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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
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12:09:37 p.m.]
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Hello, I'm Geordie and I currently work at ADX Portland running
the Laser Cutter and Engraver. My job is to take in customer's
projects, set them up and run them on the laser. As a result, I've
learned a few tricks for how to set up jobs to get the best
results, and in this Instructable I'm going to pass them on to
you.
The laser I work with is an Epilog Helix and the program we use
to run it is
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting by
geordie_h
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
12:09:37 p.m.]
Corel Draw. I'm going to try to write in general terms so you
can use what ever laser and program you want to.
Note: For several of these tips it is important to understand
the difference between Vector files and Bitmap files. Vector files
are mathematical formulas defining lines, circles etc. These are
created by programs like Adobe Illustrator, Inkscape, AutoCAD and
Corel. Bitmap files are collections of individual pixels. This
included digital photos, Adobe Photoshop files, JPGs etc. With the
Epilog laser (and I'm assuming other ones) you can only cut with a
vector file. You can engrave with either vector or bitmap files.
For several of my tricks you need your file to be a vector file for
the trick to work.
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Step 1: Tip #1: Preparing for cutting or engraving
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
12:09:37 p.m.]
Before we get to tips for cutting and engraving, lets start with
some good ideas for preparing to cut or engrave.
Masking: If your going to engrave on something be aware that the
smoke for the the engraving can stain the edges of the engraved
surface. If you don't want that cover the surface with masking tape
to protect it. The masking tape won't decrease the power of the
laser much (bump up the power a bit if you feel it needs it) and
the masking tape will protect the material around the engraving
from the smoke. After running the engraving just peal the masking
tape off. I use this a lot if I'm engraving on leather.
Presets: Your laser should have some suggested settings for
cutting or engraving different materials and different thicknesses.
You should also be able to load these settings into your computer
or laser and save them as presets. Be sure to name them something
that makes sense so you can easily find them That way the next time
you need to engrave on leather or cut 1/8" thick acrylic, you can
just find the preset for that material.
Test cuts: Even when I have a preset for cutting a material I
usually try to run a test cut in it before I run the full job.
Nothing is worse than taking the material out of the laser and
finding that it didn't cut all the way through. I create a small
circle or square (about 1/4" or 1/2" wide) and cut out in corner or
on some scrap material. Then I can see if I need to increase or
decrease the power before I run the final cut.
Step 2: Tip # 2: The power of layers
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
12:09:37 p.m.]
Several of the tricks I'm going to talk about require being able
to print only part of a file or design at a time. The easiest way
to do this it to put different parts of you design on different
layers in a file. Most graphics programs allow you to create
different layers and then to turn them off and on. While you can
put everything on one layer here are some advantages to using
layers.
1. Controlling the order of cuts. Your laser should have some
options to determine the order in which lines are cut but one way
for you to control that is to put different cuts on separate layers
on to turn the print of each layer on and off in the order you
want.
2. Have multiple parts and designs in one file. Rather than
having a separate files for each design, just put them all in one
file and put them individual layers. Then just print the layers one
at a time. Helps keep things organized.
3. Creating guides. You might need to create some guides for
laying out out your design or maybe you'll need a target to place
an object in. If you don't want these to print put them on their
own layer and turn off the printing of that layer.
Step 3: Tip #3: Wood grains and engraving
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
12:09:37 p.m.]
So you've designed a logo or a image and you want to burn it
onto a piece of wood. Wood is a great material for engraving but
you need to be aware of the difference between engraving on a solid
piece of wood versus a composite material like plywood or MDF.
Unlike a manufactured material, natural wood is not uniform. The
grains in the wood represent different types of growth in the wood
(winter and summer) and they will each burn differently. Usually
the darker grains are harder and the lighter parts between them is
softer. As you can see from the example photo you end up with a
zebra pattern in the engraving. If having a uniform look to the
engraving is important to you, you'll probably get better results
from a good plywood where the top layer is more uniform.
One more thing to be aware of is materials with a thin veneer of
nice wood on top. The engraving will often burn through the thin
veneer exposing what under neath. Make sure what's beneath the
veneer looks good and that you burn all the way through the veneer
so you don't have a mix of veneer and under-surface.
Step 4: Tip #4: Overlapping lines.
Often when cutting out multiple parts at once, the temptation is
but them up against each other so similar lines overlap. This is a
good idea, but there is a good way to do this and a bad way.
Let's say for example you have a bunch of squares to cut out. If
you draw 2 squares (4 sides each) and then but them up against each
other it will look like there is only one line between them. The
trouble with this is that although it looks like there in only one
line on the overlapping side, the computer still sees 2. The end
result is that lines will get cut one on top of the other. This can
lead to that edge getting burnt, rather than a clean cut. It also
waste time on a unnecessary cut.
The way to fix this is to eliminate one of the doubled up lines.
Draw one of the squares with 3 sides and but it up against the one
with 4 sides.
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
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Step 5: Tip #5: Lines - Raster versus Vector
The main difference between a raster engraving and a vector cut,
is that for the engraving the laser head travels left to right
across the print area and then moves down a hair and repeats until
it has engraved the image. With the vector cut the laser just
traces the lines of the cut. As a result raster engraving take a
lot longer than vector cuts.
So what if you have art work, like a Celtic knot, or a design,
like a map, that is mostly lines. You can run it as a raster
engraving. The advantage of this is that you can set you line
thickness to what ever you want and have different lines be
different thickness. The disadvantage is it is going to take a lot
longer to engrave.
If your design or art work is a vector file (this doesn't work
with bitmap images) there is a faster way to create your lines. Set
your file up as a vector cut but turn the power down and increase
the speed. For example to cut through 1/8" plywood I would have the
laser power at 100% and the speed at 20%, but to just score the
wood I would set the power to 30% and the speed to 95%. So rather
than cutting through the material the laser just burns a thin line
into it. The advantage is it is going to be much faster than
engraving. The disadvantage is that the line is going to be very
thin and you can't vary the thickness of it.
See my next tip for a way to get thicker vector lines.
Step 6: Tip #6: Defocus the laser for thicker vector lines.
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
12:09:37 p.m.]
In my last tip I covered how to use the vector setting to just
score lines into material to produce line art work or designs. But
the disadvantage of this trick is that the line is very thin. But
there is a way to tick the laser and get thicker lines. The laser
has a very tight focus so if lower your material a bit the laser
will lose focus and spread out. The way I do this is to put a small
piece of wood that is about 3/8" thick on top of the material I an
using and have the laser focus on the wood. Then I run the laser on
a vector setting (with a lower power setting and a higher speed).
The result is a much thicker line than if the laser was correctly
focused.
There are 2 disadvantages to be aware of with this technique.
One is the line is a little soft and not as crisp as a raster
engraving. Second, in the corners of the lines the laser pauses
just a little as it changes direction so the corners get burned a
little deeper. The corners look like they have little dots in
them.
I discovered this trick when a client wanted a large order of
wooden coasters with a Celtic knot designed burned into them, but
they had a limited budget. To do the art work as an engraving would
have taken to long and cost too much (about 5 to 7 minutes each).
But by doing the art work as a defocused vector score, I cut the
time to about a minute each and meet the budget.
Step 7: Tip #7: Adding a vector score to the edge of type or
engravings
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
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Normally you should get nice edges to any engraving your laser
makes (if not check your lens and focus). But if you want to give
the edges of your engraving a little extra sharpness here's a good
trick. Add a light vector score to the edge of the engraving.
Once again you will need to have your image as a vector file.
Select your image and add a thin stroke to the edge. When you set
up the laser set the stroke for a vector cut but turn the power
down and increase the speed so it burns but doesn't cut through the
edge. After the laser does the engraving it will come back and burn
a thin line around the very edge.
This is a great effect for type.
Step 8: Tip #8: Hitting the target
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
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Some times you need to hit a target area that is not a the
lasers origin. For example a piece of scrap plastic that you've
already cut several shapes out of, but there is enough room between
some of the old cuts to do a new cut out. How can you accurately
get your new cut out into the left over space?
First measure the target area and get its rough dimensions. Make
sure there is enough room for what you want to cut out. Then place
the scarp material in the laser and measure down and across from
the laser's origin to the target area. For example a 1" by 2"
rectangle located 2.5" down from the top and 1.75" over from the
left edge. Then in you file use guides to mark out the target area
and position in the distance from the origin as the area on the
scrap material. Place your design or cut out in the target area.
Make sure your guides won't print out and run the file. If you've
measured everything correctly your cut out should be in the target
area.
Step 9: Tip #9: Engraving multiple objects
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
12:09:37 p.m.]
Lets say you have a bunch of wooded coasters that you want to
engrave your logo on. You could put them one at a time at the
origin of the laser and engrave them one by one. But wouldn't it be
nicer to layout several at once and have the laser engrave them
all?
The trick is to create a grid that you can lay the pieces out on
and accurately have the laser engrave on them. Create a new vector
file the size of your laser bed. Then measure one of your
shapes/items. If you can get its exact shape great, but if not just
figure out a nice geometrical shape, like a circle or square, that
it will fit snugly into. This will be your target shape. Create the
target and position your design (engraving or cut) in the target.
Now copy both the target and your design and paste as many copies
as you can fit in the space of your laser bed.
Tip : Leave a little space between the targets so you can set
them down without bumping the ones around them.
Before you print the file, move the targets to one layer and
your design to another layer. Then turn off the printing for the
layer with your design on it.
Cut a piece of cardboard to the size of your laser bed and put
it in the laser. Now make sure just the layer with targets is set
to print. Engrave, score or cut the target shapes into the card
board. This creates a grid on the cardboard that matches the one in
the file. Now place the items you are going to engrave on the
targets marked on the cardboard. Don't forget to refocus the laser
on the tops of what you are engraving on. Now you can turn off the
printing of the target layer and turn on the printing of the design
layer.
As long as you don't move the cardboard you can just keep laying
out new parts, hitting engrave and repeating until you have all
your parts done.
Step 10: Tip #10: Using the Red Dot to fgure out where to cut or
engrave
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
12:09:37 p.m.]
The laser I use has the option to turn on a laser pointer that
projects a red dot where the cutting/engraving laser will fire.
This is helpful for figuring out where the laser will cut before
you run your job on your material. Simply turn off the power to the
laser and turn on the red dot. Then run the file and watch where
the red dot goes.
One thing to be aware of is this works well with vector lines,
where the laser/red dot traces the lines, but not so well with
engravings where the laser pass back and for over the whole area of
the engraving. If I need to use the red dot to figure out where an
engraving will end up, what I often do is to draw a vector square
or circle around the engraving and then just having the red dot
trace the square. Or draw horizontal and vertical center lines.
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
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12:09:37 p.m.]
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torito79
Thanks for the advices. Im trying to engrave a photo on MDF but
I always burn the material. Do you have any tip for this?
Thanks again.
geordie_h (author) torito79
Photos are tricky. The black parts of the image are going to be
100% power for the laser and white 0%. Make a square and fill it
with black and then find a setting for the laser that doesn't burn
through. Then try your photo at that.
ishmit geordie_h
Hi,can i have ur telephon number or line id or instagram or
somthing like this for easier coonection?i have laser machine.when
engraving photo on ston the picturehave black and white bound!means
one bond about2 cm is strong and 2 cm or less or more is wake!and
finally my picture will have bound...i can send its pgoto...please
help me..my jobs stoped beacause that ...and nobody know that..
GeekTinker torito79
With MDF, you should test different sides of the material, too.
The thing about MDF is that a great deal of it is made up of the
glue that holds it together. Also, one side of the MDF is usually
very shiny. This could be reflecting your laer. You may want to
sand it lightly before you use it. In the end, you may simply need
to switch from MDF to a thin wood.
jeffcole
Thanks for the tips.We have the same cutter at work.
Ralphxyz
You BUTT things up not BUT!!
Great article thank you!!
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
12:09:37 p.m.]
23 days ago Reply
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coulterpwaldroup8
Great article! I found another site that has some information
about the benefits and advantages of laser cutting -
http://www.laserage.com/laser-cutting/
GWorks
Very nice & helpful :)
photonburst
Good article. I, too, wish I had read this article earlier. One
suggestion I might make for improving the article is to give the
reader some direction for when they have multiple shapes that
result in overlapping lines (this happens a LOT). Usually, it's not
a trivial case where they are butting simple geometric shapes next
to each other, but frequently it's a combination of complex
overlapping geometries whether the source art was in vector or
raster. In particular, Illustrator seems to be fairly commonly
used.
It seems that one way to resolve this in Illustrator is to use
the scissors tool, click on either side of the overlapped line,
then hit the delete key. The other approach that I had to use on my
project today was to use the Direct Selection tool to select and
delete specific anchor points on a shape.
The other thing is when you're wanting to score a vector outline
around the shape in question. In Illustrator since my main artwork
was already vector, I tried the approach of creating a stroke
around the object as a whole and then using the above technique to
get rid of everything but the outline. This was too tedious though
and what I ended up successfully doing instead was to lock my
existing layers, and then use the Pen tool to trace the outline.
What made it easy was that since the underlying layers were visible
but locked -- that meant that the cursor would automatically snap
to the anchor points in the layers below -- and since the layers
were locked I didn't have to worry about accidentally modifying one
of the shapes below. If I didn't hit one of the anchor points
accurately, no sweat, Edit | Undo and try that last anchor point
again. Because of this, I was able to trace the outline blazingly
fast without losing accuracy.
Great article as a whole - thanks for the contribution!
WravoR.
hello,
I have a problem with engraving picture,
always draw me a L profile line outside picture and i can not
dissable it.
??
EliteEngraving WravoR.
Good afternoon WravoR,
What program/programs are you using? I have had this issue a few
times on some of the items i have engraved, and usually is quickly
solved by selecting the whole screen or engraving area and
converting it all over to one single bitmap. When you do this
ensure that the new bitmap has all edges turned off. I hope this
helped you, if not you can reach me for more help at
www.EliteEngraving.com
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
12:09:37 p.m.]
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GauriP
Hi!
Nice write up! Must say your article gave me useful
insights.
I have a laser machine in place and have couple of queries and
it'd be great if you could address them.
1. How should I photo engraving on pine wood mdf. I have a
software called PhotoGrav Version 2_11, where I selected mdf as the
material and didn't get the desired results. Is there any way I can
directly use the laser cut software or corel draw to do it?
2. When is "grade engrave" and "hole" used?
Many thanks!
tallest
Another option is to place several vector lines extremely close
together, III or IIIIII instead of I and you will still get what
looks to the eye like one thicker line, and you don't have to
de-focus the lens, which is nice if you don't have a z axis.
I run three multi headed industrial lasers as my day job, mostly
etching and cutting hardwood veneers for smartphone covers.
AhmedB2
That's awesome and very helpful!
karicashen
This is so incredibly helpful, thank you for taking the time to
post all this info!
ek.eyles ttompson
www.blnkdesigns.com.auContact these quys! :)
MelbaI
Another site on laser engraving you'll enjoy:
http://www.primeproductsinc.com/laser-etching-marking.html
ben.gon1
hi im buy a laser machine k40 the laser w is on only go to the
lelt sida soo I turne off
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
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nwlaurie
Very useful tips for a beginner. Many thanks.
Kraegan
Man, thank you. I just got my engraver and have only tested on
jpegs. This tip answer the question of head travel for me.
crawfordco
I really enjoyed your article and found it helpful. The more
tips on laser engraving and cutting, the better!
http://www.crawford-company.com/laser-cutting/
LazyDMImprints
Very interesting. I am going to have to try that.
Waldo120
Where are those pre-sets for different materials? We have an
Epilog laser engraver and I was trying to look up what's the best
setting for burning an image into brass (see
http://www.instructables.com/id/Laser-etched-clock-with-photo/).
Wound up opening the instructions and all it said was for metal to
turn up the power and turn down the speed. So I did what you see
there at 100% power and 10% speed. We also made a similar plaque on
Polished Aluminum and had to do a bunch of test burns to get the
image looking it's best. Knowing what's "suggested" would really
save some time.
geordie_h (author) Waldo120
You should be able to go to the Epilog website and down load
some of their suggestion for various material.
With our laser we can't do much with metal. Anodize Aluminum we
can etch but its not powerful enough for most metals.
Waldo120 geordie_h
So, I called Epilog and found out that the "pre-sets" are NOT
available for the FiberMark series. Something about focus being one
of the settings that FiberMark doesn't have. What model do you
have? There is however a chart in the instructions. Doesn't do a
lot of detail, but gives a few metals.
By the way, regarding your laser de-focusing tip. I'm told there
is a way to setup different colors to be different focal lengths.
For example if some of your part is 0.25" higher then the rest, you
can make this section a red and define red as 0.25" focus length
and black as 0" focus length. So you could have focus'ed like
normal, done some the vector in focus in black, and the out of
focus vector in red. Don't know for sure if that would've been
useful but it's a good to know.
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
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allaho
Thank you so much for the tips. I especially needed Tip #6:
Defocus the laser for thicker vector lines.
Emad
AzzysDesignWorks
Even better than masking tape for many items is the paper based
vinyl application tape. It is very easy to remove when done.
geordie_h (author) AzzysDesignWorks
I would want to double check what vinyl tape is made of. We
don't cut vinyl in our laser because it contain chlorine and
produces hydrochloric acid when it burns. Very toxic.I don't know
if vinyl tape and vinyl are the same.
But I will agree that masking tape doesn't alway stick very well
to some materials.
AzzysDesignWorks geordie_h
Application tape for vinyl, not vinyl tape. Like this one:
http://www.amazon.com/Application-Transfer-GreenSt... (Just a
quick google search, not affiliated)
Another plus is that it comes in much larger sizes than standard
masking tape.
Ghostpilot
The masking technique is especially usefull when engraving on
glass surfaces. The laser I use have a 4th axis for engraving round
objects, mainly used to engrave drinking glasses. If I maske the
glass area to be engraved with a wet peice of wiping paper just
before engraving, the edges won't be as sharp and the engraved
image will look much more "in focus". The paper shouldn't be
dripping wet, just moist enough to stick to the glass surface.
geordie_h (author) Ghostpilot
Cool technique. We have a rotating unit for our laser but since
the object just rests on it it tend to slip or not rotate
evenly.
But I do engrave on flat pieces of glass so I will give your tip
a try.
Thanks
labernache
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
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1 year ago Reply
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These tips are indeed very useful, especially those that
differentiate between raster (bitmapped) and vector-based images. I
have done quite a bit of vector based image work in the last 30
years of CAD/CAM engineering, primarily for the creation of Printed
Circuit Board (PCB) designs, but also for mechanical engineering
works. Knowing these types of labour saving utilities is invaluable
for streamlining and design for manufacturability. All of this
translates to saving you or your company quite a bit of money.
Thank you for passing on your own experientially gained knowledge
in a very concise set of observations and guidelines. My only
concern is that, though your composition is nicely phrased, you
appear to have made the same error many instructable authors have
made in failing to proof -read your contribution prior to
submitting the material for publication.I don't want to come across
too harshly, but spell-checking is not enough and sometimes adds to
the problem. Proof-reading from top to bottom prior to submitting
your masterpiece will in most cases catch all those "gotchas" and
leave your audience with not only the clear and concise tutorial
you intended, but will also ensure that the first purpose of your
work: communication, is well served.Despite the prevalence of
errors, this Instructable did convey a wealth of information in an
interesting and engrossing way. Next time, just take a couple of
minutes to proof-read your work. I think it is deserving of the
extra effort, don't you agree?
By the way, I favorited your excellent contribution. Had you
proofed your work, I would have also voted for you.
Thanks for the interesting read.
Cheers,Labernache
By the way, I did proof my work, and may still have introduced
errors. But this step is crucial, especially on the Web because of
the huge potential audience you may reach.labernache.
jktechwriter
Man, those are some outstanding tips, including the example
photos. Thanks for sharing this with us novice laser cutter
users... I'm going to begin experimenting with many of these
ideas.
nwlaurie
Concerning the price of lasers: my chinese K40 (35 watts and
good for thin ply, acrylic up to 5mm and, of course, lighter
materials plus engraving almost anything except metal) cost m a tad
under 400 on FleaBay. I spend about the same again with an American
firm called LightObject for more sophisticated electronics. For
well under 1000 I now have a machine that can earn its keep doing
light cutting and engraving work.
It'll probably be even cheaper in a year or two!
David Drage
I have been running a laser cutter for a few years, and I really
wish I had had this guide when I started out. These are all good
tips and worth a read if you are new to laser cutting!
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
12:09:37 p.m.]
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I Made it! Add Images
yogunny
Some of the best tips Ive seen. Very well written. Its too bad
that lasers, powerful enough to do a myriad of work, are so
expensive and beyond the reach of most woodworkers (we use two in
our shop). But things change and prices drop. Id recommend readers
keep this article for future use when the money starts flowing and
you can afford a laser. :-) Sorry, dont mean to rain on your parade
Geordie in re the cost of lasers - yours is an uber fantastic
presentation. I give you six out of five stars!! :-)
geordie_h (author) yogunny
I agree that its to bad that lasers are out of the price range
of most people. I know there are some Maker spaces where people can
rent time on them and at ADX where I work we offer the laser as a
service for people to either rent or for us to run jobs for
them.
I tried to write these tips to help people who where renting
time or paying for someone else to run their project for them.
Hopefully this will help people lower their costs and get better
results.
yogunny geordie_h
Ill up that to seven out of five stars - didnt think of Maker
spaces - need to check that out. Again, mega kudos for a fine
ible.
Squidyman
Do you know if it is possible to either buy or make a laser
engraver for a lot less money than when I do a quick google search
for one? I can think of a million uses for one but don't have a
million $$$ lol :P
lauralbaby Squidyman
There's instructions here on making one. Some day I will hire
someone to do that for me, heh.
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10 Tips and Tricks for Laser Engraving and Cutting
http://www.instructables.com/id/10-Tips-and-Tricks-for-Laser-Engraving-and-Cutting/?ALLSTEPS[13/05/2015
12:09:37 p.m.]
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