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The Sport Psychologist, 1987, 1, 350-358
Fact File Age: 66 Current Position: Head coach men's swim team,
Indiana University. Coaching Achievements: Head coach, United
States Men's Olympic Swim- ming Teams, 1964 and 1976. Coached six
NCAA team championships and 23 Big Ten championships; his swimmers
at one time or another held world rec- ords in every single
swimming event. Books Written: His book Science of Swimming has
been translated into over 20 languages; Swimming Manual pub- lished
in 11 languages; R e Complete Book of Swimming. Research Works: The
first person to publish an article on the use of interval training
in swimming, 1948. The first to publish on the use of hypoxic
train- ing in swimming, 1974. Greatest Thrill in Coaching: Coach-
ing the 1976 Men's Olympic Swim Team where USA swimmers won 12 of
13 gold medals and 70% of all the medals in the swimming
competition; swimming the English Channel (1979) at age 58-at that
time the oldest person to swim the Channel.
James "Doc" Counsilman, coach and scientist, demonstrates proper
technique. (Photo courtesy of Indiana University Sports Information
Office.)
E&orYs Note: There are many sources of sport psychological
knowledge including laboratory data, systematic field observations,
experience, and introspection. As Martens (1987a) has noted, each
source of knowledge has both strengths and weaknesses. How- ever,
all can play a role in contributing to the knowledge base of
applied sport psychol- ogy. One source of knowledge that has not
been utilized extensively in the past is the personal experience of
coaches, athletes, and sport psychologists. TSP hopes to remedy
this by publishing interviews with outstanding individuals directly
involved in practicing or using applied sport psychology.
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Coaching Psychology: The Case of James "Doc" Counsilman
Jay Kimiecik and Daniel Gould University of Illinois,
Urbana-Champaign
James "Doc" Counsilman is affectionately known as the dean of
American swim coaches. Over his 42-year career he has achieved
enormous success, having coached age group, high school,
collegiate, and international caliber swimmers and having stayed
involved in the sport himself.
Doc Counsilman is best known for his scientific approach to
coaching. More than any other individual, he is responsible for the
advancements in swimming via the application of scientific
principles. He is a renowned international lecturer, having been
invited to speak in over 20 countries throughout the world.
Through his extensive experience as a coach, athlete, and
scientist, Doc Counsilman has had the opportunity to practice
applied sport psychology firsthand. It was our purpose to tap his
experiential knowledge base. Additionally, we wanted to discuss
Counsilrnan's opinions and experiences in light of current applied
sport psychology research and practice.
Coach Counsilman was interviewed by Jay Kirniecik at the Pan
American Sports Medicine Congress XI I held at Indiana University
in Bloomington. His openness and willingness to freely discuss
aspects of his coaching psychology was greatly appreciated.
TSP-Counsilman Interview The Sport Psychologist (TSP): How
important are the mental aspects in swimming ?
Counsilman: Psychological factors such as confidence and
motivation are naturally important. Most of the swimmers at the
elite level are very equal from a physiological standpoint, so the
swimmer who has it together mentally in the big meets is going to
outperform the other competitors. TSP: What kind of an approach do
you take to the psychology of coaching?
Counsilman: I take two approaches. The first I call shotgun
psychology where you treat everyone on the team in the same way.
Sometimes this method works fine. Before a big meet, I'll give the
whole team the old-fashioned pep talk. I don't agree with sport
psychologists who say that before a game or match
About the Authors: Jay Kimiecik and Daniel Gould are with the
Department of Kinesiology, University of Illinois, 906 S. Goodwin,
Urbana, IL 61801.
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352 Kimiecik and Gould
a pep talk helps some athletes and hurts others. Your athletes
expect you to fire them up. So I do give a group pep talk.
The individual approach is the other psychology of coaching
method that I use. For example, after I give a pep talk I'll talk
with each swimmer individually to discuss last-minute strategy or
to relax the nervous ones. Coaches need to use the shotgun
psychology at times and the individual approach at others. But I
would say that 75% of the team members respond to the shotgun
approach, the rah, rah, team spirit stuff. TSP: Several studies
have found that coaches are not very good at evaluating the anxiety
level of their athletes. Do you think that most coaches can pick
out the other 25 %, the ones who don't respond well to group pep
talks ?
Counsilman: I don't know the sample of coaches that were
studied, but from my experience most coaches are very knowledgeable
of their athletes' feel- ings and mental states. If one of my boys
is anxious before a meet, I know it. TSP: What's your opinion on
using various psychological tests to evaluate your athletes ?
Counsilman: I'm not against them but they shouldn't be done too
frequently or taken too seriously. I would always trust my own
judgment before any evalua- tive test. It does give you some
standard information on all your athletes and I think athletes
enjoy taking them. They learn a little about themselves. They make
you think. TSP: You have obviously observed many ways of motivating
your swimmers. What do you think is the single biggest mistake
coaches make when trying to motivate athletes ?
Counsilman: The worst thing they can do is try to motivate
through fear and anxiety. Sometimes you have to be tough on kids,
but if you constantly moti- vate through fear and anxiety, you'll
lose them. You'll particularly lose the kid who can't take that
kind of treatment and there are quite a few of them: They quit
swimming. The stereotype of the tough, hard-nosed coach is one that
really hurts athletics. New coaches think that's the way they're
supposed to coach even if they don't like it. Just treat kids with
dignity and respect, and you've got half of the motivation battle
won. TSP: Speaking of motivation, is sport psychology far behind
physiology and bio- mechanics, as some individuals have
suggested?
Counsilman: I don't think so. Coaches do prepare their athletes
mentally. Some of the best psychologists are coaches. Most coaches
are so good at motivat- ing, it's almost frightening what they get
their kids to do. The field may be behind the others as far as
being accepted by coaches and athletes. TSP: Many athletes bum out,
yet you have stayed motivated as a swimmer all your life. You've
swam the English Channel. What keeps you motivated?
Counsilman: A simple law: We tend to repeat a pleasant
experience and avoid an unpleasant experience. Swimming has always
been a pleasant experience for me. People who coached me when I was
a young athlete let me experiment in my own way. They never pushed
me to do better, to go that extra yard, not the way parents and
coaches handle young swimmers today. They make swimming an
unpleasant and stressful experience for many kids.
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The Case of "Doc" Counsilman 353
I want kids to enjoy swimming as much as I do. You have to
motivate kids, but coaches should let kids find their own way, find
out what they can get out of swimming on their own. When kids are
pushed too hard by coaches and parents, they bum out.
I used to coach age group swimming, and because I was
enthusiastic and patient with the kids they loved it. They had a
pleasant experience. Coaches need to forget about the win and
concentrate on fulfilling the needs of the kids, giving them more
pleasant experiences that will keep them in swimming for a
lifetime. TSP: How do you build self-confidence in your
swimmers?
Counsilman: The best way is to make sure your swimmers know they
are prepared physiologically. If my swimmers know they have trained
as hard as they can and believe in the training program, they can't
help but feel confident before a meet or race.
I also try to stick to simple behavioral principles. I use a lot
of positive and negative reinforcement when it's appropriate. I
know I use positive reinforcement most often. I think coaches
underestimate its behavioral powers. For example, one Olympic
champion I coached couldn't take much negative reinforcement be-
cause in the early going he did not have that much self-confidence.
When I had to get on him about his poor training habits, I would
start with a positive state- ment like, "With all this tremendous
talent you have, you're just throwing it away by not training hard
enough." Any coach should always start with a positive state- ment,
because you never ever want to humiliate a kid or strip away his or
her dignity. TSP: Are the things that a sport psychologist can ofer
such as goal setting and mental imagery useful to coaches?
Counsilman: I wouldn't turn them down, but coaches and athletes
should be cautious about claims that skills like mental imagery and
goal setting are going to make them winners. I think sport
psychology does have much to offer, but I think it's being blown a
little out of proportion by overzealous professionals looking to
make a name. Coaches have been using psychological skills for
years.
TSP: Then do you think sport psychologists are claiming too
much? Counsilman: They have to because it's so new to the public
and they are
fighting to be accepted. But really, coaches have been
motivating athletes very commendably for a long time. TSP: What is
your general impression of sport psychology consultants?
Counsilman: I don't want to get sport psychologists mad at me,
but frankly, I think an athlete or coach can get more out of
reading books by Dale Carnegie and Maxwell Maltz than they wiU from
any sport psychologist. I still think coach- ing psychology is a
fairly simple and straightforward task. You need to get along with
your athletes and be realistic about what they and you can do.
Most coaches follow this simple principle, but I have known some
that don't and they are the ones who destroy athletes. For example,
I know a high school coach who took over a swim team for the first
time and was really gung ho and enthusiastic. In the beginning the
swimmers on the team loved the guy. He told them they were going to
break all kinds of records and really built up the swim- mers'
expectations. He set all these unrealistic goals for his kids and
even though
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354 Kimiecik and Gould
some of their times improved, the bubble burst and they were
depressed when they didn't achieve their goals.
A good coach sets goals with his athletes, but realizes that
they aren't ground in stone. You have to be flexible and realistic
and avoid setting goals that are incompatible with your athletes'
ability. TSP: What kind of goal-setting system do you use for the
University of Indiana swimmers ?
Counsihn: We have tried all kinds of goal setting systems . . .
notebooks, journals, you name it. The difficulty with those systems
is that they are a lot of work for the swimmers and I think
sometimes they can almost take the fun out of swimming. And to tell
you the truth, I haven't seen much of a difference in performance
when we use an elaborate goal-setting system and when we just sit
down on a bench, talk over each athlete's goals, and not worry
about writing them down. I think that writing down goals can be
overemphasized by the coach. Goal setting can be very formal or
informal-and both can work. TSP: Can you give an example of the
kinds of goals you set with your swimmers when you do set
goals?
Counsilman: It's an individual thing. A coach has to know his
swimmers. For some kids performance goals are fine. But for a team
oriented kid who lacks aggression, focusing only on his own
performance is a big mistake. TSP: Why is that?
Counsilman: Because that kid did not join the swim team solely
because he wants to be a great swimmer. Maybe he will be. But the
point is, this athlete has other needs that need to be met by me.
Performance goals won't cut it. He wants to win for the team. For
this athlete we will set some other kinds of goals. Goals are an
individual proposition, and the coach's job is to choose the kinds
of goals that will get his swimmers to perform their best. For
example, I recently had a kid who was a Johnny Weismuller in
practice but in meets he always choked. TSP: How did you get this
swimmer to peqonn to his potential in the meets?
Counsilman: I hate to say it, but I lied to him. When he would
swim in practice I would tell him that he did a 1:03 when he really
did a 1:01 in a 100-meter practice race. Then I would say, "If you
want to go fast in meets you have to go fast in practice, work a
little harder." The kid would say, "But hey, I'm the guy who goes
fast in practice and slow in meets." And I would say something
like, "BS, you're just being lazy today, get to work." Then in the
meets he clocks the same time he did in practice, but in the meet,
of course, they post the real time. Now he thinks that he swam
faster in the meet than he did in practice, which boosts his
self-confidence and makes him a better swimmer. Now, I wouldn't
advise coaches to use this kind of mental strategy and I don't use
it very often. But this swimmer was a special case and I was
getting desperate.
Of course the point of all of this is that the psychology of
coaching is attempt- ing to change behavior patterns of athletes.
And most coaches do it very well without ever having taken a course
in sport psychology. TSP: What can sport psychology do to help
coaches coach better?
Counsilman: It can help with making coaches be more aware of how
to set up a good practice environment. What is the best practice
environment for athletes, both mentally and physically? No one
really knows. What are the best
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The Case of "Doc" Counsilman 355
ways for a coach to reinforce and change an athlete's behavior?
No one really knows. Sport psychologists and all applied
researchers need to get more involved with the coaches and athletes
at the practice session before these kinds of psycho- logical
questions are answered. TSP: What do you suggest, then, to bridge
the gap that obviously exists between the researchers and the
coaches in applying scientific principles to sport training?
Counsilman: Researchers are in a difficult situation. Most of
them are in academia and have to comply with what the academic
people consider to be good research. Most of the academics expect
experimental research to be done, where a researcher gives a
treatment of some kind to one group and then compares the results
of the treatment group with a nontreatment group. These kinds of
studies just aren't very helpful to coaches. The kind of research
that would be most help- ful to coaches-descriptive research-is not
being done at all in the United States. The Soviets do descriptive
research all the time. Their sport scientists do very few
experimental studies. They are out in the field with the coaches
and athletes, working together compiling notes and getting a
firsthand look at training. Then they develop concepts that coaches
can incorporate into practice sessions. TSP: Any final
comments?
Counsilman: Coaches should never forget that coaching psychology
is not only concerned with getting athletes to perform better but
also with how to meet their needs as people. They need love and
affection, recognition, a sense of belong- ing. If I can fulfill
those needs then I am doing my job, regardless of my win-loss
record.
Analysis and Integration As evidenced by this interview,
personal experience is a viable and valid form of sport psychology
knowledge. Experiential knowledge is not the cure for all the
challenges facing applied sport psychology, however. To be
effectively used, this source of knowledge must be integrated and
analyzed with other ways of knowing.
Analyzing and integrating Coach Counsilrnan's experiential
knowledge with applied sport psychology research and professional
practice recommendations can do three things. First, it further
validates specific coaching psychology principles espoused by many
sport psychologists. Second, it questions some current practices
and research findings in the area. Finally, it provides sport
psychologists with valuable ideas on how to better facilitate
applied sport psychology research and practice.
Validating Existing Sport Psychology Research and Practice
A clear theme reflected throughout Coach Counsilrnan's comments
is the need for coaches to individualize their treatment of
athletes. This principle applies whether one is goal setting,
helping fulfill athletes' needs, or employing arousal management
strategies (e.g., pep talks, relaxation). It is also consistent
with the recommendations made by many practicing sport
psychologists (Martens, 1987b; Orlick, 1986; Williams, 1986).
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356 Kimiecik and Gould
Counsilman also clearly feels that a positive, contingent
approach to motiva- tion is best to use with athletes, supporting
much of the current coaching behavior and behavior modification
research (e.g., Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, 1979). In addi- tion,
Counsilrnan's comments on long-term motivation emphasize the need
to allow athletes to control their own destiny, to perceive
personal control over their athletic participation and performance
by "letting them find their own way." This empha- sis on internal
control is consistent with recommendations by those sport psy-
chologists studying intrinsic motivation (Halliwell, 1978;
Vallerand, Gauvin, & Halliwell, 1986).
Counsilman's recommendations for developing confidence are also
con- sistent with previous research findings (Bandura, 1977; Feltz
& Weiss, 1982). In particular, it was suggested that physical
conditioning and positive feedback be used to enhance confidence.
Moreover, consistent with observations by Mahoney (1979), it was
also suggested that false performance feedback can be used to
facili- tate confidence, although both Mahoney (1979) and
Counsilman warn that this technique should be employed sparingly
and cautiously. Finally, it was indicated that in goal setting one
must have realistic, flexible, and individual goals. This supports
recommendations made by those writing in the area of goal setting
for athletes (Gould, 1986; Locke & Latham, 1985).
Questioning Current Sport Psychology Research and Practice
Not all of Coach Counsilman's observations were consistent with
current sport psychology research and recommendations for practice.
For example, although recognizing the need to individualize and
relax athletes, he strongly favored the role of group motivational
pep talks. This contradicts recommendations made by many sport
psychologists (e.g., Gould, 1983; Landers & Boutcher, 1986;
Martens, Christina, Harvey, & Sharkey, 1981) who contend that
pep t a b should not be employed by coaches. It is possible that as
sport psychologists we have overreacted to the problems pep talks
cause with high-anxious athletes and need to reevaluate and study
possible beneficial effects, especially if used in the manner
described by Coach Counsilman.
Counsilrnan also questioned the general finding that coaches are
inaccurate predictors of athletes' anxiety levels prior to
competition. It is interesting to note that in a recent study of
experienced collegiate cross-country coaches, Hanson and Gould
(1987) found that only 25 % of the 28 coaches sampled made accurate
predictions of their athletes' state and trait anxiety levels,
although all the coaches were confident that they would be good
judges of their athletes' anxiety. Hence, this finding may need to
be disseminated to coaches. Additionally, further research is
needed to determine why some coaches are accurate judges of
athletes' anxiety levels and others are not.
While Coach Counsilman indicated that realistic, flexible, and
individual- specific goals must be employed with athletes, he
questions the need for formal written goals. This contradicts the
recommendations of some of the practical litera- ture on goal
setting with athletes (Gould, 1986). This discrepancy supports the
need to conduct goal-setting field research with athletes to
determine if formal goal-setting procedures are needed in order to
facilitate performance.
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The Case of "Doc" Counsilman 357
Facilitating Applied Sport Psychology Research and Practice
Coach Counsilman offers some excellent advice for facilitating
applied sport psy- chology research and practice in his interview.
In particular, he emphasizes that while sport psychologists must
"sell" the field to coaches and athletes, they must not fall into
the trap of being overzealous in their claims and expectations.
Sirni- larly, he strongly suggests that coaches are sport
psychologists in their own right and know a great deal about
applied sport psychology. One implication from these comments,
then, is that sport psychologists should strongly consider coaches'
opinions regarding the field. Moreover, research efforts should be
made toward a better understanding of the psychological principles
employed by successful coaches.
Finally, the discussion with Coach Counsilman clearly indicates
a concern with the practicality of much of the research conducted
in the sport sciences in general, and sport psychology in
particular. His call for long-term field investiga- tions employing
nonexperimental techniques and the need for descriptive research is
also consistent with the thinking of some sport psychologists (e.g,
Martens, 1987a). Hence, those of us interested in conducting
meaningful applied sport psy- chology research should consider
these recommendations before automatically adopting traditional
laboratory techniques for field research.
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Manuscript submitted: August 15, 1987 Revision received:
September 16, 1987