1 Second Edition Dr. Wasim Al-Habil. Chapter 4...................... Chapter 4...................... Research Methods for Business Students Research Methods.

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Second EditionSecond Edition

Dr. Wasim Al-Habil.Dr. Wasim Al-Habil.

Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Methods for Business Students

Research Methods for Business Students

Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill

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Chapter 4Chapter 4

Research Methods for Business Students

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Key TopicsKey Topics To outline the key assumptions of the positivist,

interpretivist and realist research philosophies. To distinguish between two main approaches to

research: deductive and inductive. To identify the main research strategies and explain

why these should not be thought of as mutually exclusive.

To explain the benefits of adopting a multi-method approach to the conduct of research.

To explain the concepts of validity and reliability and identify the main threats to validity and reliability.

To understand some of the main ethical issues implied by the choice of research strategy.

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4.1 Differing approaches to research

The research process “onion:”

1. Research philosophy2. Research approaches3. Research strategies4. Time horizons5. Data collection methods

See figure 4.1 in page 83

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Phenomenology

Positivism

Deductive

Inductive

Experiment

Action research

Cross Survey

samplingsecondary data

observationinterviews

questionnaires

Researchphilosophy

Researchapproaches

Research strategies

Time horizons

Data collectionmethods

Case study

Grounded theory

Ethno-graphy

sectional

Longitudinal

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4.1 Differing approaches to research Research philosophy:

1. Positivism: The stance of the natural scientist

2. Interpretivism: The role of the interpretivist to seek to understand the subjective reality of those that they study in order to make sense of and understand their motives, actions and intentions.

3. Realism: Based on the belief that a reality exists. It is independent of human thoughts and beliefs.

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Positivism (Logical Positivism)Positivism (Logical Positivism)

• Positivists attempt to mirror the methods of the naturaland physical scientists.

• Through observing reality you can produce laws of the socialworld which can be generalised from one context to anothere.g Laws of Supply and Demand in Positive Economics.

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PositivismPositivism

• Your role is to be an objective analyst, collecting data andinterpreting it in a value free way. • You are detached, neither affect nor are affected by thesubject of your research.

• Emphasise the quantifiable, the observable, and replication(the ability to repeat research)

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Phenomenology emphasisesPhenomenology emphasises....

• That the world is too complex to be reduced to a series of law-like generalisations.

• the uniqueness of people, and circumstances and the constant nature of change.

• details matter - in an attempt to dig into deeperlayers of reality.

• subjective reality matters.

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PhenomenologyPhenomenology

Could be used to study –

• Organisational culture layer by layer – the visual symbols the mission statement, and the hidden world of taken for granted assumptions which influence thinking, feeling perceptions in the workplace.

Warning!

Finding ‘the reality working behind the reality’ may be too challenging for some!

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Research approaches

The research process ‘onion’

Research approaches

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Choosing a research approachChoosing a research approach

A deductive approach? You develop a theory and design a strategy to test hypotheses.A close ally to the philosophy of positivism. A scientific approach.

An inductive approach?

You collect data and develop a theory as a result of your data analysisA close ally to the philosophy of phenomenology.

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4.1 Differing approaches to research

Choosing a research approach: Deduction: testing theory:

1. Deducing a hypothesis from theory.2. Expressing the hypothesis in operational

terms.3. Testing this operational hypothesis.4. Examining the specific outcome of the

inquiry.5. If necessary, modifying the theory in the light

of the findings.

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Deduction: testing theory

If theory is trueIf theory is true X will occurX will occur

X does occur - theory supported

X does occur - theory supported

X does not occur -theory challenged

X does not occur -theory challenged

Test XTest X

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A hypothesis states that there is a A hypothesis states that there is a relationship between two concepts and relationship between two concepts and specifies the direction of that relationshipspecifies the direction of that relationship..

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Age Gross annualincome

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Key terms explainedKey terms explained

The elements in the boxes are called concepts.

The lines between the boxes are called relationships.

Theories are composed of concepts linked by relationships.

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VariablesVariables

A positive sign shows a positive relationship, e.g.(hours of study rises, exam grades rise)

A negative sign shows a negative relationship, e.g. (Price of houses rises, demand falls)

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VariablesVariables

A variable is a characteristic which has more than onecategory or value. e.g. ‘Age’

The effect is called a dependent variable (Y);The assumed cause is called an independentvariable (X)

An intervening variable (Z) is the means by which X affects Y……..

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variablesvariables

Education job income

X YZ

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4.1 Differing approaches to research

Choosing a research approach Deduction: testing theory Several important characteristics:

1. There is a search to explain causal relationships between variables.

2. Concepts need to be operationalized in a way that enables facts to be measured quantitatively.

3. Generalization.

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4.1 Differing approaches to research

Choosing a research approach Induction: building theory.

It enables you to take a more informed decision about your research design.

It will help you to think about those research approaches that will work for you and, crucially, those that will not.

A knowledge of the different research traditions enables you to adapt your research design to cater for constraints.

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Induction: building theoryInduction: building theory

Sir Francis Bacon1561-1626

What is the experience of working at a particular firm?

We could interview employees in UNRWAto get a feel for the issues and then analyse the data, and eventually formulate a theory about job satisfaction.

With induction – theory follows data.

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Induction: building theoryInduction: building theory

Sir Francis Bacon1561-1626

Human beings interpret their world – they have consciousness.

• They are not unthinking research objects who respondlike the coffee machine in the corridor to the stimulusof cash injections

• Humans devise alternative explanations to the orthodox view – they have their own stories (narratives).

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Induction: building theoryInduction: building theory

Sir Francis Bacon1561-1626

Context matters.

• A small sample may be appropriate.

• Qualitative methods acceptable.

• More likely to find out ‘why’ X is happening rather than ‘what’ is happening.

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4.1 Differing approaches to research

Choosing a research approach.

For major differences between deductive and inductive approaches to research, please see box 4.1 in page 89.

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Research strategies

The research process ‘onion’

Research strategies

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

List:

1. Experiment2. Survey3. Case study4. Grounded theory5. Ethnography6. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies7. Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory

studies

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

Experiment:

Definition of a theoretical hypothesis. Selection of samples of individuals from

known populations. Allocation of samples to different

experimental conditions. Introduction of planned change on one or

more of the variables. Measurement on a small number of the

variables Control of other variables.

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The experimental designThe experimental design

Control group

Pre-test Post-test

Pre-test Post-testExperimentalgroup

1.

2. 3. 4.

5.

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1. Allocate subjects to groups using systematic controls and randomization

2. Measure both groups on dependent variable

3. Introduce independent variable to experimental group

4. Measure both groups again on dependent variable

5.Compare both groups on dependent variable.

The experimental design: stages

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy Survey:

The survey strategy is usually associated with the deductive approach.

They allow the collection of a large amount of data from a sizeable population in a highly economical way.

Using a survey strategy should give you more control over the research process.

The data collected by the survey strategy may not be as wide-ranging as those collected by other research strategies.

The questionnaire is not the only way to collect data.

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Research questions appropriate for Research questions appropriate for a surveya survey

1. Behaviour.

2. Attitudes /Beliefs / Opinions.

3. Characteristics.

4. Expectations.

5. Self-classification.

6. Knowledge.

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Main advantages of surveyMain advantages of survey

• ability to collect large amounts of data;

• the relatively cheap cost at which these data may be collected;

• perceived as authoritative (trustworthy) by some;

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

Case study:

A strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence.

The data collection methods employed may be various. They may include questionnaires, interviews, observation, documentary analysis.

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

Grounded theory:

Data collection starts without the formation of an initial theoretical framework. Theory is developed from data generated by a series of observations.

These data lead to the generation of predictions that are then tested in further observations which may confirm.

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

Ethnography:

It emanates from the field of anthropology.

The purpose is to interpret the social world the research subjects inhabit in the way in which they interpret it.

Although not a dominant research strategy in business, ethnography may be very appropriate.

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

Action research:

The strengths of an action research strategy are a focus upon change, the recognition that time needs to be devoted to reconnaissance (fact finding and analysis), monitoring and evaluation and the involvement of employees throughout the process.

The action research spiral

See figure 4.2 in page 95.

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Time horizons

The research process ‘onion’

Time horizons

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

Time horizons:

We should emphasize here that these time perspectives to research design are independent of which research strategy you are pursing.

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

Cross-sectional studies:

It is probable that your research will be cross-sectional, the study of a particular phenomenon at a particular time.

We recognize that most research projects undertaken for academic courses are necessarily time constrained.

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

Longitudinal studies:

The main strength of longitudinal research is the capacity to study change and development.

Even with time constraints it is possible to

introduce a longitudinal element to your research.

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Exploratory, descriptive and Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studiesexplanatory studies

More strategies…….

Goals or Purposes of Research

Descriptive

Explanatoryor Analytical

Exploratory

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies Exploratory:

Exploratory Study: A valuable means of finding out “what is happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light”.

Three principal ways1. A search of the literature2. Talking to experts in the subjects3. Conducting focus group interviews

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

Descriptive studies: It is necessary to have a clear picture of the phenomena on which you wish to collect data prior to the collection of the data.

It portrays a person, situation, or a phenomenon.

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

Explanatory studies: The emphasis here is on studying a situation or a problem in order to explain the relationship between variables.

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Research Possibilities Grid

Research Research PhilosophyPhilosophy

PositivismPositivism InterpretivisInterpretivismm

Critical Critical TheoryTheory

OtherOther

Nature of Nature of the datathe data

QuantitativeQuantitative QualitativeQualitative Mixed Mixed Qual/QuantsQual/Quants

ResearchResearch

ApproachesApproachesDeductiveDeductive InductiveInductive

ResearchResearch

StrategiesStrategiesExperimentExperiment SurveySurvey Case StudyCase Study

ResearchResearch

PurposesPurposesExplanatoryExplanatory ++

PredictivePredictive

DescriptiveDescriptive ExploratoryExploratory

Time Time HorizonHorizon

Cross Cross SectionSection

LongitudinalLongitudinal

Data Data Collection Collection MethodsMethods

Secondary Secondary DataData

InterviewsInterviews QuestionnairesQuestionnaires ObservationObservationss

SomeSome

ResearchResearch

TraditionsTraditions

GroundedGrounded

TheoryTheoryAction Action ResearchResearch

EthnographyEthnography OrganizationOrganizationalal””

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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy Practitioner-researcher Researching in your organization or working

context.

Advantages:1. Familiarity2. knowledge

Disadvantages:1. Ignorance2. Status3. Time

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4.3 Using multi-methods

There are two major advantages to employing multi-methods in the same study.

Different methods can be used for different purposes in a study.

It enables triangulation to take place.

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4.4 The credibility of research findings Reliability: The same results in other occasions, by other researchers,

and in a transparent way of raw data collection.

were your work to be replicated by another, would the same result be produced?

Threats to reliability

1. Participant error (Monday morning and Friday afternoon)2. Participant bias (Interviewees may see what they think

their bosses want them to say)3. Observer error (Different approaches to elicit answers or

replies)4. Observer bias (Different approaches to interpret answers

or replies)

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4.4 The credibility of research findings Validity: Concerned with whether the findings are really about what they

appear to be about.

Did your approaches, methods and techniques relate to the issues you were exploring and the variables you attempted to measure?

Threats to validity:1. History (Research about job satisfaction conducted shortly after an increase

in salaries).2. Testing (Suppose your research included timing the number of sales entered

by a person on the checkout of supermarket – If the operators felt that the results of the inquiry would damage them this could affect the findings.)

3. Instrumentation (Suppose the operators were told to increase the sales and outcome between the times you tested the first and the second group of operators – this could affect the outcome.)

4. Mortality (Participants dropping out of studies: change in the management style which affects the results)

5. Maturation (Other events or factors happen during the time of the research: New manager being hired)

6. Ambiguity about casual direction (A is causing B or B is causing A. Negative attitude to performance causes the poor performance ratings or the later causing the first. Or ill health and unemployment)

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4.4 The credibility of research findings Generalisability

Logic leaps and false assumptions:

1. Identification of the research population( If you make generalisability then make sure you are talking about similar populations. E.g. what mapply in Bank of Palestine may not apply to Alarabi Bank.)

2. Data Collection (Be aware of possible political bias in certain newspaper or management bias and etc…)

3. Data interpretation (Why you are using this theory rather than the other one which may be equally or more appropriate.)

4. Development of conclusions (Do my conclusions stand up to the closest scrutiny of the members of the scientific/academic community.)

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4.5 The ethics of research design

Need to consider the extent to which you should collect data from a research population that is unaware of the fact they are the subject of research and so have not consented.

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4.6 Summary

Three main philosophical positions in relation to research: positivism, interpretivism and realism.

Two main approaches to research are deductive &. inductive.

The main research strategies are experiment, survey, case study, grounded theory, ethnography and action research.

Research projects may be cross-sectional or longitudinal.

Using multi-methods to research with different purposes served and that triangulation of results is facilitated.