1 Thinking, Language and Intelligence Chapter 10-Chapter 11
Jan 11, 2016
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Thinking, Language and IntelligenceChapter 10-Chapter 11
Exam: Memory, Cognition, and Language
Chapter 9 and Chapter 10- FridayMidyear: Chapters 1- Chapter 12Self-shaping Project: January 14th
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Do Now: How would you define “Thinking?” Do animals think? Do men and women think differently?
AIM: How do we think?
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Thinking
Thinking, or cognition: a process that involves knowing, understanding,
remembering, and communicating.
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Concept
The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
•Schemas•Example: Chair
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Prototypes
We may base our concepts on prototypes – the most typical example of a concept
Triangle definition) Bird (mental image)
Daniel J. C
ox/ Getty Im
ages
J. Messerschm
idt/ The Picture C
ube
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Categories
Once we place an item in a category, our memory shifts toward the category
prototype.
Courtesy of O
liver Corneille
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Problem Solving
There are two ways to solve problems:
1)Algorithms: Methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular problem.2) Heuristics
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Algorithms
S P L O Y O C H Y G
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,208 possibilities.
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Heuristics
Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that
allow us to make judgments and solve problems
efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-
prone than algorithms.
B2M
Productions/D
igital Version/G
etty Images
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Heuristics
Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems.
S P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y
Put a Y at the end, and see if the wordbegins to make sense.
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Insight
Insight involves a sudden novel
realization of a solution to a
problem.
Grande using boxes toobtain food
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Insight
Insight activates the right temporal cortex
From M
ark Jung-Beekm
an, Northw
estern U
niversity and John Kounios, D
rexel University
Insight Problems
• What occurs once in every minute, twice in every moment, yet never in a thousand years?
• What is so unusual about the sentence below?
(Aside from the fact it does not make a lot of
sense.) “Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.”
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Obstacles in Solving Problems
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.
Example: Multiple Choice
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Fixation
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. Two examples of fixation are mental set and functional
fixedness.
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Mental Set
A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if that way was
successful in the past.
The Matchstick Problem: How
would you arrange six matches to form
four equilateral triangles?
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The Matchstick Problem: Solution
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Functional Fixedness
A tendency to think only of the familiar functions of an object.
Problem: Tie the two ropes together. Use a screw driver, cotton balls and a matchbox.
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Functional Fixedness
Use the screwdriver as a weight, and tie it to the end of one rope. Swing it toward
the other rope to tie the knot.
The inability to think of the screwdriver as a weight isfunctional fixedness.
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Heuristics
1) representative heuristics 2) availability heuristics
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Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than
such professors.
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent a particular prototype.
If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be?
An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?
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Availability HeuristicAvailability Heuristic: judging a situation
based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially
How is retrieval facilitated?1. How recently we have heard about the
event.2. How distinct it is.3. How correct it is.
Do Now: Distinguish between AVAILIABILITY HEURISTIC and REPRESENTATIVE HEURISTIC
The easier it is for people to remember an instance in which they were betrayed by a friend, the more they expect such an event to recur. This best illustrates the impact of: a. framing. b. the representativeness heuristic. c. functional fixedness. d. the availability heuristic.
A defense attorney emphasizes to a jury that her client works full-time, supports his family, and enjoys leisure-time hobbies. Although none of this information is relevant to the trial, it is designed to make the defendant appear to be a typical member of the local community. The lawyer is most clearly seeking to take advantage of: a. confirmation bias. b. functional fixedness. c. belief perseverance. d. the representativeness heuristic.
What are some impediments to problem solving?
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Overconfidence
Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs
and judgments.
Example: stock market
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Exaggerated Fear
Exaggerated fearirrationalparanoia
AP
/ Wide W
orld Photos
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Framing Decisions
Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon
how an issue is framed or worded.
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?
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Belief Bias
Making illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs
Example: Democrats support free speech
Dictators are not democratsTherefore, Dictators do not support
free speech
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Belief Perseverance
Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary
evidence.
Example: Creationism vs Evolutionists
1. Brutus believes that men enjoy watching professional football and that women are categorically distinct from men. His gender stereotypes are so strong, however, that he mistakenly reasons from these premises the illogical conclusion that women do not enjoy watching professional football. His reasoning difficulty best illustrates: a. the framing effect. b. the availability heuristic. c. belief bias.d. functional fixedness.
2. When her professor failed to recognize that Judy had her hand raised for a question, Judy began to think her professor was unfriendly. Although she subsequently learned that the professor’s limited vision kept him from seeing her raised hand, she continued thinking the professor was unfriendly. Judy’s reaction best illustrates: a. the framing effect. b. belief perseverance. c. functional fixedness.d. category hierarchies.
Convergent and Divergent Thinking
• Convergent Thinking- thinking pointed towards one solution– Left hemisphere
Example: 4x+2= 8
• Divergent Thinking
-more than one solution
- creative thinkingExample: Literary analysis
How does cognition relate to language?
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Language
Language is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others.
Language transmits culture.
M. &
E. B
ernheim/ W
oodfin Cam
p & A
ssociates
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Language Structure
Phonemes: The smallest distinct sound unit in a spoken language. For example:
bat, has three phonemes b · a · t
chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t
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Language Structure
Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a meaning. For example:
Milk = milkPumpkin = pumpkin
Unforgettable = un · for · get · tableUn
ForgetAble
How many morpheme and phonemes are in the following
words:• Screwdriver
• Chimps
• Psychology (ooo tricky!!!)
Do Now: Review homework
AIM: How do humans develop language?
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Structuring Language
Phrase
Sentence
Meaningful units (290,500) … meat, pumpkin.Words
Smallest meaningful units (100,000) … un, for.
Morphemes
Basic sounds (about 40) … ea, sh.Phonemes
Composed of two or more words (326,000) … meat eater.
Composed of many words (infinite) … She opened the jewelry box.
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Grammar
Grammar is the system of rules in a language
Grammar
SyntaxSemantics
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Semantics
Semantics is the set of rules by which we derive meaning from sentences.
Example: Semantic rule tells us that adding –ed to the word laugh means that
it happened in the past.Adding an “S” makes a word plural
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Syntax
Syntax consists of the rules for ordering words into grammatical sentences.
In English we say white house. In Spanish, it is reversed; casa blanca.
“You are welcome to visit the cemetery where famous composers, artists, and
writers are buried daily except Thursday”
Syntax FAIL
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How many new words do we learn a day?
We learn, on average (after age 1), 3,500
words a year, amassing 60,000
words by the time we graduate from high
school.
Tim
e Life Pictures/ G
etty Images
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When do we learn language?
Babbling Stage:-Beginning at 4 months-spontaneously uttering of sounds (ah-goo.)-not imitation of adult speech.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RuMdIxKnqz8
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When do we learn language?
One-Word Stage: Beginning around his/her first birthday, a child starts to speak one word at a time
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When do we learn language?
Two-Word Stage: -Starts Before Year Two-Telegraphic speech (the child speaks like a telegram)
“Go car,” means I would like to go for a ride in the car.
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When do we learn language?
2 years: Longer phrases with syntactical sense, and by early elementary school they are employing humor.
You never starve in the desert because of all the sand-which-is there.
Overgeneralization
After 2 years of age, children may incorrectly follow the rules of grammar:
Overgeneralization or overregularization
Examples: “I goed to the store”
“I runned outside”
“There were lots of mouses”
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When do we learn language?
What is the critical period for language?
Up to 7 years
Two Theories for Language Development
• Behaviorists– We develop language by imitating sounds
• Nativists– Biological Predisposition for Language
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Explaining Language Development: Behaviorism
1. Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985) -language development may be explained on the basis of learning principles
A. ImitationB. Reward/Punishment
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Explaining Language Development: Nativist
2. Language Acquisition Device: A. Linguist Noam ChomskyB. Children born with innate ability to gather rules of languageC. Contrary to “blank slate”D. Critical Period
Proof for Language Acquisition
• All languages have grammar rules
• Children overgeneralize use morphemes in predictable orders: “go-ed,”
• Genes in twin studies
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Explaining Language Development
Statistical Learning and Critical Periods: -- brains statistically analyze which syllables in go together. Example: hap-py-ba-by-Statistical analyses are learned during critical periods.
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Language & AgeLearning new languages gets harder with age.
Language & Thinking
Language and thinking intricately intertwine.
Rubber B
all/ Alm
ay
Language Influences Thinking
Linguistic Determinism: Whorf (1956) suggested that language determines the way we think.
Language Influences Thinking
When a language provides words for objects or events, we can think about
these objects more clearly and remember them
Balanced Bilinguals are superior to monolinguals in terms of:
• Cognitive flexibility
• Concept formation
• Creativity
• Better ability to learn more languages
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Problem Solving
Apes are famous, much like us, for solving problems.
Chimpanzee fishing for ants.
Courtesy of Jennifer B
yrne, c/o Richard B
yrne, D
epartment of P
sychology, University of S
t. Andrew
s, Scotland
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Animal Culture
Animals display customs and culture that are learned and transmitted over generations.
Dolphins using sponges asforging tools.
Chimpanzee mother using andteaching a young how to use
a stone hammer.
Copyright A
manda K
Coakes
Michael N
ichols/ National G
eographic Society
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Mental States
Can animals infer mental states in themselves and others?
To some extent. Chimps and orangutans (and dolphins) used mirrors to inspect
themselves when a researcher put paint spots on their faces or bodies.
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Do Animals Exhibit Language?
There is no doubt that animals
communicate.
Vervet monkeys, whales and even
honey bees communicate with members of their species and other
species.Rico (collie) has a
200-word vocabulary
Copyright B
aus/ Kreslow
ski
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The Case of Apes
Chimps do not have a vocal apparatus for human-like speech (Hayes & Hayes,1951).
Therefore, Gardner and Gardner (1969) used American Sign Language (ASL) to train Washoe, a chimp, who learned 182
signs by the age of 32.
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Gestured Communication
Animals, like humans, exhibit communication through gestures. It is
possible that vocal speech developed from gestures during the course of evolution.
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Sign Language
American Sign Language (ASL) is instrumental in teaching chimpanzees
a form of communication.
When asked, this chimpanzee usesa sign to say it is a baby.
Paul Fusco/ Magnum
Photos
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Computer Assisted Language
Others have shown that bonobo pygmy chimpanzees can develop even greater
vocabularies and perhaps semantic nuances in learning a language (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1991). Kanzi and Panbanish developed vocabulary for
hundreds of words and phrases.
Copyright of G
reat Ape T
rust of Iowa
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Conclusions
If we say that animals can use meaningful sequences of signs to communicate a
capability for language, our understanding would be naive… Steven Pinker (1995)
concludes, “chimps do not develop language.”
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Intelligence
Chapter 11
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What is Intelligence?
Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations.
In research studies, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures.
This tends to be “school smarts.”
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Conceptual Difficulties
Psychologists believe that intelligence is a concept and not a thing.
When we think of intelligence as a trait (thing) we make an error called
reification — viewing an abstract immaterial concept as if it were a
concrete thing.
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Controversies About Intelligence
Despite general agreement among psychologists about the nature of
intelligence, two controversies remain:
1. Is intelligence a single overall ability or is it several specific abilities?
2. With modern neuroscience techniques, can we locate and measure intelligence within the brain?
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Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?
Have you ever thought that since people’s mental abilities are so diverse, it
may not be justifiable to label those abilities with only one word, intelligence?
You may speculate that diverse abilities represent different kinds of intelligences.
How can you test this idea?
AP PsychologyJanuary 7, 2010
What is intelligence?
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Homework: 1) Read pages 434-442 2) Complete Psych Sim
Spearman’s Studies
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Factor Analysis: cluster of items that measure a common ability
Example: vocabulary, paragraph comprehension,Grades in English classes, SAT verbal
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General Intelligence
General intelligence (g) is a factor that underlies all intelligence .
BUT…. Spearman’s Theory of General Intelligence was controversial.
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Other Early Theories of Intelligence as Multiple Abilities
-Intelligence as Seven Clusters of Primary Mental Abilities- Thurstone
-General Intelligence as an evolutionary adaptation
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Contemporary Intelligence Theories
Howard Gardner-multiple intelligences-exceptionally intelligent people, such as savants
People with savant syndrome excel in abilitiesunrelated to general intelligence.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhcQG_KItZM
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Howard Gardner
Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences (and speculates about a ninth one — existential intelligence. )
How is Gardner’s theory problematic?
• Difficult to research
• Talents or intelligences?
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Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) agrees with Gardner, but suggests three intelligences
rather than eight.1. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence
that makes us adapt to novel situations, generate novel ideas
2. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests.
3. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).
Sternberg and Gardner’s studies are important in broadening our
definition for intelligence…… in the workplace, the classroom, on the
athletic field.
Do Now: Compare and contrast Spearman, Gardner, and Sternberg’s Theories of Intelligence. Which do you think is the best theory and why?
January 8AIM: How can we assess
intelligence?
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Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, and manage
emotions
-proposed by Daniel Goleman
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Emotional Intelligence: Components
Component Description
Perceive emotionRecognize emotions in
faces, music and stories
Understand emotion
Predict emotions, how they change and blend
Manage emotionExpress emotions in different situations
Use emotionUtilize emotions to adapt or
be creative
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Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence correlates positively with career, marriage, and parenting
success.proposed by Daniel Goleman
Emotion Recognition Mischel’s Marshmallow
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Emotional Intelligence: Criticism
Should intelligence apply to emotions?
But, studies show general intelligence DOES matter
*Crystallized and fluid intelligence
• Crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge
• Fluid intelligence: ability to reason quickly when solving new problems
• How does each change with age?
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Intelligence and Creativity
Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. It correlates
slightly with intelligence.1. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.2. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things
in novel ways.3. Adventuresome Personality: A personality that
seeks new experiences rather than following the pack.
4. Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from within.
5. A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom.
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Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable?
Recent Studies indicate some correlation (about +.40) between brain size and
intelligence.
Gray matter concentration in people with high intelligence.
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Brain Function
Intelligence tests and reaction time
People with higher intelligence respond correctly and quickly tothe above question.
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Assessing Intelligence
Intelligence testing: a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes
and comparing them with others
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Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet: predictor intelligence testing developing questions that would predict children’s future progress
Mental Age: IntelligenceIncreases as we age
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Lewis TermanStanford-Binet Test: The following is the
formula of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), introduced by
William Stern: