand our galaxy are the largest in ourLocal Group, which is about 10,000,000 light-years in its largest spatial
diameter, namely, the size of our local group is about 100 times the size
of our galaxy. Our local group includes M31 (Andromeda), M49, M58, M59,M60, M61, M84, M86, M87 and M89.
Radiation pressure on any test-surface facing the lowest radiation-energy
density value in the universe [adiabatic envelopes in mid cold Voids of
SPACE-1, are less than that exerted by radiation impinging on that test
surface from the other side, namely, from the one facing the source of
radiation. (This is the familiar phenomenon behind SOLAR SAILS in
space research.)
The result is the universal driving force for energy transport from all hotradiation sources to cold SPACE-1, whereby the energy-density gradients
inside adiabatic envelopes constitute the driving force of all irreversible
processes in K for all the energy outpouring into it from all shining sources.
SPACE-1 expansion is the prime mover of all irreversible processes in
nature. Nature, and of the 2nd law of thermodynamics.
Conclusion: With or without localized black holes, only expanding, cold,
SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink] provides us, with the universal,
UNSATURABLE SINK, the cause of the 2nd Law.
4. Nuclear Fusion (nuclear fusion process), by the force of gravity in thecore of active stars, transforms (fuses) hydrogen plasma into heavier
elements like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphor, iron, etc. Is
the most important process in the universe.
All active stars generate in their interiors all the basic chemical elements
beyond hydrogen and helium; namely, all the heavier basic elements of
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matter that we observe on earth and in our body and brain.
According to both Einsteinian and Newtonian physics, the bigger the mass
of a star, the higher are its core pressures and temperatures and faster are the
nuclear fusion processes in its interior [17].
How do we know that?On both fusion and fission scientists know much. Fusion is also the driver of
hydrogen-bomb explosions, (not fission as in atomic reactors and in regular
atomic weapons).
When a certain amount of iron is formed in the interiors of active stars,
endothermic reaction replaces the exothermic one. (The exothermic reaction
generates energy in the stars, while the endothermic one consumes it.)
All active stars produce energy through such nuclear fusion.
5. Supernovae, Maximum Temperatures, Redshifts &
Measuring Astronomical Distances.
All active (shining) stars generate the heavier chemical elements at the high
temperatures-pressures that gravity induces in their interiors. But the massive
stars arrive to that End-of-life Stage earlier than smaller stars do. That
End-of-life Stage may, however, be the Beginning-of-life-Process in case
the supernova debris (ashes) gradually form orbiting planets around stars,
as is the case that we assert was the beginning of our solar system.
Supernovae are gravity-induced phenomena that astronomers observe in
galaxies when a massive star ends its life by internal collapse-implosion.
The collapse begins when the fusion process that produces energy, ends.
Supernovae are not only the originators of all chemistry beyond hydrogen
and helium [by nuclear fusion.], but serve in astronomy as reliable distance
yardsticks [candles] on which much of astronomy rests. The reason for
this selection is explained below.
A supernova explosion throws into Space 3 its interiors in the form of
glowing debris and gases that, initially, are much brighter than any other star
in its home galaxy. Hence, certain types of supernovae serve in astronomy as
the max-cosmic temperature standard forcalibrating distances to far-away
galaxies via the absolute luminosity (brightness) method discussed in CPP
Volume I [17].
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Supernovas extremely bright glow has been studied since 1054, starting
from the Crab Nebula. At its center there is a neutron starspewing energy
and elementary particles into Space 3, from which they proceed to Space 2
and, eventually, to Space 1.
That end is reached when a threshold amount of iron is formed in theinterior of a massive star. [CPP, Vol. I]. At that stage all net energy
generation inside the star stops and the process reverses into an endothermic
one during which energy is consumed.
THE COLLAPSE: At this stage the core pressure falls and the doomed star
cannot support the gravity-induced weight of its upper layers. This leads to
a gigantic collapse-implosion of the entire star structure.
A few general-relativistic deterministic options then emerge, depending
on the mass and details of the doomed massive star:
(i) if the mass of the star is about 1.4 times that of the sun, the star slowlydecays into a white dwarf,
(ii) if its mass is larger, the formation of an extremely packed neutron star
or a black hole is the end result (in which no atomic nuclei structure
survives),
(iii) a gigantic supernova explosion follows the collapse-implosion by
bouncing back from a central dense body [neutron star].
Type Ia supernovae harbor consistent brightness (absolute luminosity)
because their progenitor is accreting mass from a nearby star, alwaysimploding into the central neutron star at exactly the same mass -- the
Chandrasekhar Mass Limit. [CPP, Volume I].
The Canada-France-Hawaii TelescopeLegacy Survey Supernova Program
is designed to measure several hundred high-redshifted supernovae.
Massive stars: Due to their high, gravity-induced, inner-core pressures-
temperatures, massive stars are much faster than smaller stars, like the sun, to
exhaust their hydrogen-helium fuel by nuclear fusion.
The resulting higher pressures-temperatures in massive stars cause faster
releases of fusion energy in the interiors of these stars. From there the energy
reaches the outer layers of the star and eventually leaves the star and spreads
out in Spaces 3, 2 and, eventually, 1.
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6. Black holes are postulated astronomical local objects that are spreadthroughout galaxies and superclusters of galaxies that are wrapped around by
non-expanding SPACE-3, or may exist within Spaces 2 and 1.
Black holes come into being by gravity and the expansion of unsaturable
SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink]. They act as additional unsaturable sinksto that caused by the expansion of SPACE-1. Like stars and galaxies, black
holes cannot be formed without SPACE-1-expansion.
Astrophysicists expect to detect black holes ranging between roughly the
mass of a few suns to ten billion times greater. Such super-massive ones are
postulated to be in the center of some extremely bright galaxies, including
the Milky Wayand quasars.
Black holes are LOCAL, general relativistic cosmological sinks for all
matter-energy arriving and falling into them. They are postulated to be highly
concentrated, local gravity-sinks where the gravity field is so strong thatnothing, not even light, can escape from them.
General relativistic cosmology predicts them as one-way sinks in space-time.
Some are assumed to be in the center of some galaxies. They may be
associated with what is observed and termed quasars.
Within a black hole all atomic and sub-atomic structures had already been
crushed to become only geometrically-curved space-time. This is due to the
extremely strong gravitational field within the black hole. The cause of that
total break down of all structures is only gravity.
Quasars and black holes.
Quasars are assumed to be super massive forms of black holes . Hundreds
have been detected by NASA's Spitzer space telescope, which measures
infrared light, and by Chandra, which measures X-ray emissions. These
quasars are in young (far-away) galaxies that are surrounded by relatively
high-density gas that emits X-rays as it is being sucked into and accelerated
towards a one-way sink of a massive black hole.
Quasars and black holes form local sinks, in addition to the universal-
unsaturable sink generated by SPACE-1-expansion.
Most quasars recede from us at speeds of over150,000 km per second. They
are among the brightest objects in the universe, with the average quasar
being 100,000 times brighter than the Andromeda galaxy. Their gigantic
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energy output is probably powered by super massive black holes swallowing
nearby stars.
Their X-rays emissions are detectable even when they cannot be detected. It
is speculated that about 9 to 10 billion years ago, when the age of the
universe was between 2.5 to 1.5 billion years, many "super massive" black
holes had been formed inside large galaxies during their initial stages.
7. Adiabatic Envelopes and the Origin of Time-Asymmetries
and Irreversibilities in Nature.
An adiabatic wall, or surface, is a physical wall or an imaginary
surface through which no NET energy flow takes place. In Fig. 1.2 we
mark only three points on such imaginary surfaces, namely, where there is
No net energy flow across them. These surfaces wrap around
superclusters of galaxies in 3 dimensions. No net energy flow means thatradiation [and matter particles] somewhat similar to the ones detected
within our solar wind do not cross such adiabatic surfaces.
The maximum temperature attainable in each galaxy is about the same.
It is roughly the same as that generated initially by supernovae and is
attributed to:
(i) the maximum temperature in stellar cores during fusion in all active
stars,
(ii) The maximum temperature during supernovae explosions.(iii) The maximum detectable temperatures attainable by at the external
surfaces of quasars or galactic centers that harbor gigantic black holes.
8. The Solar System is composed of our sun, the orbiting planets,moons, asteroids, comets, rocks, gases and dust, all bounded together by the
COMBINED attractive gravitational field of the sun, our galaxy, our local
group of galaxies, our super-clusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.3] and the
gravitational field of all the masses in the rest of the universe.
The sun, like all active stars, is a self-gravitating massive sphere of sub-
atomic particles in a state of hot plasma that is pressed-heated by theattractive force of gravity.
It accounts for about 99% of the solar systemtotal mass.
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Its diameter is about 1.392 million km and is slightly larger than of an
average star in our Milky Waygalaxy.
About 74% of the suns mass is hydrogen, with about 25% helium.
Gravity-captured debris from previous generations of earlier gas or
stars/supernovae, had started to condense and fall into or orbit the sun,gradually structuring the currently observed solar planets.
During more than half of its present age, the universe did not harbor our solar
system.
The Solar System extends far beyond the farthest planets, asteroids, comets,
rocks and dust in our community. It is located inside non-expanding Space
3 that wraps our entire galaxy and is spatially interconnected with Spaces 2
and 1.
The Solar Systems outer boundary is where the solar wind clashes with
other active-stars-winds emerging from nearby stars. It may form there a
gigantic shock wave called heliosphere. The non-flat, clashing surface, is
twisted and different in temperatures and composition as affected by winds
emerging from close, or far-away stars.
No Net Suns Energy Remains in Earth: This is the verified result of
complicated thermal cycles in our atmosphere and on earths surface. [Our
atmosphere comprises the following gravity-induced layers: Homosphere
from sea level to 80km (Troposphere up to about 13km; Ozone layerabout13-43km;Stratosphere 13-50km;Mesosphere 50-80km); Thermosphere 80-
175 km (diluteNitrogen80-15km, Oxygen 105-128km,Helium128-150km,
Hydrogen 150-175km)].
Much work has been done concerning methods to reduce man-induced
carbon emissions, e.g., by deleting from or injecting into it what can
economically decrease its absorption and/or increase its reflectivity. These
may change the atmospheric net heat balance.
On ATTRIBUTING CURRENT CLIMATE CHANGE to acts ofhumanity:
1. The monotonic increase in (automatically) measured global
temperatures does not show the 11-YEARS SOLAR CYCLEduring which
the sun luminosity changes. These changes are the results of complicated
sun-interior convection currents, granulation, magnetic field lines between
changing sunspot pairs, huge solar flares, etc.
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2. Such short-time cycles may correspond to the unexplained Little
Ice Age that chilled Northern Europe during the late 17th century,
suggesting a causal link between solar total luminosity activity and climate
change on earth.
3. There have been 17 or 19 ice ages: From about 3,000,000 years ago
until the last one, which gradually ended from about 12,000 to 8000 years
ago. These ages have strongly affected ecological systems on earth, and each
lasted about 50,000 to 100,000 years and each had lowered the surface of the
oceans, resulting in climate-induced changes in life and all ecological
systems.
The incoming sun energy [Cf, Solar Wind] is partially reflected [and
scattered] from the upper layers of our atmosphere [about 30%] back to non-
expanding Space-3, and, eventually, to expanding SPACE-1.
Most incoming short-wave energy [about 64%] is reflected back to Spaces
3, 2 and eventually absorbed in the deepest-coldest VOIDS/SPACE-1 [THE
MASTER BLACK SINK] as long-wave radiation that results from the suns
energy undergoing complex processes in the earths atmosphere and on the
earth surface. Thus, all incoming suns energy (plus about 6% of heat from
the earths interior], is proceeding further into the depths of Spaces 3, 2 and
1.
Unlike planets, all active stars generate and spread out radiation energy-
matter that is generated in their very hot interiors by fusion. The sun, for
instance, emits this energy-matter as solar wind, which spreads in alldirections and is eventually dissipated in SPACE-1.
On its way to SPACE-1, the solar wind engulfs earth and the other solar
planets. No equivalent amount of this incoming radiation energy remains
with this and the other planets, as many wrongly assume. Part of it is
reflected immediately by our upper atmosphere to outer, cold-dark spaces 3,
2 and, eventually, to Space-1.
The rest of the solar wind enters our atmosphere, and following
complicated thermal-ecological-hydrological cycles it dissipates irreversiblyin outer cold-dark Space 1.
The outgoing energy includes additional, small amount of energy from the
earths interior.
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On its way to SPACE-1 the solar wind first undergoes through a huge
shock wave that is generated at the solar system outer boundary. It is there
where it clashes with opposing solar winds from nearby stars.
Together with similar solar winds generated by billions of stars in our
galaxy, this radiation reaches SPACE 1 -- the unsaturable, limitless,
universal sinkof all radiation energies pouring into it from all stellar and
galactic sources [12-18].
That one-way, irreversible energy dissipation in SPACE-1 -- the Master
Black Sink -- is driven by the radiation energy gradients formed between
Spaces 3 to 2, and between Space 2 and 1.
About 2 billion years post genesis, most gravity-induced, proto-massive-
entities have already been condensed by gravity so as to ignite nuclear fusion
inside their cores and radiate the produced energy from their outer surfaces.
Figs. 1 and 3 provide proof of an isotropic and homogeneous universe in
terms of large-scale distribution of cold voids, hot matter-structures-
emitters and their maximum temperature. There are no net energy flows
across adiabatic envelopesin SPACE-1.
Matter (gas, plasma) has been aggregated by the force of gravity to form self-
gravitating entities -- the early massive stars -- possibly include some
quasars.
9. Galactic Centers. The center of our galaxy is calledSagittarius A. It is a
very compact source ofradio waves that originate fromgas and dustheated
to millions of degrees K as they are postulated to fall into the galactic
center, which is further postulated to contain a super-massive black hole.
Galactic centers of other galaxies are postulated to contain such a super
massive black hole. They may contain huge amounts of matter [mass], each
in the range ofhundreds of thousands to tens of billions of the mass of theentire solar system.10. Symmetry-Asymmetry & Super symmetries. Various branches of
super symmetries are postulated in string theories. For instance, some
theorists introduce to theoretical physics a kind of primitive symmetry: If the
universe is eternal into the future it must be eternal into the past, or prior
to creation [the big-bang], there must have been a symmetric
contraction into an all-containing black hole.. As the density had
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increased during that pre-creation contraction, gigantic black holes are
claimed to be formed, and, at the instant of maximum contraction, they had
switched to expansion, and only one of them has turned into our expandinguniverse.
Upcoming tests at CERN or by the Planck Satellite or by the ground-basedLIGO and VIRGO observatories, may reveal slight variations in
gravitational radiation that are claimed to be associated with such postulated
effects, say, on the polarization of the cosmic black body radiation.
11. Merging-Colliding Galaxies
Our galaxy is predicted by some models to collide with the Andromeda
galaxy in about 5 billion years.
The rate of galactic collisions was much higher in the past, mainly because
the galaxies were closer to each other.
Andromedas system consists of Cassiopeia Dwarf, Pegasus dSph, M32,
M110, NGC 147, NGC195, AND I-V, etc. The Triangulum Galaxy, the 3rd
largest galaxy in our local group, also includes the Pisces Dwarfas a
satellite.
Our satellite galaxies consist of theLarge and Small Magellanic Clouds,
Ursa Minor Dwarf, Darco Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Canis Major Dwarf,Fornax Dwarf, Carina Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Tucana Dwarf, Leo I, Leo II,
Leo A, Sag DEG, etc.
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Lecture2
Socio-Gravitism
Gravity Selection vs. Natural Selection
All of us are ashes of dead stars; the remnants of asupernova explosionthat had occurred billions of years ago and its debris and gases were scattered
in Space-3. Later, we assert, the debris were captured by the gravitational
field of our sun to form the Solar System.
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The first local "aggregates" of matter in the solar system have already
contained atoms and simple molecules, and it was gravity that stratified these
compounds in horizontal layers according to theirspecific gravity.
All volcanoes, the atmosphere, and all geological strata of layers of rocks
composed of one material, e.g., shale or limestone, lying between rock beds
of other materials, are generated by the "selective force of gravity.
Gravity Selection must replace the familiar concept Natural selection.
Gravity and gravity-induced dissipation of all solar-wind types of radiation in
SPACE-1 are the sole universal builders of all structures in the universe,
including all chemistry, all geological strata, earth morphology, and the
entire evolution of life, village, city and transportation systems as well as
written languages, sociobiology and key human concepts to be discussed in
later lectures.
The Solar-Wind-Type radiation that spreads from active stars and galaxies
into Spaces 2 and 3 comprises the link between us and deep SPACE-1 and
between us and our past and future.
1. Gravity-Induced Orientation, order, linguistics, etc.
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Assertion 1
The origin of temporal behavior in
animals can be traced back in time andout to external physical influences.
Even innate patterns" are frequently
associated with simple orientation
movement in the field of gravitation3.3,
i.e., as "up-ward-downward"
balancing6.1 of the biological body in
reaction to gravity. Such gravity and
geophysical periodicities emerge as
prime sources of order.
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Verbal-intelligent thinking, music,
science, law and order, is preserved
when one associates 'objects' and
subjects with symbols, words,
sentences, laws, etc. One then
becomes capable of expressing
intelligent thought and cultural laws
and shares them with others.
Using the reliable gravity force-field-interaction, one can record numbers,
equations, music, events and verbal-intelligent thinking for a later use, even
when she or he is no longer able, or alive, to repeat such acts, or even in
spacecraft, on the moon, or elsewhere.
Painting, sculptures and movies are interconnected parts of human records
and intelligent thinking. But they may not only express intelligent thought.
They are capable of proceeding beyond speech, symbols, equations and
words into the realm of imagination, innovation, 'abstract imagination'
and surrealism.
Animals are no exception. Each is 'conscious' of the commonly-shared "up-
down" surroundings, and about "weight" and acceleration. Plants are also
harboring innate sensors that guide them in which direction trees grow even
on a slope of a mountain.
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Many aspects of animals social organization and evolution can be predicted on
the basis of gravity-induced environmental variables. Since biogeochemical
evolution causes key natural resources to be distributed non-uniformly in the
spatial and temporal coordinates of the biosphere, resource monopolization
develops in all levels of sociobiological systems.
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its original orientation in coincidence with the gravity vector. (If it is
displaced only briefly and then restored to itsoriginal orientation well before
the growth response can set in, it still responds to that displacement.)
Gravity-induced orientation-adaptation of an organism may occur when an
organism orients itself by a gravity-induced gradient of density differences or
hydrostatic pressure. Small organisms (including all bacteria) may have no
means for sensing gravity, but they are affected by it.
Animals low on the evolutionary scale characteristically exhibit innate
patterns that depend little on learning, and have a lesser adaptability to
changes in the environment. Consequently, their dependence on heredity-
geophysical-gravitational origins is high in proportion to animals that are
high on the evolutionary scale. While the latter show some signs of innate
patterns, they harbor a greater capacity to produce a much more flexible
mechanism to respond to a variety of other external changes thatstimulate
them. The evolutionary origin of the so-called "innate ideas" may, therefore,
be external rather than internal.
Each of the billions of cells in our body contains specific organelles and
nuclei, which are heavier than the rest of the cell. These are key instruments
in our lives, in our orientation, balancing, walking, reading, etc. Plants and
animals always obey the gravity-induced commanding-guiding force, for a
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Assertion 3
Gravity Selection must replace the
concept Natural selection.
Gravity and gravity-induced dissipation of
all solar-wind type energies in SPACE-1
are the sole universal builders of all
structures in the universe, including all
chemistry, all geological strata, earthmorphology, the entire evolution of life,
village, city and transportation systems as
well as written languages, sociobiology and
key human concepts.
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or and M.C. Fernandez
reason. They try to maximize sun input and minimize shadows from other
trees. We form no exception. Even with closed eyes. we always feel and
obey the ever-present gravity force. We and all animals detect it to orient
ourselves anyplace on earth, and balance our motion.
4. Gravity-Induced Ecosystems
Gravity-induced changes
develop territoriality in a
given spatial region or in a
given assembly of
individuals, especially
when key resources arenot
sufficiently abundant and
stable through long periods
of historical times.
One species, or one sex, may control a larger quantity of resources, say,
scarce water ponds, than the other, until a small percentage of the populationmonopolizes key resources. We observe this phenomenon in both the animal
and human domains of socio-biology. In humans these gravity-induced
territoriality is often developed into nationality, strategy, historical events
and wars.
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Assertion 5
One cannot enjoy music if played in
reverse. Even the computer page is
ordered by margins, footnotes, page
numbers, first and last, etc. And it takes
time to read them and to comprehend
them; the time that always advances from
past to future; the time that I term
Linguistic-Musical Arrow of Time.
Similarly, gravity-induced ordering of
shelves, files, documents and books in a
library introduces order into our life.
Such gravity-induced order dominates not
only composition-order-asymmetry of
everyday life, but is deeply ingrained in
our brain-mind arrow of time.
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Other possible links between human evolution and gravity-induced
changes in the environment are illuminated by empirical results that emerge
from recent studies in geology and the new, mt-DNA-based anthropology
and archaeology.
5. Gravity-Induced Law, Seconds, Minutes, Days, Year
Whole cultures, civilizations
and religions have been
constructed on gravity-induced
human orientability, concepts,
spirituality, art, music, home
structure, village structure,
wells, canals, boats, trade,
transportation structures,transportation vehicles and
roads, agriculture, and even
law enforcement by hanging.
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Assertion 4
When the limited terrestrial space isdivided into lots in a community it carries
economic and social standing, or "lebensraums" involving "well-defined
territories" and "Natural Selection"; from animals' mating systems to animals'
monopolies on water resources; from natural food administration to the controlof key strategic ridges; from controlling fossil fuel resources to disputes over
territories. In fact, much of the currently known socio-biological evolution, and
much of human histor ma be reassessed alon these lines.
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History testifies that such gravity-induced cultural phenomena may
proceed far beyond grammar and social order into the spiritual and
hierarchical domains: High priest, low deck, high commissioner, highness,
heaven, lofty, go to the bottom of the subject.
Letter orientation, from cuneiform writing to later written languages
includes past-present-future linguistic laws [modern grammar].
Gravity, combined with Mitochondrial-DNA [mtDNA], are key tools in
archaeology, anthropology and geology: deposition layers and trash are
ordered by gravity and used in such studies.
Such a gravity-induced science is translated into gravity-rooted history,
chronology, natural Selection-Orientation, biological clocks, etc.
6. Gravity-Induced Perception and Aggregated Brain Entities'
We train our brain-mind to appreciate only gravity-induced, configuration-
order-orientation appeals and reject chaos, confusion and disorder. In short,
we reject what does not well align with gravity-induced posture, growing,
walking, standing and sitting modes.
Our brain-mind searches for what is 'right' via gravitationally induced
symmetries and asymmetries. This applies to persons, animals, plants and the
non-living structures. It immediately associates and compares the
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observational results with pre-trained, accepted/rejected configurations-
structures. It then implements stored yardsticks associated with common
concepts like young/old, slender/fat, healthy/sick, aesthetically-
accepted/rejected and a priori inserted expectations to reproduce same or
improved species.
Each picture we observe, each letter-symbol, word and sentence that we read,
or hear, forms in our brain-mind a specific aggregated, configuration-
boundary, gravity-oriented asymmetry in three-dimensional reality, or its
equivalents in examining a two-dimensional page-space, or a computer
display page-space. The three-dimensional configuration is than completed
in our mind.
Each letter-symbol, each word and each sentence generates an aggregated,
configuration-boundary, gravity-oriented asymmetry in our brain-mind,
where it had been irreversibly recorded and compared with what has been
forced on our brain-mind by previous forces of our education; -- at home,school, social group, tribe, nation, religion or specific branch of civilization.
Time reversal of musical notes destroys our pleasure. One cannot enjoy it if
it is played in reverse. The structure and modulation of voice and the
sentences a human mind seeks to identify with are important.
Even a minor deviation from one's pre-trained language, intonation, accent,
symmetry and asymmetry in face, body and walking way, destroys our
gravity-induced, inner motivations for what is 'right', young, healthy, and
what is not.
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In observing a person our mind generates a gravitationally induced structural
asymmetry. In fact, any picture is gravitationally oriented in our brain-mind:
up/down or horizontal/left/right. Thus, inversion of a picture, or reversing
the direction of lines, words and symbols of any a meaningful text, destroys
the meaning and associated verbal thinking associated with that text. It takes
us some measurable time 'to study a picture', and 'to read' a text, and even
more so, to 'comprehend' its innate/associated meaning vis--vis our pre-
conceptions. We term this elapsing time, and its pointed direction, the
'Pictorial Arrow of Time', or the 'Linguistic Arrow of Time', and maintain
that each generates an irreversible 'Structural Space-Time Arrow' in our
brain-mind, in terms of 'Space-Aggregated-Asymmetric-Picture', which
points from gravity-induced form-orientation-configuration, or, 'head' and
'lower figure', to 'beginning' and 'end'.
7. Biological Clocks and Gravitation
The origin of temporal behavior in animals can be traced back in time and
out to external physical influences. Gravity and geophysical periodicities
emerge as prime sources of order and information in all non-living and living
systems.
Animals low on the evolutionary scale characteristically exhibit innate
patterns, depend little on learning, and have a lesser adaptability to changes
in the environment. Consequently, their dependence on heredity-
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geophysical-gravitational origins is high in proportion to animals high on the
evolutionary scale.
How, prior to and after being planted or born, biological
Cells inform the superstructure of plants, animals and ourBody-mind where is up and where is down?
Where the "head" should be? And where the legs
or roots should be? How new born chicken know to refrain
from going down decline the moment they open their eyes?
8. Vertigo, Loss of Coordination-Balancing & Gravity
Vertigo is a loss of coordination, balancing and orientation vis--vis space
and the gravity-induced horizon. I shall employ this well-known
phenomenon to explain how gravity-detectors in our ear operate to help our
brainto control our balancing, orientation, coordination and movement.
Our biological structures in the inner ear include semicircular canals and
a fluid that moves, by gravity force, with respect to the gravity vector and
activates a hair cell that transmits linear and rotational motions vis--vis the
gravity vector to the vestibular nerve, which carries these signals through the
brainstem to our brain cerebellum, which, in turn, uses them to control our
balancing, orientation, coordination and movement. The vestibular system in
our ears comprises of two semi-circular canals, which are used to indicate
our rotational movements, and otoliths, which indicate linear translations.
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The vestibular system sends signals primarily to the neural structures that
control our eye movements, and to the Cerebellum-muscles system that
keeps us upright and helps us maintain clear vision-orientation.
9. Biological Cells, Reproduction, Immunity System & Gravity
Gravity causes changes in cell division, metabolism and the immunity
system. Reproduction is also impaired and the immune cells cannot
differentiate into mature cells in low or zero gravity conditions attainable in
space crafts.
The size of a biological cell depends on the local gravity vector its size
increases in larger local gravitational field-force values. Bone cells must
attach themselves to something and will die if they cannot. Without the
gravity force-field they float around and perish.
Protoplasmic motion, cytoplasmic viscosity and specific gravity of cell
components -- relative to the ground-plasma -- are important.
Moreover, when animals evolve on land outside the oceans they develop
stronger skeletons to cope with larger gravity forces vis--vis the reducedone due to buoyancy in the waters. Earlier lifeforms in the oceans were
smaller and had a jellyfish-like configuration. Without strong skeletons land
animals could not come into being.
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10. Animals and Gravity-Induced Effects
Each of the billions of cells in our body contains specific organelles and
nuclei, which are heavier than the rest of the cell. These are key instruments
in our lives, in our orientation, balancing, walking, reading, etc.
Plants and animals always obey the gravity-induced commanding-
guiding force, for a reason. They try to maximize sun input and minimize
shadows from other trees. We form no exception.Even with closed eyes, we
always feel and obey the ever-present gravity force. We, and all animals,
detect it to orient ourselves anyplace on earth, and balance our motion.
Gravimorphism, gravitropism and tropism are directional movements
of a plant with respect to a directional stimulus. One such tropism is
gravimorphism -- the growth or movement of a plant with respect to gravity.
Plant roots grow in the direction of gravity while shoots and stems grow
against it.
Blood circulation and its pressure are also affected by gravity.
Space travel may involve living in zero or low gravity values (hypo gravity).
During supermaneuverability attainable by future [thrust-vectored] fighter
aircraft the gravity-acceleration forces on both aircraft and pilot are critical.
RECAP:
Gravity generates structures and controls all geological layers and global
phenomena ranging from mountain crests, gravity-induced tectonic folds,
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valleys, beaches, oceans and lagoons, to springs, wells, swamps, glaciers and
rivers, and the bio-systems connected with them.
Without gravity-induced orientation-order and grammar we are lost in any
given written language. Gravity-induced grammar prevents us from vertical
reversals. Similarly, horizontal reversals prevent us, say, from reversals ofW
to M.
There are more complicated gravity-induced grammar rules. They range
from preventing reversal of past into future, and vice versa, to use gravity-
induced structures as reference: A mountain crest, valley, beach line, river
bed, sky, earth, ocean, etc.
Gravity-sensing cells function as detectors of the direction of gravity. The
fluid-particles systems inside cells initiate inner convective currents that
cease under zero gravity. Thus, the absence of gravity affects the contacts of
cells via their membrane potential and their cytoskeletons.
11. Gravity-Induced Village and City Structures
Gravity generates structures andcontrols all geological layers and
global phenomena ranging from
mountain crests, tectonic folds and
uplifts, valleys, village and citystructures, transportation systems,
oceans and lagoons, to springs, wells,
swamps, glaciers and rivers, as well asthe ecological-systems connected with
them.
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12. Gravity and the Cell
Gravity affects all cells in our body-brain, as well as plant
growth and animal and human orientation and behavior in
everyday life. It has also generated all geological strata, the oceans, the lands
and is behind all ecological systems, while affecting the origin, growth and
performance of cells in living organisms.
13. Gravity and Health
The evolution and everyday functioning of our body and brain, in particular
the skeleton (bones, legs, hips, joints, cartilages, ligaments, femurs, tibia,
pelvis and muscles), has been "in response" to the force and direction of
gravity. Moreover, gravity plays a key factor, say, in heart failure associated
with swollen legs, in flooded lungs, walking, sleeping needs etc.
Nevertheless, the cardinal role gravity plays in the treatment of gravity-
induced disorders in biological systems, human perception, health and
longevity, has been largely overlooked by health providers and researchers,
partly because the key role of gravity as the universal generator of all bio-
structures, physiological forms, orientation and head-legs organization has
not yet been well appreciated.
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References
1. Hubble, Edwin, "A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity
among Extra-Galactic Nebulae" (1929) Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Volume 15, Issue
3, pp. 168-173
2. S. H. Suyu, P. J. Marshall, M. W. Auger, S. Hilbert, R. D. Blandford, L.
V. E. Koopmans, C. D. Fassnacht and T. Treu. Dissecting the
Gravitational Lens B1608+656. II. Precision Measurements of the
Hubble Constant, Spatial Curvature, and the Dark Energy Equation of
State. The Astrophysical Journal, 2010; 711 (1): 201 DOI: 10.1088/0004-
637X/711/1/201
3. Weinberg, S., Cosmology. Oxford University Press.
p. 28.ISBN0198526822, 2008
4. Kirshner, R.P., Hubble's Diagram and Cosmic Expansion, OnlineArticle
5. Dekel, A. and J. P. Ostriker, Formation of Structure in the Universe.
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