1 Rural Out-migration of Young Peasants: a Contemporary Challenge or an Opportunity for Poverty Reduction and Development Dr. Joseph Assan, Trinity College.

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Rural Out-migration of Young Peasants: a Rural Out-migration of Young Peasants: a Contemporary Challenge or an Opportunity Contemporary Challenge or an Opportunity

for Poverty Reduction and Developmentfor Poverty Reduction and Development

Dr. Joseph Assan, Trinity College Dublin

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Introduction Introduction

• Permanent and temporary migration Permanent and temporary migration is increasing in importance as is increasing in importance as livelihood strategies of peasant livelihood strategies of peasant households and the rural poor in households and the rural poor in many developing countries. many developing countries.

• Deshingkar and Anderson (2004) Deshingkar and Anderson (2004) argue that the numbers of argue that the numbers of households involved in these patterns households involved in these patterns of movement are rising exponentially of movement are rising exponentially in many developing countries.in many developing countries.

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Conceptualising Structure, Agency Conceptualising Structure, Agency and Development and Development

• The debate surrounding the influence of The debate surrounding the influence of structure and agency on human thought and structure and agency on human thought and actions is one of the central issues in actions is one of the central issues in development studies today (Giddens and Pierson development studies today (Giddens and Pierson 1997:75, Peter 2003). 1997:75, Peter 2003).

• In this context agency refers to the capacity of In this context agency refers to the capacity of individual humans to act independently and to individual humans to act independently and to make their own free choices (Giddens (1984). make their own free choices (Giddens (1984). Structure on the other hand refers to those Structure on the other hand refers to those factors (such as customs, poverty, government factors (such as customs, poverty, government policy etc) which seem to limit or influence the policy etc) which seem to limit or influence the opportunity that individuals have. opportunity that individuals have.

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Conceptualising Structure, Agency Conceptualising Structure, Agency and Youth Migration and Youth Migration

• Migration in the context of this debate and this Migration in the context of this debate and this paper is an expression of human agency in the paper is an expression of human agency in the face of existing structures externally imposed - face of existing structures externally imposed - e.g. deprivation, poverty alleviation programmes e.g. deprivation, poverty alleviation programmes and government development policies (Assan, and government development policies (Assan, 2008). 2008).

• Migrants’ decision making process is seen as Migrants’ decision making process is seen as actions (agency) that attempt to develop actions (agency) that attempt to develop alternative systems which would enhance well-alternative systems which would enhance well-being, alleviate poverty and potentially improve being, alleviate poverty and potentially improve capability within the existing structures of capability within the existing structures of development planning and management policies.development planning and management policies.

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Conceptualising Generational Conceptualising Generational Migration as Agency in Development Migration as Agency in Development

Poverty Reduction Poverty Reduction • Bryceson (2004) and Thieme (2006) emphasised Bryceson (2004) and Thieme (2006) emphasised

that rural out-migration has increased in that rural out-migration has increased in importance as a livelihood diversification strategy importance as a livelihood diversification strategy and labour seeking mechanism for peasant and labour seeking mechanism for peasant households exploring additional sources of income households exploring additional sources of income and to ensure that members of their household and to ensure that members of their household secure a better future.secure a better future.

• Generational differences in internal migration (in Generational differences in internal migration (in the context of Giddens) and as discussed in this the context of Giddens) and as discussed in this paper shows the diversity in the expression of paper shows the diversity in the expression of human agency even within the same structure. human agency even within the same structure. This also posses a challenge to development This also posses a challenge to development planners as to the need to understand and planners as to the need to understand and accommodate the expressions of agency in the accommodate the expressions of agency in the development policy formulation processes. development policy formulation processes.

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Introduction Introduction

The study examines:The study examines:

- - the nature of the migration the nature of the migration processprocess

- the challenges, risks and - the challenges, risks and hazards (including issues of hazards (including issues of social welfare) encountered social welfare) encountered by the young migrantsby the young migrants

- the impact of such movement - the impact of such movement on those left behindon those left behind

- the implications of the implications of contemporary child and youth contemporary child and youth migration on well-being and migration on well-being and poverty reduction. poverty reduction.

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JustificationJustification• This paper contributes to theoretical debates This paper contributes to theoretical debates

on how household processes and economic on how household processes and economic strategies are negotiated across space and strategies are negotiated across space and within broad range of scales.within broad range of scales.

• Outlines elements of exploitation and Outlines elements of exploitation and inequality encountered by young migrants in inequality encountered by young migrants in southern Ghana.southern Ghana.

• This study subsequently shifts attention from This study subsequently shifts attention from the north-south movement (see Awumbila and the north-south movement (see Awumbila and Ardayfio-Shandoff, 2008), to south-south Ardayfio-Shandoff, 2008), to south-south patterns which have gained very little patterns which have gained very little attention in the theoretical and policy attention in the theoretical and policy discourses on internal migration in Ghana. discourses on internal migration in Ghana.

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Context Context

• In spite of efforts towards economic In spite of efforts towards economic recovery at the national and local levels, recovery at the national and local levels, there are high levels of poverty in rural there are high levels of poverty in rural Ghana with widening rural-urban disparity Ghana with widening rural-urban disparity and inequality (Appiah-Kubi et al. 2007; and inequality (Appiah-Kubi et al. 2007; Chant and Jones 2005; Canagarajah et al Chant and Jones 2005; Canagarajah et al 2001). The desire to migrate and diversify 2001). The desire to migrate and diversify livelihood activities is of critical importance livelihood activities is of critical importance in rural Ghana as it further allows the in rural Ghana as it further allows the diversification of social and economic risks diversification of social and economic risks beyond monetary terms by ensuring social beyond monetary terms by ensuring social protection (Guilmoto and Sandron 2001).protection (Guilmoto and Sandron 2001).

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MethodsMethods – Empirical research involving questionnaire Empirical research involving questionnaire

surveys, interviews and focus group meetings surveys, interviews and focus group meetings was used in studying rural farm households was used in studying rural farm households in Akuapem North and Dangme West in Akuapem North and Dangme West Districts in Southern Ghana. Districts in Southern Ghana.

– The study sampled 170 out-migrants working The study sampled 170 out-migrants working in two urban destinations (Accra and Tema) in two urban destinations (Accra and Tema) in Southern Ghanain Southern Ghana

– The household members of the sample were The household members of the sample were then interviewed to ascertain the relationship then interviewed to ascertain the relationship between migrant members and those left between migrant members and those left behindbehind

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Map of study Area Map of study Area

Present Research on Present Research on Child Migration in GhanaChild Migration in Ghana

Source: Ghana, LFS, 2003

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Period of MigrationPeriod of MigrationNature of

migrationPeriod of migration of young household members

Akuapem North Dangme West Total Frequency

Total%

% %

Dry season 9.6 1.3 10 5.9

Permanent 90.4 98.7 160 94.1

Total 100.0 100.0 170 100.0

Mobility Dynamics and Employment Mobility Dynamics and Employment NetworksNetworks• Use of acquaintances:Use of acquaintances:

According to respondents in both Accra and Tema markets, the According to respondents in both Accra and Tema markets, the most important condition for a successful outcome of most important condition for a successful outcome of migration are: migration are:

- the type of social network (sponsorship or investment) the the type of social network (sponsorship or investment) the migrants receive; migrants receive;

- financial support offered by close relatives and friends; financial support offered by close relatives and friends;

- information on when and where to move to and how to find information on when and where to move to and how to find

accommodation and jobs quicklyaccommodation and jobs quickly..A 14-year-old boy from Dangme West narrated his A 14-year-old boy from Dangme West narrated his

experience: experience: I came to the Tema market because my I came to the Tema market because my parents are very poor and a family friend promised parents are very poor and a family friend promised to help me find a job in the market to save money to to help me find a job in the market to save money to train as a carpenter. Some of the boys I push trucks train as a carpenter. Some of the boys I push trucks with also migrated through people they know here. with also migrated through people they know here. 13

Contact men and Human Contact men and Human TradersTraders• The study further revealed that some adults have made The study further revealed that some adults have made

a profession of arranging the movement of young a profession of arranging the movement of young migrants out of rural areas and organising their migrants out of rural areas and organising their settlement in their urban destinations. The sample settlement in their urban destinations. The sample referred to these individuals as ‘referred to these individuals as ‘contact men’ contact men’ and and ‘human traders’. ‘human traders’. These include males working in and These include males working in and around the markets and female traders. around the markets and female traders.

• A 19-year-old male migrant from Akuapem North A 19-year-old male migrant from Akuapem North working as a truck-pusher in the working as a truck-pusher in the Agbogbloshi Agbogbloshi market in market in Accra explained: These persons act as ‘contact men’ for Accra explained: These persons act as ‘contact men’ for the provision of the needs of the newcomers in the first the provision of the needs of the newcomers in the first days and/or weeks after their arrival, and this can make days and/or weeks after their arrival, and this can make all the difference between failure and a decent chance all the difference between failure and a decent chance of success. of success.

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Interviews with two identified notorious contact men operating in Interviews with two identified notorious contact men operating in Accra and Tema markets provided significant insight into their Accra and Tema markets provided significant insight into their operation. Both argued that they pre-finance and arrange operation. Both argued that they pre-finance and arrange employment for young migrants in urban locations. employment for young migrants in urban locations.

• The contact men explained that several migrants try to evade The contact men explained that several migrants try to evade repayment of loans given to them or their families to finance their repayment of loans given to them or their families to finance their travel. travel.

• They also denied having sexual relationships with the migrants They also denied having sexual relationships with the migrants and branded their respondents as ungrateful, but agreed to help and branded their respondents as ungrateful, but agreed to help rural families whose members desire to emigrate. rural families whose members desire to emigrate.

• These contact men have no certification or knowledge of the legal These contact men have no certification or knowledge of the legal implications of their operation or of the social welfare regulations implications of their operation or of the social welfare regulations governing the trafficking of minors.governing the trafficking of minors. 16

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Types of Employment Types of Employment

:

Akuapem North Dangme West GrandTotal

Type of employment Total(%)

Total(%)

N %

Farm-wage labour6.4 1.3 7 4.1

ArtisansNon-farm manual labour

57.4 42.1 86 50.6

HawkingTrading Lorry driving

26.6 48.7 62 36.6

Clerical work Technician 9.6 7.9 15 8.8

Total 100.0 100 170 100

P = 0.000 P = 0.013

Conditions for Successful Migration

Highest Educational Level• Personal highest educational level is also mentioned as a critical

determinant in successful migration. It determines the employment avenues that the migrant can explore and the income level that s/he can attract.

• A 21-year-old male migrant working at the Agbogbloshi market in the Accra who works as a lorry-driver’s assistant said:

Most migrants engage in daily waged activities which do not necessarily require formal qualifications, but in due course opportunities could open up for the migrant to apply for qualified positions which will then transform the individual’s life for the better.

• An eighteen-year-old female migrant from Dangme West said: I have been trying to get a job as a shop assistant in a store that

sells sugar in bags to the other hawkers in the market, but they declined my application because I would not write in English.

• J.J., a 17-year-old male migrant from Akuapem North explained:

Most of the young migrants leave home with Junior Secondary School education and can hardly read or write. We also tend to forget all we have studied since our wage labour activities do not require us to read or write.

Gender as an indicator of Success• The gender of the migrant is also considered a survival indicator

because some types of employments are gender-specific. Joyce, a 15-year-old potter in the Tema central market, mentioned during the interviews that ‘many market traders and middlemen prefer employing girls.

• This is because girls are traditionally known to work as hawkers in the market and potters’. Another 15-year-old female migrant, Akosua, added: ‘Most people prefer to have a female shop assistant and similarly food traders employ girls and young women. On the other hand, most truck pushers are boys, as are loaders of goods’.

• A 17-year-old male truck-pusher said: ‘Selling ice water for example is not gender restricted neither is the selling of fruit and vegetables by the main roads.

Ability to Endure HardshipOnes the ability to survive and endure harsh conditions and rough sleeping

arrangements is said to be very important. A 14-year-old boy from Dangme West, who sells apples in the Tema market, mentioned that the young migrants need a high level of endurance and ability to survive the tough living conditions...

Mary, a 16-year-old migrant from Dangme West added: ‘Those of us who live in Ashiaman, (a shanty town in Tema) for example usually pay sleep rent for spending the night on the pavement outside the cinema house or in the market’.

The demanding income activities they undertake also require much individual The demanding income activities they undertake also require much individual strength and will power to endure, making their well being all the more strength and will power to endure, making their well being all the more precarious.precarious.

Coping with Rough Sleeping Coping with Rough Sleeping ArrangementArrangement

The majority of migrants conceded that their sleep is not The majority of migrants conceded that their sleep is not comfortable as they can only afford to sleep on cardboard and comfortable as they can only afford to sleep on cardboard and plastic bags and need to wear trousers to ward off sexual plastic bags and need to wear trousers to ward off sexual molesters and mosquitoes as discussed earlier. molesters and mosquitoes as discussed earlier.

Addo, a 12-year-old migrant from Akuapem North complained: ‘They take our money but put boys and girls to sleep together in the same crowded room … and some boys rape the girls in the night’.

This is also a cost minimisation strategy!

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Social Risks and Welfare Social Risks and Welfare ChallengesChallenges

- Exposure to poor health conditions and - Exposure to poor health conditions and environmentsenvironments

Eg. Malaria, HIV, AIDs, TB, Hepatitis …Eg. Malaria, HIV, AIDs, TB, Hepatitis …- Unwanted pregnancies and maternal mortality Unwanted pregnancies and maternal mortality - Drug abuse, alcoholism and gangs formation …Drug abuse, alcoholism and gangs formation …

crime crime

A A 19-year-old male youth migrant from Dangme West who acknowledged using 19-year-old male youth migrant from Dangme West who acknowledged using drugs explained:drugs explained: The workloads I undertake make me tired and I feel that the use The workloads I undertake make me tired and I feel that the use of drugs will enhance my strength. Drugs used include marijuana, painkillers, of drugs will enhance my strength. Drugs used include marijuana, painkillers, ecstasy tablets and steroids, which are considerably affordable compared to ecstasy tablets and steroids, which are considerably affordable compared to

higher-class drugshigher-class drugs’’.. We also take in local gin (apeteshi)We also take in local gin (apeteshi)

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Implications for skills Development and Poverty Reduction

• The household interviews revealed a gradual steady decline in the availability of farm labour over the five years prior to the study.

• Migrants are not able to engage in further education activities or skills development programmes

• Lack of constructive livelihood development initiatives for most young migrants

• Absence of welfare scheme• No focused poverty reduction initiative that targets this

group of urban dwellers• Informal sector activities with no constructive support

makes capacity and livelihood development limited to a few individuals

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Do you receive remittances? Do you receive remittances?

Akuapem North Dangme West Total (%)

% %

Yes 100.0 68.0 82.8

No 0 23.5 17.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

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Regularity of remittances

:

Regularity Akuapem North Dangme West Total Frequency

Total%

% %

Regular-monthly

60.5 14.7 31 40.3

Regular – quarterly

34.9 61.8 36 46.8

Not regular 4.6 23.5 10 12.9

Total 100.0 100.0 77 100.0

P = 0.00

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Use of remittance income

:

Use of remittances

Akuapem North Dangme West Total frequency

Total%

frequency % frequency %

Mainly Consumption

29 67.4 11 32.4 40 51.9

Investment, Consumption & Loans

12 27.9 22 64.7 34 44.2

Savings & Dowry

2 4.7 1 2.9 3 3.9

Total 43 100 34 100.0 77 100

P = 0.002

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Conclusion Conclusion The study identified that:The study identified that:

• The study revealed that migration does not necessarily The study revealed that migration does not necessarily result in improvement in productive capacity and well-result in improvement in productive capacity and well-beingbeing

•Also, generational forms of migration create risks Also, generational forms of migration create risks (particularly for younger migrants) and undermines some (particularly for younger migrants) and undermines some of the objectives for migrations at the household levelof the objectives for migrations at the household level

•The impact of remittances on sampled household’s The impact of remittances on sampled household’s consumption capacity is immense. consumption capacity is immense.

• Remittances serve as a vital source of capital for Remittances serve as a vital source of capital for diversification in sampled communities and rural diversification in sampled communities and rural households in Ghana.households in Ghana.

•The impact of remittances on diversification activities is The impact of remittances on diversification activities is however limitedhowever limited and fails to enhance innovationand fails to enhance innovation

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--The District Assemblies need to The District Assemblies need to introduce enterprise development introduce enterprise development programs with credits through the programs with credits through the District Assembly Common FundDistrict Assembly Common Fund

-This should focus on employment -This should focus on employment creation so that thriving non-farm creation so that thriving non-farm enterprises can serve as a mechanism for enterprises can serve as a mechanism for small-scale local employment. small-scale local employment.

-The creation and expansion of existing -The creation and expansion of existing urban educational (eg night vocational urban educational (eg night vocational schools and hostel facilities to schools and hostel facilities to accommodate vulnerable young accommodate vulnerable young migrants. migrants.

Conclusion Conclusion Implications for Development Policy and Planning