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Tectonophysics 392

Plate kinematics, origin and tectonic emplacement

of supra-subduction ophiolites in SE Asia

Manuel Pubelliera,*, Christophe Monnierb, Rene Mauryc, R. Tamayod

aCNRS UMR 8538, Laboratoire de Geologie, Ecole Normale Superieure, 24 rue Lhomond, F-75231 Paris, FrancebLaboratoire de Planetologie et Geodynamique, UMR-CNRS 6112, Universite de Nantes,

2 rue de la Houssiniere BP 92208,44322 Nantes Cedex, FrancecLaboratoire de Petrologie-Geochimie, Universite de Bretagne Occidentale, 9, avenue Le Gorgeu, 29285, Brest, France

dNational Institute of Geological Sciences, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, 1101, Philippines

Available online 18 September 2004

Abstract

A unique feature of the Circum Pacific orogenic belts is the occurrence of ophiolitic bodies of various sizes, most of which

display petrological and geochemical characteristics typical of supra-subduction zone oceanic crust. In SE Asia, a majority of

the ophiolites appear to have originated at convergent margins, and specifically in backarc or island arc settings, which evolved

either along the edge of the Sunda (Eurasia) and Australian cratons, or within the Philippine Sea Plate. These ophiolites were

later accreted to continental margins during the Tertiary. Because of fast relative plate velocities, tectonic regimes at the active

margins of these three plates also changed rapidly. Strain partitioning associated with oblique convergence caused arc-trench

systems to move further away from the locus of their accretion. We distinguish brelatively autochthonous ophiolitesQ resultingfrom the shortening of marginal basins such as the present-day South China Sea or the Coral Sea, and bhighly displaced

ophiolitesQ developed in oblique convergent margins, where they were dismantled, transported and locally severely sheared

during final docking. In peri-cratonic mobile belts (i.e. the Philippine Mobile Belt) we find a series of oceanic basins which

have been slightly deformed and uplifted. Varying lithologies and geochemical compositions of tectonic units in these basins, as

well as their age discrepancies, suggest important displacements along major wrench faults.

We have used plate tectonic reconstructions to restore the former backarc basins and island arcs characterized by known petro-

geochemical data to their original location and their former tectonic settings. Some of the ophiolites occurring in front of the Sunda

plate represent supra-subduction zone basins formed along the Australian Craton margin during theMesozoic. The Philippine Sea

Basin, the Huatung basin south of Taiwan, and composite ophiolitic basements of the Philippines and Halmahera may represent

remnants of such marginal basins. The portion of the Philippine Sea Plate carrying the Taiwan–Philippine arc and its composite

ophiolitic/continental crustal basement might have actually originated in a different setting, closer to that of the Papua NewGuinea

Ophiolite, and then have been displaced rapidly as a result of shearing associated with fast oblique convergence.

D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Supra-subduction ophiolite; Marginal basins; Kinematics; Oblique convergence; Sunda plate; Australia; Philippines; Cainozoic

tectonics; Strain partitioning

* Corresponding author. Fax: +33 144322000.

0040-1951/$ - s

doi:10.1016/j.tec

E-mail addr

(2004) 9–36

ee front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

to.2004.04.028

ess: [email protected] (M. Pubellier).

M. Pubellier et al. / Tectonophysics 392 (2004) 9–3610

M. Pubellier et al. / Tectonophysics 392 (2004) 9–36 11

1. Introduction

Ophiolitic bodies are ubiquitous in SE Asia (Fig.

1), and various interpretations have been proposed for

their origin. They are generally highly dismembered

and display supra-subduction zone chemical affinities

(Table 1). The faults responsible for ophiolite

emplacement have been commonly reactivated by

subsequent tectonic events. Early faults that devel-

oped during the formation stage of oceanic crust were

involved in the exhumation of lower crust and upper

mantle rocks on the sea floor and in local dismember-

ing of the crustal sections of ophiolites. The spatial

and temporal relationships of ophiolites with other

tectonic units are commonly obscured by a melange

unit displaying internal deformation (Clennell, 1996;

Harris et al., 1998) and metamorphism (Blake and

Brothers, 1977), by injection of dykes (Bloomer et al.,

1995) and by widespread serpentinization.

Most of the basaltic sections of the SE Asian

ophiolites display specific geochemical characteristics

(Fig. 2). Nearly flat REE patterns suggest derivation of

their magmas from rather depleted mantle sources

similar to those of Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts (MORB).

However, their trace element abundances, particularly

their relative enrichment in large ion lithophile

elements (LILE) and depletion in high field strength

elements (HFSE), including the development of weak

to moderate negative anomalies in Nb and Ta with

respect to elements of similar incompatibility (e.g. La

and Th), are typical of magmas generated within

subduction-related settings, particularly backarc basins

(Saunders and Tarney, 1984; Tamayo, 2001; Tamayo

et al., in press). Similarly, peridotites in the mantle

sections of SE Asian ophiolites display enrichments in

LILE and light rare earth elements (LREE) suggesting

that they underwent metasomatism as a result of

percolation of fluids originated from a downgoing

oceanic slab (Kogiso et al., 1997). Hence, a supra-

subduction origin is generally either demonstrated or

suspected for the ophiolitic bodies of SE Asia. This

Fig. 1. Ophiolite occurrences in SE Asian, with seven enlargements of sp

represent only the continental margins. PSP/SUN/AUS plate boundary. PS

Ang: Angat Massif, Bi: Bismarck Sea, Bo: Bobaris range, Car: Caroline Pla

Cagayan arc, CM: China Margin, CY, Cyclops Massif, Cro: Central Rang

Halmahera Island, Mdo: Mindoro ophiolite, Me: Meratus ophiolite, Min

Makassar Basin, Luz: Luzon island, NAS: Northern Arm of Sulawesi, Pa

China Sea, Sm: Sierra Madre of Luzon, Su: Sulawesi, Sul: Sulu Sea, Za:

implies that the slivers of fossil supra-subduction crust

or mantle that we find in various tectonic belts had

originally evolved in convergent margin settings,

which may resemble those observed today.

The purpose of this paper is to review the modern

and Neogene tectonic settings of oceanic crust

formation, using our current understanding of the

tectonic evolution of SE Asia (e.g. Rangin et al.,

1990a,b, 1999; Hall, 1996; Pubellier et al., 2003b). To

address this topic, we have surveyed the tectonic

systems at boundaries of the Philippine (which we

associate with the Caroline Plate), Sunda and Aus-

tralian plates (Fig. 1). These include the Philippine

Arc, which formed on the Philippine Sea Plate, and

the southern extension of this belt, which has been

either obducted on the northern margin of the

Australian continent, or jammed within various crustal

fragments of central Indonesia. One striking tectonic

feature of these regions is the association of paired

subduction zones and trench-parallel strike-slip faults,

behind which extensional environments exist. There-

fore, portions of the volcanic arcs have been removed

or are in the process of separating from their original

position and are scattered across the mobile belts

developed between Taiwan and Papua New Guinea.

2. Cainozoic history of SE Asia: processes

responsible for generation and emplacement of

ophiolites

2.1. Marginal basins in SE Asia

The modern structure of the Eurasian margin is

marked by a succession of marginal basins separated

by continental fragments (Fig. 3) and is a result of

long-lasting extension along the southern margin of

mainland Asia (Taylor and Hayes, 1980; Holloway,

1982). From north to south and away from the

Eurasian margin, these basins and continental frag-

ments include (1) South China Sea and the continental

ecific areas. The Philippine Sea Plate has been omitted in order to

P: Philippine Sea Plate, SUN: Sunda Plate, AUS: Australian Plate,

te, Ch: Chico River ophiolite, CM: Central Mindanao ophiolite, Cg:

e ophiolite, ES: East Sulawesi ophiolite, Hua: Huatung Basin, Hal:

: Mindanao island, Md: Mindoro, NG: New Guinea island, Mk:

: Palawan, Pan: Panay ophiolite, Pu: Pujada ophiolite, SCS: South

Zambales, Zb: Zamboanga Peninsula.

Table 1

Simplified table summarizing the age and origin of the ophiolites of SE Asia

Localisation Names of

ophiolites

Age of

formation

Age of

obduction

Volcanic

units

Tectonic

setting

References

Phillipines Aurora–Isabela Early Cretaceous MOR-SSZ Marginal basin Yumul et al.

(1997), Tamayo

(2001) (Tamayo

et al., in press)

Lepanto–Pugo Cretaceous MOR Arc–marginal basin

Bicol Early Cretaceous SSZ Arc–marginal basin

Samar Late Cretaceous SSZ Marginal basin

Zambales Middle–Late Eocene SSZ Marginal basin

Angat Middle Eocene SSZ Marginal basin

Leyte Early to Middle Eocene SSZ Oceanic basin–

marginal basin

Dinagat Cretaceous to Eocene SSZ Marginal basin

Cebu Early Cretaceous SSZ Marginal basin

Bohol Early–Late Cretaceous SSZ Forearc

Ilocos Norte Jurassic to Cretaceous SSZ Marginal basin

Mindoro Middle Oligocene SSZ Marginal basin

Antique Late Jurassique to Middle Eocene SSZ Forearc

NE Zamboanga Late Oligocene to Early Miocene SSZ Marginal basin (?)

Palawan Late Cretaceous to Eocene SSZ Marginal basin

SW Zamboanga Late Cretaceous SSZ Marginal basin (?)

Kalimantan Sabah (Darvel Bay) Lower Cretaceous Eocene BABB Marginal basin Omang and

Barber (1996)

Meratus (southeast

Kalimantan)

Albian/Aptian Turonian IAT-BABB Arc–marginal

basin

Monnier et al.

(1999)

Laut island

(southeast

Kalimantan)

Unknown

Sulawesi Balantak and

central Sulawesi

Eocene Middle

Oligocene

BABB Marginal basin Monnier et al.

(1995),

Parkinson (1998)

Lamasi

(central Sulawesi)

Not available Not available BABB Marginal basin Bergman et al.

(1996)

Bantimala

(west arm)

Jurassic ? Oligocene Oceanic basin ? Wakita et al.

(1996)

Barru island

(south Sulawesi)

Jurassic ? Oligocene Oceanic basin ?

Kabaena island

(south Sulawesi)

Unknown

Buton island

(south Sulawesi)

Unknown Middle to Late

Miocene

Unknown Davidson (1991)

Irian Jaya Weyland Paleocene Eocene and

Miocene

IAT Arc–marginal

basin

Permana (1998)

Cyclops Eocene/Oligocene Miocene BON-IAT-

BABB

Forearc–arc–

marginal basin

Monnier et al.

(1999)

Central

ophiolitic belt

Jurassic Cretaceous BABB-MOR Marginal basin Monnier et al.

(2000)

Gauthier Unknown

Papua New

Guinea

Papua Ultramafic

Belt (Cap Vogel)

Cretaceous Eocene BON Forearc–arc Davies and Jaques

(1984), Jaques

et al. (1983),

Jenner (1981)

April Eocene ? Oligocene Not available

Marum Late Mesozoic/

Eocene

Oligocene/

Miocene

BON Forearc–arc

Halmahera island Late Cretaceous–

Eocene

Late Paleogene BON-IAT Forearc–arc Ballantyne (1992)


Localisation Names of

ophiolites

Age of

formation

Age of

obduction

Volcanic

units

Tectonic

setting

References

Seram and

Ambon islands

Early to Middle

Miocene

Late Miocene IAT-BABB Arc-BABB Monnier et al.

(2003); Linthout

et al. (1997)

Timor island Unknown Late Miocene BON-IAT-MOR Forearc Harris and Long

(2000)

Java island Karangsambung

(Luk Ulo complex)

Early Cretaceous Late Cretaceous ? Marginal basin Wakita (2000)

Waigeo island Unknown

Obi island Pre Tertiary ? Unknown

BABB: backarc basin basalts, BON: boninite, IAT: island arc tholeiite, MOR: Mid-Ocean Ridge, SSZ: supra-subduction zone.

Table 1 (continued)


Palawan Block (P.B), (2) extended continental crust of

the NW Sulu Sea, (3) Cagayan volcanic arc, (4) Sulu

Sea backarc basin, (5) western edge of Mindanao and

the Sulu arc, characterized by continental basement,

(6) Celebes basin floored with oceanic crust and (7)

northern arm of Sulawesi, partly underlain by

continental basement (Taylor and Hayes, 1980;

Rangin et al., 1989a,b, 1990a,b; Pubellier et al.,

1992). The effect of the oblique collision on this

system has been the development of a mosaic of

crustal blocks, which may in fact have been derived

(Faure et al., 1989; Rangin et al., 1990a,b) from two

major plates: the Eurasian and the Philippine Sea

Plates. The fault-bounded blocks correspond to some

of the exotic terranes recognized by Karig (1983) and

McCabe and Almasco (1985).

Marginal basins have opened along the Eurasian

margin since the Early Tertiary, most of them trending

NS or NNW/SSE. The mechanics of basin opening

has always been a matter of discussion. It has been

proposed, for example, that the South China Sea

(SCS) opened in response to the extrusion of Indo-

china (Tapponnier et al., 1986). This interpretation is

difficult to reconcile, however, with a N–S spreading

of the South China Sea and with the timing of rifting

that started in the Late Cretaceous (Pigott and Ru,

1994). More likely, gravity controlled trench-pull may

be invoked to explain the rifting and spreading of the

South China Sea basin. The subduction along the

Sunda Trench (Fig. 3) may be responsible for the

opening of the Proto South China and the Celebes

Seas, and the subduction of the Proto South China Sea

south of Palawan may in turn explain the South China

Sea opening (Rangin, 1989; Rangin et al., 1990a,b).

Nearly all the marginal basins have opened

diachronously in the eastern half of the Sunda/

southern China blocks. The first one was the Proto

South China Sea, the rifting of which started at the

edge of the Yienshanian orogen in the Late Creta-

ceous with limited sea floor spreading (if any) during

the Early Eocene. Other smaller basins such as the

Beibu basin and the Palawan Trough which opened on

either side of the South China Sea during the

Paleogene did not reach the oceanic stage (Rangin

et al., 1990b; Fig. 3). The Celebes Sea opened during

the Middle Eocene (47 Ma, Weissel, 1980; Silver et

al., 1989), followed by the opening of the South China

Sea during the Oligocene (33–15 Ma, Taylor and

Hayes, 1980; Briais et al., 1988) and of the Sulu Sea

during late Early Miocene (18 Ma, Rangin, 1989).

The opening of these basins is interpreted to have

occurred analogous to that of the western South China

Sea, where a propagator has been identified, mapped

and modelled (Huchon et al., 2000). We assume a

similar evolution for the Makassar Basin as a

propagator of the Celebes Sea (Rangin et al.,

1990a,b). We also infer an identical process for the

Proto South China Sea narrow section of the Sulu Sea,

now shortened in Sabah.

The process of opening of the Sunda basins was

not terminated completely with the collision of the

Australian continental fragments in the Miocene.

After the jump of the Sunda subduction zone to its

present position (Fig. 3), the extension of the upper

plate further in the south produced two basins: the

North Banda basin during the Late Miocene and the

south Banda basin during the Pliocene (Honthaas et

al., 1998; Hinshberger et al., 2001).

Fig. 2. Theoretical section of a supra-subduction environment with typical multi-element plots of chondrite-normalized rare-earth elements and extended element patterns of selected

COB backarc basin basalts and peridotites. Examples are extracted from Eastern Indonesia (Monnier et al., 1995, 1999, 2000, 2003).

M.Pubellier

etal./Tecto

nophysics

392(2004)9–36

14

Fig. 3. Simplified map showing various continental blocks (thin crosshatched pattern) and basins of the Sunda, Australia and Philippine Sea

(PSP) plates. Thick lines characterize selected and simplified segments of major faults. Thicker dashed lines with saw teeth marks indicate the

former locations of major trenches Sunda Trench south of Sunda, and Melanesian Trench north of Australia are assumed hereafter to be

responsible for the stretching of the upper plates and subsequent opening of marginal basins floored with oceanic crust. Arrows represent an

approximate direction of opening. Same legend as Fig. 1 for the geographic names; additional basins on this figure are: BB: Beibu basin, Cel:

Celebes Basin, Mam: Mamberramo Basin, Mk: Makassar Basin, NBb: North Banda Basin, NGB: New Guinea Basins (disappeared), PSCS:

Proto South China Sea (disappeared), PT: Palawan Trough, TaiM: Thailand/Malay basins, SBb: South Banda Basin, Tet: Tethysian-affinity

basin, Tim: Timor Trough, WS: Westralian Super-basins.


2.2. Oblique convergence and trench-parallel fault

systems

The concept of strain partitioning (Fich, 1972;

Jarrard, 1986; McCaffrey, 1992) predicts that slivers

of a plate can be translated along its boundaries

because of the distribution of shear into trench-normal

and trench parallel components. Hence, large strike-

slip faults, which are inherent to oblique convergence,

can easily translate and juxtapose units from different

tectonic settings in a broad supra-subduction zone

environment, or alternatively in various small supra-

subduction basins of different ages. The slip rate

along the fault can also change through space and

time as a result of the variations in the convergence

vector, as shown along the forearc of Sumatra

(McCaffrey, 1991), or because of the migration of

the onset of a fault, as proposed along the Philippine

Fault (Pubellier et al., 1996a,b). These tectonic

settings involve trench-parallel faulting, which results

in tectonic extension responsible for the genesis of

basins floored with oceanic crust. Examples of such

extensional basins have been documented around the

Sunda plate and from the Philippines to Sumatra and

the Andaman Sea (Figs. 1 and 4A and B). Most of

these basins are characterized by simple graben


systems with abundant clastics (Fig. 5: Lianga Bay,

Northern Central Valley of Luzon, Visayan Basins,

Sunda Strait), but some are the locus of extensive

volcanism such as the Macolod Corridor (Pubellier et

al., 2000). The Marinduque basin (Sarewitz and

Lewis, 1991), a large depression filled with basaltic

floods, can be almost interpreted as an oceanic basin

in its early stages of evolution.

2.2.1. Basins resulting from sliver plate extension:

Mindanao and the Sunda Strait

Such extension in its early stage is illustrated by

Mindanao Island (Fig. 5). The docking of the

Philippine Arc, carried by the Philippine Sea Plate,

started by the end of the Miocene in the northern

Philippines and propagated rapidly toward the south at

a velocity similar to that of the plate convergence

(Pubellier et al., 1996a,b). This is illustrated by the

younging toward the south of the last unconformity

Fig. 4. Examples of basins opened by sliver migration along the Sunda Tren

fault zones of Sumatra: the active Sumatra Fault (SF) and the barely activ

large depression. Note the re-entrant of the Sunda Trench in front of the S

Schematic map of the Andaman Region where extremely oblique converge

results in the opening of a basin in a pull-apart position. SAGF: Sagaing

SUN: Sunda Plate.

recorded in the shallow marine sediments of the intra-

arc basins. The onset of the Philippine Fault, which

follows very closely the time of docking, is marked by

a series of oblique faults, which branch off the

Philippine fault connecting to the trench. These faults

were former wrench faults of the docking phase that

are presently reactivated as extensional faults (Que-

bral et al., 1996). They accommodate for variation of

the slip rate along the southern segment of the

Philippine Fault from 10 to 24 mm/year (Aurelio et

al., submitted for publication). We therefore observe

extension along strike of the sliver plate and

subsequent basin openings.

Examples of deep basins also exist. The Sumatran

forearc (Fig. 4A) is a sliver plate which is decoupled

from the Eurasian and Indo–Australian plates and

which moves NW with respect to the Sunda Plate

(Jarrard, 1986; McCaffrey, 1991). The oblique con-

vergence has been accommodated by the right-lateral

ch. (A) Schematic map of the Sunda Strait basin (SS). The two large

e Mentawai Fault Zone (MFZ), bend toward the south and create a

trait, where the backstop of the subduction has been stretched. (B)

nce between the Burma Platelet, dragged toward the north with India,

Fault, SS: Sumatra Fault, AF: Andaman Fault, BP: Burma Platelet,

Fig. 5. The Philippine region with basins opened during the Late Neogene to the Present as a result of the oblique convergence between the

Philippine Sea and the Sunda Plates. Hatched pattern is used for the continental crust, very thin pattern for the Philippine Mobile Belt. Thick

arrows represent the relative motion of the sliver plate. Most basins are graben structures (Lianga Bay Basin, VB: Visayan Basins, Legazpi

Trough), but some of them, although not floored with oceanic crust, are the locus of important volcanic eruptions (MC: Macolod Corridor, Mar.

Basin: Marinduque Basin). Some basins are characterized by pull apart basins (Cota Basin: Cotabato Basin, NCV: North Central Valley). Dark

shapes represent ophiolitic bodies.


Great Sumatra Fault, connecting to the Andaman Sea

in the northwest (Fig. 4B; Curray et al., 1979). To the

southeast, the fault zone extends to the Sunda Strait

(Fig. 4A), where NW–SE extension occurs (Huchon

and Le Pichon, 1984; Lassal et al., 1989; Diament et

al., 1990; Harjono et al., 1991). This extension, which

started in the Early Pliocene as shown by seismic lines

(Dahrin, 1993), probably affects the shape of the


forearc, and so far it has not reached the stage of sea

floor spreading. The Krakatau volcano has developed

in the strait, as a result supra-subduction zone

volcanism in an extensional setting.

Fig. 6. Basins developed in the northeastern corner of Australia. The Cre

actively closing Solomon Sea opened in the Eocene (Solomon Sea). Th

original margins have disappeared. The ophiolites present in the Central R

basins, such as the Bismarck Sea (Manus Basin) and the Woodlark Basin, a

between the Pacific and Australia plates.

2.2.2. Bismarck Sea (Manus Basin)

The Bismarck Sea (Fig. 6) is a 4 m.y. old basin,

characterized by long transform faults and very short

spreading segments (Taylor et al., 1995) and opened in

taceous Coral Sea, the currently closed Proto-Solomon Sea, and the

e opening direction of the Solomon Sea is not known because the

ange of Papua New Guinea are Jurassic to Cretaceous in age. Some

re currently in the process of opening due to the oblique convergence


the Eocene to Miocene Melanesian arc (Hamilton,

1979). Seismicity along the transform faults is abun-

dant and indicates nodal planes with left-lateral strike-

slip motion (Connelly, 1976). The westernmost trans-

form enters Papua New Guinea in the Sepik basin, and

the wrench motion is transferred to the Sorong and the

Tarera faults. This is a clear example of a basin opened

as a tear fault on a large left-lateral wrench fault system,

although it occurs in a backarc position.

2.2.3. Andaman Basin

The present-day Andaman Sea (Fig. 4B) is a pull-

apart basin located between two dextral strike-slip

faults: the N–S trending Sagaing Fault in the north and

the NW trending Great Sumatra Fault, which connects

with the Andaman fault in the south. The faults formed

in response to the relative oblique convergence

between the Indian Plate and Sundaland. They accom-

modate for most of the trench-parallel component of

the motion between the two plates. The deformation is

not restricted to a single fault but rather affects the

entire Burma microplate with distributed dextral faults

parallel to the Sagaing Fault System and distributed NS

trending folds accommodating for the EW compres-

sional component. As in the case of the Manus basin to

the NE of the Australian continent, the western margin

of Sundaland is characterized by a transcurrent fault

system rather than subduction-tectonics. Before rifting,

which took place 10 Ma (Curray et al., 1979), the

Andaman area was made of en-echelon basins, like the

Myanmar Basin and the basins of the Irrawady Shelf

(Rangin et al., 1999; Fig. 4B). Accretion of oceanic

crust, started about 4 Ma, is still active (Chamot-Rooke

et al., 2001). However, there is no data for the

geochemical composition of this crust.

2.2.4. Wrench basins with volcanic activity and sea

floor spreading

Shear partitioning along wrench faults can produce

pull-apart basins floored with oceanic crust. Most of

these basins develop along releasing bends or relay

zones between major faults. This type of environment

is best represented in the central Philippines along the

Sibuyan-Verde Passage and the Philippine Faults, in a

setting where strain is transferred from the Philippine

Trench to the Manila Trench (Fig. 5). The relay zone is

marked by a large basin (Marinduque basin) which has

not evolved into a proper ocean floor, but which is

nevertheless the site of important submarine volcanism

(Sarewitz and Lewis, 1991). The Marinduque basin

was opened in a N–S direction and then was aborted, as

the extensional zone propagated to the northwest in the

Macolod Corridor (Fig. 5). This Corridor is a large

graben filled with active volcanoes that opened within

the Pliocene and Pleistocene Taal volcanic field

(Forster et al., 1990). The early N–S extension in the

Marinduque Basin between 5 and 2 Ma might have

migrated northward and rotated to the present Macolod

Corridor (Pubellier et al., 2000).

2.3. Present-day plate kinematics

Modern tectonic processes provide a clue to under-

stand what may have happened to the slivers of oceanic

crust located at the edges of subduction zones. Since

the Middle Paleogene, the tectonic development of

Southeast Asia has been controlled largely by the rapid

convergence among the Eurasia-Sunda, Philippine Sea

and Indo–Australia Plates. The onset of volcanic arc

and backarc basin development has been fast as a result

of rapid plate motions. The relative motions between

the major plates as well as between smaller crustal

fragments and the internal deformation within blocks

or belts can be documented by spatial geodesy. In SE

Asia, geodetic measurements by various groups

(Genrich et al., 1996; Tregoning et al., 1998; Michel

et al., 2001) allowed us to evaluate the relative plate

motions along the main tectonic boundaries with a

precision better than 5 mm/year. Rangin et al. (1999)

analysed the geodynamic implications of geodetic

measurements performed simultaneously all over SE

Asia, both within the major plates and within the large

mobile belts. In order to evaluate and correct for the

possible effects of transient coseismic and interseismic

phenomena, they estimated the motion absorbed within

the main trenches and faults (Fig. 5). They could thus

model a pattern of transfer of the Philippine Sea Plate

(PH) motion from the Manila Trench to the Philippine

Trench. This study showed that deformation is accom-

modated by transfer faults and basins located inside the

mobile belts.

The ocean floor of various marginal basins trapped

in this convergent triple plate junction is presently

consumed at active subduction zones. These basins

include the West Philippine basin, the oldest marginal

basin of the Philippine Sea Plate, and the Molucca,


South China, Celebes and the Sulu seas. These

convergent plate boundaries and their associated

strike-slip fault zones delineate a broad active seismo-

tectonic zone corresponding to the Philippine Mobile

Belt (PMB) in the north and the triple junction area in

the south. In addition, local indenters like the northern

salient of the Australian plate or the Banggai-Sula

microcontinent have induced tectonic escape of crustal

blocks facilitated by strike-slip faults, such as the

Paniai Fault Zone in Irian Jaya (9 cm/year) or the Palu

Fault (4.5 cm/year) (Walpersdorf and Vigny, 1998;

Pubellier et al., 2000; Stevens et al., 2001).

2.4. Docking of oceanic/island arc terranes to the

Sunda block

Most of the wrench fault motion in the SE Asian

region is taken up along the margins of the Australian

and Sunda plates. The effect of wrenching is either

additive (docking) and/or substractive (sliver plate

escape). The intraoceanic volcanic arc of the Philip-

pine Sea Plate, previously situated away from the

Eurasian margin, is nowadays juxtaposed to it (south-

east Eurasian margin) by means of subduction zones

in front of the marginal basins and collision zones

adjacent to the continental fragments. The basement

of this volcanic arc is composed almost entirely of

ultramafic rocks (Tamayo, 2001).

The age of docking varies from north to south

(Pubellier et al., 1996a,b), from the uppermostMiocene

in the northern Philippines to the Present in the

Molucca Sea. In Taiwan, the deformation may even

be slightly older at around 15–10 Ma. In the northern

Philippines, contraction and strike-slip faulting

occurred within the late Middle Miocene rocks both

in the volcanic arc belt and on the Eurasian margin

(Pinet and Stephan, 1990) prior to the onset of the

presentManila Trench subduction (Defant et al., 1989),

which started in late Middle Miocene. Its magmatic

activity is clearly recorded in sedimentary basins

(Ilocos and Cagayan basins) on both sides of the

Cordillera (Pinet and Stephan, 1990). In the central

Philippines, there is a widespread unconformity mark-

ing the Middle Miocene boundary (Rangin et al.,

1989b) in Palawan (Fricaud, 1984), Panay-Mindoro

(Rangin et al., 1985; Marchadier and Rangin, 1990)

and in Cebu (Rangin et al., 1989b). Fault-set analyses

in the Central Philippines (Bondoc, Masbate and

Leyte) indicate that stress tensors have shifted corre-

spondingly from a collision-related direction to a

strike-slip-related one from the latest Miocene to the

Pliocene (Aurelio et al., 1991). In the southern

Philippine island of Mindanao, compression began in

the latest Miocene–earliest Pliocene times, and the

deformation zone is bounded toward the south by aNW

trending wrench zone that initiated concomitantly (Fig.

1, insert 2; Pubellier et al., 1996a,b). The N–S-oriented

Philippine Fault, which crosscuts the entire length of

the archipelago, was initiated at the start of the

Pleistocene (Quebral et al., 1996).

3. Geological setting of SE Asian ophiolites

The structure and tectonics of the ophiolites in SE

Asia have been discussed in various syntheses (Ham-

ilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1987, 1989; Hutchinson, 1996;

Yumul et al., 1997; Tamayo, 2001, in press). We

discuss here the general context of their formation and

the kinematic aspects of ophiolite evolution and

emplacement with reference to the well-documented

plate motions in the western Pacific. We propose that

the ophiolitic belts in SE Asia can be divided into two

major groups (Fig. 7). The first group is composed of

chains of ophiolitic massifs now accreted to cratonic

areas, and is referred hereafter as brelatively autoch-

thonous ophiolitesQ. They represent the remnants of

marginal arc- or backarc-oceanic crust, which was

developed adjacent to continental margins. Modern

analogues of these ophiolites may be found in the

South China Sea and its propagator into the Sunda

shelf, the Celebes Sea and its SW propagator in the

Makassar Basin, or the Coral Sea NE of Australia and

its propagator already accreted to the eastern part of

the New Guinea Fold-and-Thrust Belt. The group set

(Fig. 7) includes more dismembered massifs com-

monly with variable lithologies and geochemical

signatures tectonically juxtaposed. They consist of

all the massifs present in the mobile belts and are

referred to herein as bhighly displaced ophiolitesQ.

4. Relatively autochthonous ophiolites

Some of the ophiolite belts have been integrated

into the cratonic area (Figs. 1 and 7). The present

Fig. 7. Approximate contours of the ophiolites trapped inside continental masses (relatively autochtonous) and ophiolites dragged along the

plate boundaries (displaced). Location of sites discussed in text is represented by dots. Bgs: Banggai-Sula Block, Bu: Buru Block, Ser: Seram

Block, Saw: Sarawak belt, Sch: Schwanner batholith.


configuration of the Sunda Plate basins (part of the

former Eurasian Plate) illustrates the origin of these

fragments. On the Sunda plate, these ophiolites are

principally remnants of the Tethyan domain and the

Proto South China Sea if we discard the poorly known

ophiolites resulting from the pre-Cenozoic closure of

basins following the accretion of Gondwanian blocks

(see for example Metcalfe, 1996). The other ophiolites

present within the Sunda plate are fragments of

marginal basins that developed within this plate since

the Early Tertiary.

4.1. Borneo

Ophiolitic remnants exist in various places in

Borneo (Hutchinson, 1996; Rangin et al., 1989b;

Omang and Barber, 1996; Fig. 1). The occurrence

beneath northern Borneo of a remnant subducted

lithosphere is suggested by recent tomographic data

(Rangin et al., 1999). This subducted lithosphere

forms a 300-km long sliver found at depths down to

250 km beneath the northern Borneo margin and

could represent a detached fragment of the Proto-

South China Sea floor (PSCS, Rangin et al., 1990a;

Tongkul, 1994; Fig. 3). The Proto South China Sea

is one of the basins that opened within the Eurasian

continental margin in the Paleocene–Eocene (Rangin

et al., 1990a,b). The basin opened within an area

that had previously undergone basin closure and

ophiolite obduction, and the ophiolites present there

are thus not likely to have originated from the

PSCS. The basin was closed by the Middle Miocene


and received a large amount of terrigenous sedi-

ments (Rangin et al., 1990b; Bellon and Rangin,

1991). Its detachment is interpreted to have resulted

from the Miocene collision of the Cagayan Ridge

volcanic arc with the rifted continental margin of the

South China Sea that ended the subduction-related

magmatic activity in northern Borneo (Prouteau et

al., 2001). Although the geometry of the margin is

not exactly known, remnants of the Tethyan basin

floor are scattered in the southern and eastern Sunda

Plate, but there is no ophiolite shown to have

originated from the PSCS. Instead, most of the

ophiolites present in the region are Early Cretaceous

or Jurassic (Yuwono et al., 1988) in age and

represent basins that were shortened during the

closure of the Tethys.

4.2. The Meratus Mountains

One of the largest occurrences of Mesozoic

ophiolites that still stands at or close to the original

location of the Tethyan basin (Audley-Charles, 1977)

is the Meratus ophiolite in southeast Borneo (Fig. 1

and insert 7). It occurs in a N–S to N030 trending

mountain range composed of ultramafic and meta-

morphic rocks. The Meratus range extends southward

into the Java Sea along the Laut Ridge and is

inferred to connect to Java along the Bawean Trough

(Katili, 1984; Hamilton, 1979). Peridotites are

present along the narrow western Bobaris Range

and the eastern Meratus Range sensu stricto. The

northern extension of the ophiolites is not well

understood, but it probably connects to the Sarawak

ophiolite belt (Hutchinson, 1996; Van Bemmelen,

1970; Haile et al., 1977) along the northern side of

the Schwanner batholith (Williams et al., 1988).

There, ultramafic rocks exist in the Lubok Antu

Melange (Tan, 1979). The ophiolite of the Meratus

Mountains and its high-temperature metamorphic

sole were emplaced from south to north during the

late Early Cretaceous and were undergone by low-

temperature deformation by the end of the Creta-

ceous (Pubellier et al., 1999a,b).

The geochemical features of the Meratus ophio-

lite (Monnier et al., 1999) suggest that its peridotites

represent a fragment of a sub-continental mantle that

locally experienced low degrees of fractional melt-

ing during the last stages of continental rifting. The

mantle was probably highly heterogeneous in

composition and enriched in hydrous phases, sup-

porting the hypothesis of variable degrees of

melting. This could explain the occurrence of both

slightly and strongly depleted peridotites in the

Meratus Mountains. The volcanic rocks with com-

positions varying from Enriched MORB (E-MORB)

to Normal MORB (N-MORB) were likely erupted

during a magmatic event at the end of the rifting

phase. The E-MORB chemistry could have resulted

from the melting of an enriched lithospheric mantle

that was thermally eroded during rifting by rising

asthenosphere, which would have produced the N-

MORB. The Meratus peridotites and associated

basalts (E-MORB and N-MORB) were then

emplaced together on the Eurasian passive con-

tinental margin.

A change in the regional geodynamic setting

likely occurred later, probably due to the Australia–

Antarctica break-up during Albian–Aptian times. The

eruption of pre-Eocene calc-alkaline magmas (Alino

Formation, Yuwono et al., 1988) and the subsequent

development of a backarc basin along the SE

Eurasian margin may be a consequence of these

new plate motions. The closure of this new basin

during the Cenomanian and Early Turonian resulted

in overthrusting of the rift-related lithological

assemblages over the calc-alkaline series (Pubellier

et al., 1999a,b).

4.3. Relicts of Sunda basins (South China Sea,

Celebes basin, Sulu Sea)

Some of the basins floored with ocean crust may

have been partly emplaced during regional short-

ening that affected the Sunda plate since the Early

Miocene. The South China Sea ocean floor has

possibly had an eastern appendix emplaced onto the

Mindoro Island in the western Philippines (Rangin

et al., 1985). Other fragments of backarc- to arc-

type oceanic crust are found on the northern and

eastern segments of Sulawesi Island (northern

Indonesia, Monnier et al., 1995; Rangin et al.,

1997). The age of the pillow basalts is Eocene,

consistent with the age of the Celebes basin floor

situated northwards.

The northernmost part of the Sulu basin floor has

been obducted on Panay island in the Central


Philippines (Fig. 1, insert 2). The nature of the oceanic

basement in the Celebes and Sulu Sea basins is known

through the results of ODP Leg 124. Magmas of the

Sulu Sea ocean floor appear to have originated from a

MORB-like mantle source metasomatised by subduc-

tion-related fluids (Spadea et al., 1991), whereas the

Celebes Sea basalts are MORB type with a slight

backarc signature (low Sr and Nb, Serri et al., 1991;

Monnier et al., 1995). Similar characteristics are

found in rocks of the same age on the Northern

Arm of Sulawesi, with N-MORB compositions for the

pillow-basalts and island-arc tholeiites to calc-alkaline

for massive flows and dykes (Rangin et al., 1997).

4.4. The Java-Sumatra region

Other occurrences of ultramafic rocks exist further

west along the Sumatra forearc (Fig. 1), mainly in the

peridotites and bmelangeQ basement of Nias and

Simeleu islands. They were interpreted first as frag-

ments of the Indian Ocean floor accreted into the

Sunda wedge (Moore and Karig, 1980). Subsequently,

they have been interpreted as part of the Sunda margin

onto which the rest of the Tethyan ocean floor was

obducted in the Early Tertiary (Pubellier et al., 1992).

Ophiolitic rocks are unconformably overlain by thick

clastic and limestone series ranging from Late

Paleocene–Early Eocene to Early Miocene (Pubellier

et al., 1992) or from Oligocene to Early Miocene

(Samuel et al., 1997). These cover rocks form part of a

stratigraphically continuous sedimentary succession

that may have been deposited in a set of NW trending

half-grabens (Samuel et al., 1997).

In northern Sumatra, ophiolites are present as one

of the two main units of the Woyla Group (Cameron

et al., 1980), which has been interpreted as an old

accretionary wedge (Wajzer et al., 1991). We do not

have petrographic or geochemical data from these

rocks. Separated from the Indian Ocean floor by a

coastal Permian arc assemblage, these ophiolitic

bodies might represent fragments of a more internal

Tethyan basin.

The extension of the NW Sumatra suture to the

south is difficult to trace (Hamilton, 1979; Hutch-

ison, 1987; Hutchinson, 1996; Metcalfe, 1996). The

nearest exposure of sutures, melange, and basement

rocks is located in the Karangsambung area in

central Java (Suparka, 1988; Suparka and Soeria

Atmadja, 1991). The suture zone here is overlain

unconformably by an Eocene limestone (Ketner et

al., 1976) and connects with the dismantled suture

zone of Sulawesi.

4.5. The basins of the northern Australian margin

During Early to Late Mesozoic and then in the Late

Cretaceous–Paleogene, several basins developed

along the northern margin of Australia (e.g. Yan and

Kroenke, 1993). The NWmargin of Australia has been

rifted since the Permian, leading to the formation of

large grabens collectively referred to as the

bWestralian SuperbasinQ (Fig. 3) (Yeates et al., 1986)and to the accretion of oceanic crust further north.

Some of the basins developed in the northeastern

corner of Australia still exist or are currently in the

process of further opening (Fig. 4). The Solomon Sea

(Davis and Honza, 1987) and a presently closed Proto-

Solomon Sea (Davies, 1971; Davies and Smith, 1971;

Pigram and Symonds, 1991) developed in a similar

way. A modern analogue of basin opening along the

continental margin of Australia is the Woodlark Basin

(Taylor, 1992; Fig. 4).

There is some information available from Papua

New Guinea (PNG) regarding the former existence

of basins floored with oceanic crust (Davies, 1971;

Davies and Smith, 1971). Recent studies show the

presence of at least two different marginal basins,

both of which formed in backarc settings in the

Central Range and the coastal belt of Irian Jaya

(Girardeau et al., 1994; Monnier et al., 1999, 2000;

Pubellier et al., 2003a). The older basin opened

during the Middle Jurassic–Early Cretaceous form-

ing the Central Range Ophiolite (CRO, Figs. 1 and

3). This ophiolite was displaced from its original

setting at ca. 40 Ma and was finally emplaced on

the Australian continental margin by 30 Ma. The

younger basin evolved during the Oligocene to

Middle Miocene and was closed in the Early

Pliocene. There are some age discrepancies between

the ophiolites of Irian Jaya (Jurassic) and those of

PNG (Late Cretaceous–Paleocene), which may have

been connected to the Coral Sea Basin floor at that

time (Pigram and Symonds, 1991). We do not know

in detail the geometries and connections between

these basins in the Early Tertiary, but some frag-

ments of their ocean floor were incorporated into the


New Guinea Central Range. The geodynamic setting

of these basins is complex because they are located

at the boundary between the active volcanic margin

developed on the eastern side of Australia and the

rifted-passive margin basins of northwestern and

western Australia (Fig. 5). It has been proposed that

they represent backarc basins developed during the

Jurassic–Early Cretaceous (Monnier et al., 2000;

Pubellier et al., 2003b). Most of the ophiolites were

deformed in an oceanic environment and were thrust

over an amphibolitic sole around 40 Ma ago in

Papua New Guinea (Davies, 1971) and in Irian Jaya

(Permana, 1998).

The ophiolite in the Central Range of Irian Jaya

(Fig. 1, insert 5, Fig. 2) is composed mostly of

lherzolite and harzburgite, displaying MORB char-

acteristics with LILE enrichments and negative Nb

anomalies characteristic of supra-subduction zone

environments (Monnier et al., 2000). La/Nb ratios of

basalts range from 1.90 to 4.33, which may be

interpreted as the variable contribution of a sub-

duction component, as documented in most backarc

basins (Saunders and Tarney, 1984). K/Ar radio-

metric ages on gabbroic amphiboles range from

157F16 to 66F1.6 Ma (Permana, 1998), and the

oldest marine sedimentary sequence of this basin is

Jurassic in age. Therefore, the northern margin of

Papua New Guinea was perhaps fringed by a large

backarc basin during this time interval (Fig. 8A), in a

configuration similar to that of the modern eastern

Australian margin (Weissel and Watts, 1979; Yan

and Kroenke, 1993; Pubellier et al., 2003b). A

similar conclusion was drawn by Harris and Long

(2000) for the ophiolitic blocks engulfed in the

melanges of Timor island.

Tectonic interactions between the Sunda and Indo–

Australia plates have been discussed in the literature

(Rangin et al., 1990a,b; Daly et al., 1987, 1991; Hall,

1996; Hall, 1998; Hall and Wilson, 2000; Fig. 8A and

B). Microcontinental blocks separated from Australia

are thought to have begun colliding with Eastern

Indonesia (part of Sundaland) during the Early

Miocene. In Sulawesi, collisions started in the Middle

Miocene (Kundig, 1956; Silver et al., 1983). It is

possible that Gondwana (Australia)-derived crustal

fragments were docked to Sunda in the Paleocene

(Rangin et al., 1990a,b; Parkinson, 1998; Villeneuve et

al., 1998).

The nature of the boundary between the Philippine

Sea plate and Papua New Guinea (part of the Indo–

Australia Plate) is difficult to decipher (Fig. 8A and

B). Most authors consider that the leading edge of

Australia was in connection with the Philippine Sea

Plate in the Early–Mid Neogene, and that subse-

quently this boundary became the left-lateral Sorong

Fault (Dow and Sukamto, 1984; Ali and Hall, 1995).

For the Paleogene, regional kinematic models place

the Australian Craton well to the south of the

Philippine Sea Plate (Fig. 8). However, from the Late

Eocene to the Middle Oligocene, the large ophiolitic

body of the Papua New Guinea fold belt was

emplaced. The regional geology indicates the creation

of a supra-subduction ophiolite in a geodynamic

setting characterized by rapid backarc basin opening

and strike-slip faulting. Ultimately, fragments of these

basins were displaced from their initial setting and

were carried to the present location of the Philippines,

forming highly displaced ophiolites (Pubellier et al.,

2003a).

4.6. Seram (North Banda Sea)

It is currently proposed that Seram, with Buru

and Timor islands, represents the Paleozoic–Ceno-

zoic continental margin of Australia (Audley-Charles

et al., 1979), and that is was probably accreted to

the Banda arc (Hamilton, 1979; Katili, 1975) along

a transform fault in the western boundary of the

Banda paleo-sea (Daly et al., 1987, 1991; De Smet,

1989). Large-scale rotations might have probably

occurred during this complex tectonic evolution

(Haile, 1981).

Ultramafic rocks are present on Seram, Kelang and

Ambon islands (Fig. 1, insert 4). They are mainly

located in the western part of Seram (Kaibobo)

(Tjokrosapoetro and Budhitrisna, 1982). The origin

and emplacement processes of these ultramafic rocks

remain uncertain due to the absence of contact between

volcanic and ultramafic rocks; however, many

researchers (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1977; Katili,

1975; Milsom, 1977) proposed that the ultramafic

rocks could have originated in the Banda Sea because

of abundant peridotite outcrops on Ambon island,

located southward. Based on a P–T path model inferred

from the study of plagioclase-bearing peridotites,

Linthout and Helmers (1994) concluded that this

Fig. 8. Paleogeographic reconstruction of the basins north of Australia: (A) the Mesozoic basin during the Eocene, prior to the obduction of its floor on the Australian shelf (CRO,

Central Range Ophiolite; modified from Pubellier et al., 2003a). (B) The Late Eocene–Oligocene basins Mamberramo/Solomon before the Mid Miocene.

M.Pubellier

etal./Tecto

nophysics

392(2004)9–36

25


ophiolite formed by rifting of the Ber-Seram micro-

continent from Australian during Early to Middle

Miocene (40K/40Ar on high-Mg tholeiites: 20–9 Ma

and BABB: 19–15 Ma; Monnier et al., 2003), Its

emplacement onto Seram would have occurred

between 9.5 and 7 Ma (Linthout and Helmers, 1994;

Linthout et al., 1997).

Ultramafic rocks from Seram island (central

Indonesia) include weakly depleted peridotites (pla-

gioclase-bearing lherzolites) that represent a piece of

subcontinental mantle, which was partly melted and

metasomatised prior to its re-equilibration in the

plagioclase field and during its ascent associated

with a continental rifting episode (Monnier et al.,

2003). The associated high-Mg calc-alkaline tholei-

ites were likely generated within a mantle wedge

with a high geothermal gradient during early stages

of subduction. These high-Mg tholeiites have strong

backarc basin basalt (BABB) chemical affinities

(regarding the high rare-earth ratios (e.g. La/Nb

and Th/Nb).

Ophiolite formation had probably initiated along a

transform margin. Subsequent oblique convergence

along this transform fault zone resulted in the

subduction of some oceanic lithosphere under Seram

during the Early Miocene and in the formation of a

volcanic arc. The injection of the gabbros and

websterites into the peridotites and their uplift and

exhumation may be related to the splitting of this arc

ca. 13 Ma. We therefore consider that the ophiolites of

the Seram region actually represent the northern

margin of Australia. They may have been connected

with the Oligocene–Early Miocene Mamberramo

Basin of Irian Jaya (Monnier et al., 2003; Fig. 8B)

and the Oligocene–Early Miocene Sepik basin (Davies

and Jacques, 1984).

5. Highly displaced ophiolites

Ophiolites are ubiquitous in the Mobile Belt of the

Philippines. They are generally exposed in complex

tectonic settings involving large Neogene or Recent

faults. Almost all the ophiolites of the Philippine Arc

have supra-subduction affinities (Hawkins and Evans,

1983; Yumul et al., 1997; Tamayo, 2001). Similarly, at

the opposite end of the Mobile Belt, in New Guinea,

ophiolite bodies display petrological and geochemical

characteristics of arc, forearc and backarc settings

(Monnier et al., 1999, 2000).

Since the Early Neogene, convergence among

the Philippine Sea, Indo–Australia and Eurasia

Plates has led to arc collision and the subsequent

incorporation of buoyant arc fragments onto Papua

New Guinea (starting possibly in the Early Mio-

cene) and the northern Philippines (Late Miocene).

Arc transfer is taking place today in the southern

Philippines, east of Mindanao, where the Philippine

trench is propagating southwards, decoupling the

arc from the Philippine Sea Plate (Pubellier et al.,

1999a,b). This process may occur in Taiwan within

the next 5–10 million years, when convergence

between the overthrusting western tip of the

Philippine Sea Plate and southeast China switches

to a subduction zone, linking the Philippine and

Ryukyu Trenches. However, prior to its amalgama-

tion with Sundaland, the Philippine Arc ended its

activity before Middle Oligocene and underwent

severe deformation (Rangin et al., 1990a,b; Billedo,

1994).

5.1. The Tertiary Cyclops Ophiolite of New Guinea

The Cyclops Ophiolite occurs along the northern

coast of Papua New Guinea in Irian Jaya (Monnier et

al., 2000) where it is thrust over high pressure–high

temperature mafic rocks.

It contains all of the components of a typical

ophiolitic sequence: residual mantle peridotites

(harzburgites and dunites), cumulate gabbros, doler-

ites, basalts with N-MORB composition and minor

amounts of boninitic lavas. The geochemical signa-

tures (Figs. 2 and 8) of the basalt samples (arc,

backarc) suggest that the Cyclops ophiolite in Irian

Jaya formed in a supra-subduction environment.

Some of the samples (ultramafic rocks and boninites)

likely formed in a fore-arc environment during the

Middle Eocene (Monnier et al., 1999). All these

series were overthrust during the Early Oligocene by

a backarc basin crust representing the main ophiolitic

series including gabbros, dolerites and lavas. The

geochemical data show that gabbros and basalts are

co-genetic. These associated basalts and related

cumulate rocks display major- and trace-element

contents with flat patterns and Nb-negative anoma-

lies together with moderate enrichment in LILE (Ba,

Fig. 9. Possible extension of the Huatung Basin on Luzon Island

(hatched pattern). Faults on Luzon Island are from Loevenbruck e

al. (2002). Ophiolitic bodies are as follows: Zamb: Zambales, Ang

Angat, Isa: Isabella, Chico: Chico River, Pal: Palaui Island, Laoag

Laoag ophiolite, CC: Central Cordillera.


Rb, Th) indicative of convergent margin settings

(Fig. 2). Mineral chemistry and the bulk rock REE

abundances of the peridotites are characteristic of

highly residual mantle rocks. The high Cr number of

spinel and very low HREE concentrations of

peridotites are in agreement with residues of 20–

35% melting as expected of peridotites from supra-

subduction zone environments (Monnier et al.,

1999).

5.2. Northern Philippines and the Huatung Basin:

pieces of relatively undeformed backarc basin crust

The Philippine region has a complex and

composite basement that contains numerous ophio-

lite complexes, most of which have a supra

subduction origin (Mitchell et al., 1986; Geary et

al., 1988; Yumul et al., 1997; Tamayo, 2001;

Tamayo et al., in press). The ophiolitic gabbros

likely crystallized from basaltic liquids originated

from mantle sources that underwent high degrees of

partial melting and/or several episodes of melting.

Low to high degrees of partial melting are also

deduced from the mantle peridotites (Tamayo et al.,

in press).

There are discrepancies in age and nature of the

ophiolite present in the northern Philippines. The

Eocene Zambales ophiolite (Fig. 1, insert 1) has

been probably carried over a large distance because

it cannot be correlated with any of the neighbouring

basins, and it has been thrust over relicts of

continental basement present along the coast. The

ophiolite occurrences in NE Luzon, although not all

dated, are assumed to be slightly older (Cretaceous,

Billedo, 1994). From the eastern coast of Luzon, the

peridotites and metamorphics of the Sierra Madre

dip gently toward the west beneath the sediments of

the Cagayan Basin. Subsurface data show that there

is little deformation in the basin except one reverse

fault, which corresponds to a transverse ridge. The

Central Cordillera is separated from the Cagayan

basin by a series of enechelon reverse and strike-slip

faults, and it only shows basement at the bottom of

deeply incised valleys. When basement can be

reached, it is composed of well-preserved and

weakly deformed dykes, pillows and cherts. The

best exposures of such rock types are in Chico

River in the Central cordillera (Figs. 1 and 9).

Similar observations can be made in the ophiolites

of the Angat Massif (Tamayo, 2001). The geo-

chemical signature of the ophiolites of the Sierra

Madre, at least in its southern part (Isabella Massif),

indicates a MORB affinity (Tamayo, 2001). These

ophiolites differ from those of the Zambales Massif,

which is typical of an arc and backarc basin

basement (Hawkins and Evans, 1983).

North of Luzon, the basement of the Philippine

arc, is probably simpler (Fig. 9). Bathymetry and

free air gravity suggest that the Miocene volcanic

arc lies directly on a relatively homogenous base-

ment. It is possible that the missing basement of the

arc is actually the southern part of the Middle

Cretaceous Huatung Basin, whose northern part is

known from magnetic anomalies (though poorly

identified), and from dredging west of the Gagua

ridge (Deschamps et al., 2000). There is no

t

:

:


complete ophiolite reported in Taiwan, other than

large ophiolitic blocks engulfed in the Lichi

Melange (Liou and Ernst, 1979).

As a preliminary conclusion, we propose that the

northern part of the Philippine Mobile belt is

composed of a series of basin floors, which have

been slightly deformed and uplifted. Mass wasting

from this mobile belt filled the intra arc basins such

as the Central Valley of Luzon (Late Oligocene to

Early Miocene Klondyke Formation). Their varying

lithologies, geochemical compositions and age

discrepancies suggest large-scale displacements

along major wrench faults, which have been

reactivated as reverse or thrust faults during

subsequent shortening.

5.3. The Halmahera-Molucca Region ophiolites

Halmahera, together with Waigeo and Obi, as well

as other smaller islands are composed of ophiolitic

complexes covered by Upper Cretaceous and Eocene

forearc sediments (Ballantyne and Hall, 1990; Bal-

lantyne, 1991, 1992; Hall et al., 1991; Baker and

Malaihollo, 1996). Ophiolitic rocks are intruded by

94–72 Ma (40Ar/39Ar) diorites. These units, which are

now part of the Philippine Sea Plate, have supra-

subduction zone chemical signatures (with domi-

nantly arc, boninitic and rare seamount origin), and

their generation requires a high degree of partial

mantle melting (Ballantyne, 1991). In Waigeo, an

ultramafic basement exists (Charlton et al., 1991), but

it is not dated nor analysed. These ultramafic rocks,

assumed firstly to be Late Mesozoic in age, are

covered by Paleogene forearc sediments, and chert

floats bear Early Eocene radiolarian assemblages

(Ling et al., 1991). We cannot rule out the possibility

that this ophiolitic basement is similar to that of

Morotai island (Hall et al., 1991), and probably to the

submerged Snellius Plateau (Pubellier et al., 2000).

The polygenic characteristics of the basement on these

islands resemble that of the present-day Mariana

forearc.

Ophiolitic rocks are also exposed as small bodies,

as well as blocks in melanges, in Talaud islands

(Moore et al., 1981) They constitute the present

forearc basement of the Sangihe arc that was

obducted by the Early or Middle Miocene prior to

the deposition of the overlying forearc sediments

(Bader and Pubellier, 2000), probably as a fragment

of the former Molucca/Celebes crust. The ophiolitic

chain continues in Central Mindanao as disrupted

alignment of small massifs and melanges (Pubellier

et al., 1996a,b, 1999a; Tamayo, 2001) and may

connect with the ophiolites present in western Panay

island (Fig. 1, insert 2).

6. Conclusions

It can be inferred from observations of active

processes that rapid plate convergence is the most

efficient way of generating basins floored with

oceanic crust. The major cause for the dismantlement

of ophiolitic bodies is the oblique convergence, which

causes decoupling of the convergence vector above a

subduction zone (Fich, 1972; Jarrard, 1986; McCaf-

frey, 1992). Three basic ideas account for the

distribution of the Mesozoic and Cainozoic ophiolites

in SE Asia.

1. The closure of Tethyan-derived basins trapped

during the India–Australia convergence (Fig. 1).

Related ophiolites are represented by the Indus-

Tsang Po Suture zone ophiolites in the Hima-

layas, the Naga ophiolite in northern Myanmar,

ophiolites of the Andaman islands, ophiolites

associated with the Woyla Group in Sumatra and

the Meratus and the Central/SE Sulawesi ophio-

lites jammed between Borneo and the Gondwa-

nian blocks in the Southern Sunda region (e.g.

Sumba Block; Rangin et al., 1990a,b). Traces of

suture zone ophiolites associated with the end of

the subduction beneath the Yenshanian Arc are

also scattered along the stretched margin of the

Sunda Block in NW and NE Borneo, Palawan

and part of southeastern China.

2. Basins developed at the edges of continental

plates (marginal basins sensu stricto) were

opened to the south of the Eurasian plate (Fig.

10). They are namely the Proto-South China

Sea (Paleocene), the Celebes-Makassar and

possibly the Molucca Sea basins (Eocene), the

South China Sea (Mid-Oligocene to Mid-Mio-

cene), and the Sulu Sea (Mid-Miocene). In

addition to the opening of these basins, a

variety of aborted basins opened, such as the

Fig. 10. Schematic figure illustrating how the Sunda and Australian continental margins are stretched by the convergence, creating the

brelatively autochthonous basins and ophiolitesQ. The Philippine Sea Plate is not depicted.


Beibu basin in southern China, the Palawan

Trough, the South Makassar basin, numerous

basins in Southern Borneo and the Java Sea,

and the basins of Southern Thailand and

Malaysia (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989;

Hutchinson, 1996). These basins probably

opened in response of the upper plate to the

trench pull along the Sunda Trench. Similarly,

basins developed to the N, NE and NW of

Australia since the Late Triassic break-up

(Pigram and Symonds, 1991; Struckmeyer et

al., 1993; Monnier et al., 1999, 2003). These

basins were situated landward of a large

volcanic belt along the Eastern and northern

side of the Australian craton during the Meso-

zoic. Whereas these basins are still present in

the Southwest Pacific, extensive portions of

oceanic crust extended north of the Australian

and that crust was subducted as Australia began

is steady northward drift in the Early Eocene

(Pubellier et al., 2003b). The ophiolites of New

Guinea Island, some ophiolites of Timor, Seram

and possibly Eastern Sulawesi represent the

obducted part of these basins.

3. Oblique convergence induced strain partitioning

and development of large wrench faults (Fig.

11). The active ones such as the Sorong Fault,

the Tarera Fault or the Paniai Fault are well

documented, but older Neogene indicators of

activity also exist. In Papua New Guinea,

wrench faults parallel to the Sorong Fault have

been in existence since at least the Miocene

(Dow and Sukamto, 1984) and have extruded

crustal blocks toward Central Indonesia (Silver

et al., 1985). During the Jurassic and Early

Cretaceous, the Papua New Guinea Ophiolite

formed the southern portion of a backarc basin

opening behind a volcanic arc migrating toward

the north (Monnier et al., 1999; Pubellier et al.,

2003b). In addition, fragments of the margin

were found north of the present ophiolitic belt.

Some of them yield remnants of a volcanic arc

Fig. 11. Schematic figure illustrating how elements of the active margins are dragged by oblique convergence. Fragments composed mostly of

supra-subduction terranes are sliced off because of the partitioning of the oblique convergence vector, and then transported by large wrench

faults, creating the bhighly displaced ophiolitesQ. PSP: Philippine Sea Plate. Bathymetric contours of the PSP and the Caroline basin have been

shown for reference.


with Triassic (Dow et al., 1988) and Early

Jurassic (Prouteau, 1995) ages. The second

opening during the Late Oligocene–Middle

Miocene (Cyclops basin) developed further

away from the craton, following similar process

in addition to a left-lateral strike-slip component

Similarly, in the Philippines, large wrench faults

have been studied in the Northern Philippines,

which suggest that the tectonic setting was

dominated by oblique convergence and strain

partitioning (Karig, 1983; Geary and Kay,

1989). The transport directions of the ophiolite

in Irian Jaya is on average ENE, and the

direction of shortening measured in the meta-

morphics of the Philippines is also ENE when

restored for the 508 counter clockwise rotation

(Pubellier et al., 2003a).

Acknowledgements

This paper is a synthesis from the results of the

cooperation programs between the Philippino and the

Indonesian and the French governments, through the

Mines and Geosciences Bureau and the University of

the Philippines, the LIPI and Institute of Technology

Bandung in Indonesia, and INSU and MAE in

France. Many individuals in the fields of petrog-

raphy, geochemistry, stratigraphy and tectonics par-

ticipated in these programs and only some key


results have been used here. We benefited from

critical reviews from R. Harris and R. Stein and

copy-editing by Y. Dilek which collectively helped

ameliorating the manuscript. M.P. belongs to Centre

National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS-UMR

8538).

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