1 Sudan: In Search of a Nation Roberta Ann Dunbar The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill For Bridges and Barriers Workshop State Department of.

11

Sudan: In Search of a Sudan: In Search of a NationNation

Roberta Ann DunbarRoberta Ann DunbarThe University of North Carolina at Chapel HillThe University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

For Bridges and Barriers WorkshopFor Bridges and Barriers WorkshopState Department of Public InstructionState Department of Public Instruction

Raleigh, NC--July 12, 2006Raleigh, NC--July 12, 2006

(the images have been removed and replaced by hyperlinks, with (the images have been removed and replaced by hyperlinks, with some revisions due to accessibility)some revisions due to accessibility)

22

OverviewOverview

Ancient Civilizations of the Nile ValleyAncient Civilizations of the Nile Valley Sudan—Physical and Human ResourcesSudan—Physical and Human Resources

– Socio-Economic IndicatorsSocio-Economic Indicators Nineteenth and 20Nineteenth and 20thth Centuries Centuries Themes of the Independence Era 1956-Themes of the Independence Era 1956-

PresentPresent Civil Conflicts and the Search for PeaceCivil Conflicts and the Search for Peace

Haynes, J.L. Nubia. Ancient KingdoHaynes, J.L. Nubia. Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. Boston: Museum of Fims of Africa. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts 1992, 15-17ne Arts 1992, 15-17

33

The Ancient Nile ValleyThe Ancient Nile Valley

The Legacy of Human DiversityThe Legacy of Human Diversity A New Kingdom Vision: Four principal A New Kingdom Vision: Four principal

ethnic groups: Egyptians, Assyrians, ethnic groups: Egyptians, Assyrians, Nubians, and LibyansNubians, and Libyans

Haynes, J. L. Ancient Kingdoms of AHaynes, J. L. Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts frica. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts 1991, 14-15.1991, 14-15.

44

http://www.snaithprimary.eril.net/eg1http://www.snaithprimary.eril.net/eg11.htm1.htm

httphttp://://www.homestead.comwww.homestead.com//wysingerwysinger//tombofhuy.htmltombofhuy.html

Haynes, J. L. Nubia. Ancient KingdoHaynes, J. L. Nubia. Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. Boston: Museum of Fims of Africa. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts 1992, p. 16ne Arts 1992, p. 16

55

Nubian QueensNubian Queens

Queen Queen Kemsit—Kemsit—Nubian Nubian Queen of Queen of MentuhoteMentuhotep II, 2061-p II, 2061-1010 B. C.1010 B. C.

Taylor, John H. Egypt and Nubia. CaTaylor, John H. Egypt and Nubia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard U Press 100mbridge, MA: Harvard U Press 1001, Cover1, Cover

66

Kush and the 25Kush and the 25thth Dynasty Dynasty

The Sphinx of The Sphinx of Taharqa 690-Taharqa 690-664 B. C. from 664 B. C. from the Temple I at the Temple I at KawaKawa

http://www.livius.org/pha-phd/pharaoh/pharaoh.htm 10th image down

Haynes, J. L. Nubia. Ancient KingdoHaynes, J. L. Nubia. Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. Boston: Museum of Fims of Africa. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts 1992, p. 31.ne Arts 1992, p. 31.

77

Queen MalakayeQueen Malakaye A Kushitic queen of A Kushitic queen of

the early 6the early 6thth century. century. Women of the ruling Women of the ruling

class held high class held high status in the Kush status in the Kush Kingdom.Kingdom.

During the later During the later phase of the empire phase of the empire in Meroe, some in Meroe, some queens were joint queens were joint rulers.rulers.

http://http://www.mfa.org/collewww.mfa.org/collections/search_art.actions/search_art.asp?recviewsp?recview==true&idtrue&id=142605=142605

88

Sudan Political MapSudan Political Map

http://http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/mapwww.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/sudan.pdf/profile/sudan.pdf

National Geographic 203, 2 (FebruNational Geographic 203, 2 (February 2003). Map., 39ary 2003). Map., 39

99

Physical and Human ResourcesPhysical and Human Resources

About ¼ size of About ¼ size of United StatesUnited States

Largest country Largest country territoriallyterritorially

Savannah Savannah Grasslands to SouthGrasslands to South—Seasonal Rains —Seasonal Rains April-NovemberApril-November

Desert to the northDesert to the north Confluence of Blue Confluence of Blue

and White Nileand White Nile

http://magma.natiohttp://magma.nationalgeographic.comnalgeographic.com/ngm/0302/feature/ngm/0302/feature2/2/

Scroll down to map Scroll down to map and click to and click to enlarge. Option to enlarge. Option to download printable download printable map map

http://www.cialgov/cia/publications/http://www.cialgov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/su.htmlfactbook/geos/su.html

1010

Major Socio-economic Major Socio-economic IndicatorsIndicators

Population 41.2 million (July 2006 Population 41.2 million (July 2006 est.) growing at 2.55%/yearest.) growing at 2.55%/year

Life Expectancy: 57.69 yrs for men; Life Expectancy: 57.69 yrs for men; 60.21 years for women60.21 years for women

Infant Mortality Rate: 61.05/1,000 Infant Mortality Rate: 61.05/1,000 live birthslive births

Total fertility rate: 4.72 children Total fertility rate: 4.72 children born/womanborn/woman

1111

Cultural Features of SudanCultural Features of Sudan

Ethnic Groups: Muslim Peoples.Ethnic Groups: Muslim Peoples.– Arabs. 40% of population (1990). Divided Arabs. 40% of population (1990). Divided

between between jaali jaali (riverine, sedentary people) (riverine, sedentary people) and and juhayna juhayna (nomads).(nomads).

– Nubians. Largely dispersed by the Nubians. Largely dispersed by the construction of Aswan dam.construction of Aswan dam.

– Beja. Cushitic speaking people now Beja. Cushitic speaking people now largely Arabizedlargely Arabized

– Fur. Agricultural people of the Jabal Fur. Agricultural people of the Jabal MarrahMarrah

1212

Peoples of Northern SudanPeoples of Northern Sudan

Beja of the Sudan Coastal Region

Nuba Mountain People

http://http://www.globalsecuritywww.globalsecurity.org/military/.org/military/world/para/world/para/beja.htmbeja.htm

Map and personMap and person

http://http://home.planet.nl/home.planet.nl/~ende0098/~ende0098/

Tremendous Tremendous variety of images – variety of images – warning: one on warning: one on the home page is the home page is inappropriate for inappropriate for studentsstudents

1313

Cultural Features of SudanCultural Features of Sudan

Muslim Peoples (con’t).Muslim Peoples (con’t).– Zaghawa. Herding and gathering Zaghawa. Herding and gathering

populations north of the Furpopulations north of the Fur– Masalit, Daju, and Berti. Cultivators Masalit, Daju, and Berti. Cultivators

speaking Nilo-Saharan languagesspeaking Nilo-Saharan languages– West Africans. Largely Bornuan or Fulani West Africans. Largely Bornuan or Fulani

in origin, constituted in 1990 6.5% of in origin, constituted in 1990 6.5% of Sudanese population.Sudanese population.

1414

Cultural Features of SudanCultural Features of Sudan

Non-Muslim PeoplesNon-Muslim Peoples– Nilotes. 3/5 of population of southern Nilotes. 3/5 of population of southern

Sudan (1990).Sudan (1990). Dinka larges of the Nilotic groups.Dinka larges of the Nilotic groups. NuerNuer ShillukShilluk

– Bari, Kuku, Kadwa, Mandari. South and Bari, Kuku, Kadwa, Mandari. South and East of other Nilotes, although Bari and East of other Nilotes, although Bari and Mandari closely related to them.Mandari closely related to them.

1515

Two Principal Groups of Two Principal Groups of Southern SudanSouthern Sudan

Nuer

Dinka and Cattle

http://www.dlib.indianhttp://www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/nuer/a.edu/collections/nuer/slides/full/027.jpgslides/full/027.jpg

http://www.usaid.gov/http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/cross-cuttingour_work/cross-cutting_programs/transition_i_programs/transition_initiatives/country/sudanitiatives/country/sudan/cattle.jpgn/cattle.jpg

1616

Cultural Features of SudanCultural Features of Sudan

Non-Muslim Peoples (cont).Non-Muslim Peoples (cont).– Murle, Didinga and others. Murle, Didinga and others. – Azande. Western al-Istiwal and Bahr al Azande. Western al-Istiwal and Bahr al

Ghaza and constituting 8% of population Ghaza and constituting 8% of population of southern Sudanof southern Sudan

– Bviri and Ndogo. Southwestern Sudan Bviri and Ndogo. Southwestern Sudan speaking languages close to Azande.speaking languages close to Azande.

– Nuba. Cultivators of Nuba Mountains of Nuba. Cultivators of Nuba Mountains of southern Kurdofansouthern Kurdofan

1717

EconomyEconomy

Gross Domestic Product/Capita (in Gross Domestic Product/Capita (in PPP): $2,100 (2005 est.)PPP): $2,100 (2005 est.)

GDP Growth Rate 7% (2005 est.)GDP Growth Rate 7% (2005 est.) Composition of GDPComposition of GDP

– Agriculture 38.7% (80% of workforce)Agriculture 38.7% (80% of workforce)– Industry 20.3 % (7% of workforce)Industry 20.3 % (7% of workforce)– Services 41% (13% of workforce)Services 41% (13% of workforce)

Unemployment Rate. 18.7% (2002)Unemployment Rate. 18.7% (2002)

1818

EconomyEconomy

ExportsExports– Oil and petroleum productsOil and petroleum products– CottonCotton– SesameSesame– LivestockLivestock– GroundnutsGroundnuts– Gum Arabic and SugarGum Arabic and Sugar

Export Partners: China (66.9%), Japan Export Partners: China (66.9%), Japan (10.7%); Saudi Arabia (4.4%) (2004)(10.7%); Saudi Arabia (4.4%) (2004)

1919

EconomyEconomy

ImportsImports– FoodstuffsFoodstuffs– Manufactured goodsManufactured goods– Refinery and Transport equipmentRefinery and Transport equipment

Import Partners: China (13%); Saudi Import Partners: China (13%); Saudi Arabia (11.5%), UAE (5.9%); Egypt Arabia (11.5%), UAE (5.9%); Egypt (5.1%); India (4.8%); Germany (5.1%); India (4.8%); Germany (4.5%); Australia (4.1%); Japan (4%) (4.5%); Australia (4.1%); Japan (4%) (2004)(2004)

2020

PetroleumPetroleum

Insert map of oil Insert map of oil fields and pipeline fields and pipeline to the Red Seato the Red Sea

http://http://www.lib.utexas.eduwww.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa//maps/africa/sudan_oil_usaid_20sudan_oil_usaid_2001.pdf01.pdf

http://www.sudan.nhttp://www.sudan.net/graphic/news/peet/graphic/news/people/bashier_oil_gaople/bashier_oil_garang_soldier.jpgrang_soldier.jpg

2121

PetroleumPetroleum

Chevron discovered oil in southern Sudan Chevron discovered oil in southern Sudan in 1978.in 1978.

First exported in 1999First exported in 1999 Proven Reserves: 1.6 billion bblProven Reserves: 1.6 billion bbl Oil production: 401,300 bbl/day (2005)Oil production: 401,300 bbl/day (2005) Oil Exports: 275,000 bbl/day (2004)Oil Exports: 275,000 bbl/day (2004) Natural Gas Proved Reserves: 84.95 Natural Gas Proved Reserves: 84.95

billion cu m (2005) but none is being billion cu m (2005) but none is being produced.produced.

2222

PetroleumPetroleum

In 2005, Sudan had become the 7In 2005, Sudan had become the 7thth largest oil producer in Africa after largest oil producer in Africa after Nigeria, Libya, Algeria, Angola, Nigeria, Libya, Algeria, Angola, Egypt, and Equatorial GuineaEgypt, and Equatorial Guinea

In June 2006, Nigeria, the only In June 2006, Nigeria, the only African country in OPEC and holder of African country in OPEC and holder of group’s presidency invited Angola group’s presidency invited Angola and Sudan to join OPEC.and Sudan to join OPEC.

OPEC currently accounts for 42% of OPEC currently accounts for 42% of global oil production.global oil production.

2323

Political History 19Political History 19thth & 20 & 20thth CenturiesCenturies

Era of the Turkiyya Era of the Turkiyya under Muhammad Aliunder Muhammad Ali– Modernization of the Modernization of the

Egyptian stateEgyptian state– Institutionalization of Institutionalization of

slave raiding that slave raiding that penetrated areas of penetrated areas of Middle and Upper NileMiddle and Upper Nile At first a state At first a state

monopoly, then monopoly, then licenses to commercial licenses to commercial merchants who merchants who wreaked havoc on wreaked havoc on areas to the southareas to the south Egyptian Slavers ca

1820 (link is slavers of the 19th century)

http://www.dignubihttp://www.dignubia.org/maps/timelina.org/maps/timeline/img/c1820-slavere/img/c1820-slavers.jpgs.jpg

2424

History of SudanHistory of Sudan

1884-1898—The Mahdiya 1884-1898—The Mahdiya Islamist StateIslamist State

– The Mahdi succeeded by The Mahdi succeeded by Khalifa Abdullahi Ibn Khalifa Abdullahi Ibn Muhammad.Muhammad.

– With help of Baggara, With help of Baggara, attempted expansion into attempted expansion into EthiopiaEthiopia

2525

The Anglo-Egyptian SudanThe Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

Lord Herbert Lord Herbert Kitchener conquers Kitchener conquers Khartoum and Khartoum and defeats the defeats the Mahdist State in Mahdist State in 18981898

Courtesy of Robert O. Collins

Image of Lord Image of Lord Herbert Herbert http://www.countryhttp://www.country-data.com/frd/cs/su-data.com/frd/cs/sudan/sd01_05a.jpg dan/sd01_05a.jpg

2626

Britain’s Southern PolicyBritain’s Southern Policy

Close off the South to northern Close off the South to northern merchants, bureaucrats, and Muslim merchants, bureaucrats, and Muslim clericsclerics

Rely on Christian missions for Rely on Christian missions for education and civil serviceseducation and civil services

Focus on development of cotton as Focus on development of cotton as cash crop through the al-Gezira cash crop through the al-Gezira schemescheme

2727

Key Political Figures of Key Political Figures of Northern Sudan 1956-2005Northern Sudan 1956-2005

General Ibrahim AbboudGeneral Ibrahim Abboud Hassan al TurabiHassan al Turabi Jaffar NimeiriJaffar Nimeiri Sadiq al-MahdiSadiq al-Mahdi Muhammad al-MirghaniMuhammad al-Mirghani Ali Osman TahaAli Osman Taha Omar al-BashirOmar al-Bashir < see Sudan Readings and Bibliography for images of each < see Sudan Readings and Bibliography for images of each

of these>of these>

2828

The South After IndependenceThe South After Independence

Agreements made at Agreements made at time of independence time of independence led many southerners led many southerners to fear northern to fear northern domination both domination both politically and culturallypolitically and culturally– Arabic official languageArabic official language– Bureaucratic positions Bureaucratic positions

open to northernersopen to northerners– Consolidation of military Consolidation of military

under northern under northern command—led to first command—led to first signs of rebellionsigns of rebellion

Image of Sudan’s Image of Sudan’s flagflag

http://http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurlimages.google.com/imgres?imgurl==http://unimaps.com/flags-africa/sudan-http://unimaps.com/flags-africa/sudan-flag.gif&imgrefurlflag.gif&imgrefurl=http://unimaps.com/flags-africa/suda=http://unimaps.com/flags-africa/sudan-print2.html&h=599&w=900&sz=10n-print2.html&h=599&w=900&sz=10&hl=&hl=en&starten&start=9&tbnid=4NhCIjaH0t9FoM:&tbnh=96=9&tbnid=4NhCIjaH0t9FoM:&tbnh=96&tbnw=145&prev=/images%3Fq%3DS&tbnw=145&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSudan%2BFlag%26svnum%3D10%26hludan%2BFlag%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%3Den%26lr%3D

2929

Era of First Civil WarEra of First Civil War

1955-1972 of northern hegemony 1955-1972 of northern hegemony following the opening up of the southfollowing the opening up of the south– 1963. Emergence of Anya Nya as force to be 1963. Emergence of Anya Nya as force to be

contended with because of military support contended with because of military support from outside.from outside.

– Despite considerable military assistance to Despite considerable military assistance to Government of Sudan, no victory over south Government of Sudan, no victory over south seemed possibleseemed possible

– Continued instability in north because of failure Continued instability in north because of failure to resolve this crisisto resolve this crisis

– Nimeiri’s government reached peace accord Nimeiri’s government reached peace accord with Anya Nya in 1972with Anya Nya in 1972

3030

Second War in the SouthSecond War in the South

1983-19941983-1994– Declaration of SPLM/A as movement to Declaration of SPLM/A as movement to

achieve autonomy for southern Sudanachieve autonomy for southern Sudan– 1994 Cukudum Conference. First 1994 Cukudum Conference. First

attempts to establish formal judicial attempts to establish formal judicial system to work with local elderssystem to work with local elders

– Established National Congress, National Established National Congress, National Leadership Council, and National Leadership Council, and National Executive CouncilExecutive Council

3131

Second War in the SouthSecond War in the South

SPLM/A persisted as weak governance SPLM/A persisted as weak governance structure in south subject to outbreaks of structure in south subject to outbreaks of ethnic rivalries—especially between the ethnic rivalries—especially between the Dinka who dominate SPLM/ADinka who dominate SPLM/A

John Garang remained dominant in both John Garang remained dominant in both military and civil affairsmilitary and civil affairs

1997 attempt to draft constitution for 1997 attempt to draft constitution for Southern Sudan unable to bridge gap Southern Sudan unable to bridge gap between accountability and Garang’s between accountability and Garang’s power.power.

3232

Issues in Southern PoliticsIssues in Southern Politics Lack of a sound ideology Lack of a sound ideology

of governance within the of governance within the SPLM/A reinforced SPLM/A reinforced militaristic nature of militaristic nature of Garang’s ruleGarang’s rule

Ethiopian support ended Ethiopian support ended in 1991in 1991

Split between Nuer under Split between Nuer under Riek Machar of Sudan Riek Machar of Sudan Peoples Defence Forces Peoples Defence Forces (SPDF) and SPLM/A(SPDF) and SPLM/A

January 2002—January 2002—reintegration of SPDF with reintegration of SPDF with SPLM/ASPLM/A

John Garang

Riek Machar

Image of John Garang Image of John Garang http://www.un.org/av/rhttp://www.un.org/av/radio/unandafrica/imagadio/unandafrica/images/john%20garang%2es/john%20garang%20sm.jpg0sm.jpg

Image of Riek Machar Image of Riek Machar http://www.sudantribuhttp://www.sudantribune.com/IMG/jpg/Riek_ne.com/IMG/jpg/Riek_Machar_3-2.jpgMachar_3-2.jpg

3333

Comprehensive Peace Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA)—January 9, Agreement (CPA)—January 9,

20052005 Beginning in 1994, Beginning in 1994,

Intergovernmental Authority on Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) sponsored Development (IGAD) sponsored peace negotiations.peace negotiations.

Formal peace process began in 2002 Formal peace process began in 2002 with additional support of the United with additional support of the United States, the United Kingdom and States, the United Kingdom and Norway.Norway.

3434

Comprehensive Peace Comprehensive Peace Agreement—January 9, 2005Agreement—January 9, 2005

Government of National Unity (GNU) to be formed for Government of National Unity (GNU) to be formed for interim period of 6 years. At end of that time a interim period of 6 years. At end of that time a referendum in the South will decide whether or not to referendum in the South will decide whether or not to secede.secede.

During interim, the Government of Southern Sudan During interim, the Government of Southern Sudan (GoSS) will be autonomous. (GoSS) will be autonomous.

President of GsSS is to be the Vice-President of GNU.President of GsSS is to be the Vice-President of GNU. Integrated military of 39,000Integrated military of 39,000 Oil wealth to be divided 50:50 between north and Oil wealth to be divided 50:50 between north and

southsouth Jobs to be split in favor of GoS in national Jobs to be split in favor of GoS in national

administration and in the transitional areas.administration and in the transitional areas. Sharia law to be applied only in northern Sudan.Sharia law to be applied only in northern Sudan.

3535

SPLM ChallengesSPLM Challenges Untimely Death of Untimely Death of

John Garang in July John Garang in July 2005.2005.

Succeeded by Salva Succeeded by Salva Kiir, former military Kiir, former military commander without commander without diplomatic skills and diplomatic skills and contacts of Garangcontacts of Garang

SPLM must develop a SPLM must develop a program to implement program to implement peace, and to expand peace, and to expand political alliancespolitical alliances

Image of John Image of John GarangGarang

3636

The Tragedy of DarfurThe Tragedy of Darfur Ancient History of Ancient History of

close and amicable close and amicable relations between relations between Arab nomads and Arab nomads and African cultivatorsAfrican cultivators

Famous Sultanate of Famous Sultanate of Fur a preeminent Fur a preeminent power in central power in central Sudan in 19Sudan in 19thth Century Century

Hakura system of Hakura system of feudal land grants feudal land grants given to followers who given to followers who then had access to then had access to collection of dues from collection of dues from population.population.

Map of Dafur within Map of Dafur within Sudan destroyed Sudan destroyed villagesvillages

http://http://www.lib.utexas.eduwww.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa//maps/africa/darfur_villages_080darfur_villages_0802_2004.jpg2_2004.jpg

3737

DarfurDarfur The region The region

incorporated incorporated into the into the Mahdist state Mahdist state and then into and then into the Anglo-the Anglo-Egyptian Egyptian Sudan where Sudan where it remained a it remained a backwaterbackwater

Photo of Jebel Marra, a volcanic massif in Darfur

Image of Jebel …. Image of Jebel …. http://www.sudansite.http://www.sudansite.com/images/West_picscom/images/West_pics/Jebel_Mara_volcano_l/Jebel_Mara_volcano_large.jpgarge.jpg

3838

DarfurDarfur

Today region has Today region has population of ca 6 population of ca 6 millionmillion

Population before Population before the war was the war was relatively poorrelatively poor

Historically, both Historically, both nomads and nomads and cultivators would cultivators would migratemigrateThe Jebel Marra—at

8,000 ft, an important area of rich land of fields, orchards and pastures

http://www.sudansite.com/images/West_pics/jebel_marra3_large.jpg

3939

DarfurDarfur Darfurians are Darfurians are

predominantly Muslimpredominantly Muslim Many, like Ali al Haj Many, like Ali al Haj

Mohamed—a Bornuan, Mohamed—a Bornuan, ran as an Islamist for ran as an Islamist for governship of Darfur governship of Darfur but was defeated.but was defeated.

In 1994, when he was In 1994, when he was Minister of Federal Minister of Federal Affairs, he divided up Affairs, he divided up Darfur into the three Darfur into the three states of today in states of today in hope that Islamists hope that Islamists candidates might candidates might succeed.succeed.

Map of DarfurMap of Darfur

http://http://rightsmaps.com/rightsmaps.com/html/sudmap1.htmlhtml/sudmap1.html

4040

DarfurDarfur Ecological pressures first in 1960s, then Ecological pressures first in 1960s, then

in 1980s—population pressures and in 1980s—population pressures and drought meant that cultivators closed drought meant that cultivators closed off some of the nomads migration off some of the nomads migration routes in order to protect their fields.routes in order to protect their fields.

Many Arabs lost herds and migrated out Many Arabs lost herds and migrated out of the country for work—many to Libyaof the country for work—many to Libya

4141

DarfurDarfur

By late 1980s, a group that came to By late 1980s, a group that came to be called the Arab Gathering formed be called the Arab Gathering formed close ties with Muammar Gaddafi of close ties with Muammar Gaddafi of Libya and began a critique of the Libya and began a critique of the central government for its neglect.central government for its neglect.

Their ideology exhibited a racist Their ideology exhibited a racist preference for “pure Arabs”, the preference for “pure Arabs”, the Juhayna, in opposition to the riverine Juhayna, in opposition to the riverine groups that controlled the groups that controlled the governmentgovernment

4242

Darfur-1990sDarfur-1990s

Following coup of Gen Omar Bashir in Following coup of Gen Omar Bashir in 1989, the government sought to 1989, the government sought to strengthen ties to the Arab World strengthen ties to the Arab World and in Darfur—to expand the position and in Darfur—to expand the position of Arabs by a proliferation of of Arabs by a proliferation of administrative titles that were given administrative titles that were given to Arabs and not non-Arabs.to Arabs and not non-Arabs.

Many non-Arab groups like Masalit Many non-Arab groups like Masalit were disarmed and youth sent to were disarmed and youth sent to fight against the south.fight against the south.

4343

Darfur Arabs in 1990sDarfur Arabs in 1990s

Musa Hilal emerges Musa Hilal emerges as important leader as important leader of the Abbala Arabs of the Abbala Arabs in the north from in the north from his base in his base in MisterihaMisteriha

By 2000, both By 2000, both helicopters and helicopters and weapons were weapons were amassed there.amassed there.

Image of Musa Hilal Image of Musa Hilal http://hrw.org/imaghttp://hrw.org/images/050205musa.jpges/050205musa.jpg

4444

Darfur—Origins of Sudan Darfur—Origins of Sudan Liberation ArmyLiberation Army

1996. Setting up of a secret 1996. Setting up of a secret organization in Khartoum by men who organization in Khartoum by men who were to be important to SLA:were to be important to SLA:– Abdel Wahid Mohamed al Nur, the first Abdel Wahid Mohamed al Nur, the first

chairman of SLAchairman of SLA– Ahmad Abdel Shafi, SLA’s first coordinatorAhmad Abdel Shafi, SLA’s first coordinator– Abdu Abdalla Ismail, SLA’s first Abdu Abdalla Ismail, SLA’s first

representative to the Ceasefire representative to the Ceasefire Commission set up under the African Commission set up under the African UnionUnion

4545

Origins of SLAOrigins of SLA

Began to raise money and arms—explicitly Began to raise money and arms—explicitly in response to the threats made in Arab in response to the threats made in Arab Gathering statements about killing all Gathering statements about killing all Blacks;Blacks;

1997. Had their first meeting with self-1997. Had their first meeting with self-defense groups among the Fur in Darfur defense groups among the Fur in Darfur and began the mobilization of the area and began the mobilization of the area around Jebel Marraaround Jebel Marra

http://www.iansa.org/images/front-page/sla-http://www.iansa.org/images/front-page/sla-troops-darfur.jpg possible image of troopstroops-darfur.jpg possible image of troops

4646

Early Days of SLAEarly Days of SLA 1997-2002: Worked to expand ties with 1997-2002: Worked to expand ties with

Zaghawa and with Masalit groups all coming Zaghawa and with Masalit groups all coming under pressure and direct attacks from Arabs.under pressure and direct attacks from Arabs.

August 2002. Leadership conference to elect August 2002. Leadership conference to elect officers military commandersofficers military commanders

January-March 2003. First meetings between January-March 2003. First meetings between SLA and SPLASLA and SPLA

By 2005, SLA had 11,000 troops among Fur, By 2005, SLA had 11,000 troops among Fur, Zaghawa and MasalitZaghawa and Masalit

http://www.sudan.net/graphic/news/http://www.sudan.net/graphic/news/conflict/darfur/SLA_Rebels.jpg troops conflict/darfur/SLA_Rebels.jpg troops imageimage

4747

Darfur and Justice and Equality Darfur and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM)Movement (JEM)

1993-1997. 1993-1997. Formation of secret Formation of secret cells to discuss cells to discuss reform of the reform of the National Islamic National Islamic FrontFront

Decision taken to Decision taken to educate ordinary educate ordinary Sudanese—Sudanese—organized to organized to conduct researchconduct research

Dr. Khalil Ibrahim—member of founding group

Image of dr. Khalil Image of dr. Khalil Ibrahim Ibrahim http://www.sudantrhttp://www.sudantribune.com/IMG/jpg/ibune.com/IMG/jpg/Khalil_Ibrahim_dr1.jKhalil_Ibrahim_dr1.jpgpg

4848

Recollections of conditions that Recollections of conditions that motivated their actionsmotivated their actions

From an interview with Abubaker Hamid Nur

There was too much suffering. I travelled 60 kilometres to go to primary school, in Kornoi, when I was 7; 350 kilometres to go to intermediate school, in Geneina; 400 kilometres to go to secondary school in Fasher; and 1,000 kilometres to go to university, in Khartoum. It was forbidden to speak the Zaghawa language in school. In primary school, the teacher gave us a blue ticket to pass to any boy who spoke Zaghawa. At the end of the day, anyone who had had the ticket was whipped. The whole of Kutum province, with a population of more than 551,000 had one general doctor and no specialists. Women walked more than eight hours daily to get less than 60 litres of water. We were excluded from all key posts and had no way of communicating with the international community to ask for help. Why: Because a gang in Khartoum was controlling everything. (Flint and De Waal, Darfur. 2005, 92-93.

4949

JEM PhilosophyJEM Philosophy

Believed that the problems of Darfur Believed that the problems of Darfur require national solutionsrequire national solutions

2003 a 5-Point Manifesto2003 a 5-Point Manifesto– Unified SudanUnified Sudan– Justice and equalityJustice and equality– Constitutional reform guaranteeing rights to Constitutional reform guaranteeing rights to

the regionsthe regions– Basic services for SudaneseBasic services for Sudanese– Equitable development of economy and human Equitable development of economy and human

services throughout the country.services throughout the country.

5050

The War in Darfur 2003-The War in Darfur 2003-20052005

SLA and JEM cooperate militarily and meet SLA and JEM cooperate militarily and meet with great success in 2003with great success in 2003

By mid-year, Musa Hilal had returned to By mid-year, Musa Hilal had returned to Darfur and expanded recruitment for JanjawiidDarfur and expanded recruitment for Janjawiid

2004. Throughout the year the Janjawiid, who 2004. Throughout the year the Janjawiid, who had become a well-heeled paramilitary group had become a well-heeled paramilitary group led assaults on villages throughout the region led assaults on villages throughout the region at same time that negotiations were on-going at same time that negotiations were on-going with the United Nations and the African Unionwith the United Nations and the African Union

5151

The War in Darfur--2005The War in Darfur--2005

By 2005—nearly 2 million driven into By 2005—nearly 2 million driven into camps inside Darfurcamps inside Darfur

200,000 had fled to Chad200,000 had fled to Chad Janjawiid operated with full support Janjawiid operated with full support

of Sudan Defence Forces, the Air of Sudan Defence Forces, the Air Force, and the State Security.Force, and the State Security.

The Arab Gathering could operate The Arab Gathering could operate independently of Khartoumindependently of Khartoum

http://www.ushmm.org/conscience/alert/darfur/steidle/ Series of images and http://www.ushmm.org/conscience/alert/darfur/steidle/ Series of images and account by an American observeraccount by an American observer

5252

International AgentsInternational Agents

The African UnionThe African Union April 2004. First discussion of April 2004. First discussion of

situation in Darfur at meeting of AU’s situation in Darfur at meeting of AU’s Peace and Security Council meetingPeace and Security Council meeting

Humanitarian ceasefire agreement Humanitarian ceasefire agreement signed in N’Djamena calling on signed in N’Djamena calling on Sudan government to neutralise the Sudan government to neutralise the armed militiasarmed militias

http://eur.news1.yimg.com/eur.yimg.com/xp/reuters_molt/2278372575.jpg http://eur.news1.yimg.com/eur.yimg.com/xp/reuters_molt/2278372575.jpg image of African Union Soldiers/observersimage of African Union Soldiers/observers

5353

International AgentsInternational Agents

The United StatesThe United States June 2004. U. S. Congress passed June 2004. U. S. Congress passed

resolution describing Darfur as resolution describing Darfur as genocidegenocide

September 2004. U. S. Secretary of September 2004. U. S. Secretary of State Colin Powell testified before the State Colin Powell testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee Senate Foreign Relations Committee that genocide had occurred in Sudan.that genocide had occurred in Sudan.

http://www.sudantribune.com/article.php3?id_article=11585 image Of US Sec’y http://www.sudantribune.com/article.php3?id_article=11585 image Of US Sec’y of State Colin Powell testifying about genocide in Darfurof State Colin Powell testifying about genocide in Darfur

5454

International AgentsInternational Agents

United Nations.United Nations.– June 2004. UN Security Council Resolution June 2004. UN Security Council Resolution

1556:1556: Disarm JanjawiidDisarm Janjawiid Arrest leadersArrest leaders Allow access to humanitarian assistanceAllow access to humanitarian assistance

– September 2004. UN Security Council September 2004. UN Security Council Resolution 1564Resolution 1564 Mandate of International Commission of Inquiry on Mandate of International Commission of Inquiry on

Darfur (ICID) to investigate human rights and to Darfur (ICID) to investigate human rights and to determine if genocide had occurred.determine if genocide had occurred.

– January 2005-Report of ICIDJanuary 2005-Report of ICID

5555

Agreements for Peace in DarfurAgreements for Peace in Darfur

2005, July. Government 2005, July. Government of Sudan, SLA/M and of Sudan, SLA/M and JEM sign Declaration of JEM sign Declaration of Principles in AbujaPrinciples in Abuja

2006, May 5. Signing of 2006, May 5. Signing of Darfur Peace Darfur Peace Agreement in Abuja by Agreement in Abuja by Government of Sudan Government of Sudan (largely represented by (largely represented by the National Congress the National Congress Party); and a faction of Party); and a faction of the Sudan Liberation the Sudan Liberation Army under Minni Army under Minni Arkou Minawi (SLA/MMArkou Minawi (SLA/MM

Minni Arkou Minawi

Image of Minnie Image of Minnie Arkou Minawi Arkou Minawi http://www.sudantrhttp://www.sudantribune.com/IMG/jpg/ibune.com/IMG/jpg/Minni_Arcua_MinnaMinni_Arcua_Minnawi_speaks_.jpgwi_speaks_.jpg

5656

The Darfur Peace The Darfur Peace AgreementAgreement

Three Three ProtocolsProtocols– Security Security

ArrangementsArrangements– Power SharingPower Sharing– Wealth SharingWealth Sharing– Darfur-Darfur Darfur-Darfur

Dialogue and Dialogue and ConsultationConsultation

Political cartoon of Political cartoon of man labeled Sudan man labeled Sudan watering a desert watering a desert flower flower http://www.aljazeerhttp://www.aljazeerah.info/Cartoons/20ah.info/Cartoons/2003%20cartoons/car03%20cartoons/cartoon%20negatives/toon%20negatives/2003/December/ar2003/December/ar10.jpg10.jpg by Al-Jazeerah by Al-Jazeerah

5757

SourcesSources Africa, Justice. “Sudan: Prospects for Peace” In Africa, Justice. “Sudan: Prospects for Peace” In Review of African Review of African

Political Economy Political Economy 97, 30 (September 2003), 489-497.97, 30 (September 2003), 489-497. Compare InfoBase Pvt Ltd. Sudan Political Map. Compare InfoBase Pvt Ltd. Sudan Political Map.

http://mapsofworld.com/sudan/sudan-political-map.htmlhttp://mapsofworld.com/sudan/sudan-political-map.html Flint, Julie and Alex De Waal. Flint, Julie and Alex De Waal. Darfur. Darfur. 2005.2005. International Crisis Group. “Sudan’s Comprehensive Peace Agreement: International Crisis Group. “Sudan’s Comprehensive Peace Agreement:

The Long Road Ahead” Africa Report No 106, 31 March 2006. Seen at The Long Road Ahead” Africa Report No 106, 31 March 2006. Seen at http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=4179&l=1http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=4179&l=1 (June 29, (June 29, 2006).2006).

International Crisis Group. “Darfur’s Fragile Peace Agreement”. Africa International Crisis Group. “Darfur’s Fragile Peace Agreement”. Africa Policy Briefing No. 39. Nairobi/Brussels June 20, 2006 acceessed via Policy Briefing No. 39. Nairobi/Brussels June 20, 2006 acceessed via http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=4179&l=1http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=4179&l=1 (June 29, (June 29, 2006)2006)

Library of Congress Country Study on Sudan. Library of Congress Country Study on Sudan. http://countrystudies.ushttp://countrystudies.us Mohammed, Adan Azain. “Women and Conflict in Darfur” In Mohammed, Adan Azain. “Women and Conflict in Darfur” In Review of Review of

African Political Economy African Political Economy 97, 30 (September 2003), 479-481.97, 30 (September 2003), 479-481. Rone, Jemera. Sudan: Oil and War” In Rone, Jemera. Sudan: Oil and War” In Review of African Political Review of African Political

Economy Economy 97, 30 (September 2003), 504-510.97, 30 (September 2003), 504-510. Salopek, Paul. “Shattered Sudan. Drilling for Oil Hoping for Peace.” Salopek, Paul. “Shattered Sudan. Drilling for Oil Hoping for Peace.”

National GeographicNational Geographic February 2003,30-67. February 2003,30-67. Young, John. “Sudan: Liberation Movements, Regional Armies, Ethnic Young, John. “Sudan: Liberation Movements, Regional Armies, Ethnic

Militias and Peace” In Militias and Peace” In Review of African Political EconomyReview of African Political Economy 97, 30 97, 30 (September 2003), 423-434.(September 2003), 423-434.